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 ECV 301- Soil Mechanics 1

Lesson 1
Introduction to Soil Mechanics
 Introduction to Soil Mechanics
Lesson Outline
• Definition of soil mechanics
• Why study soil mechanics
• What are the roles of a geotechnical Engineer?
• What is the role of geotechnical engineering in
sustainable development?
 Definition of soil mechanics
• Application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulic s
to engineering problems dealing with soils
– Discipline of engineering science dealing with properties and behavior of soil
as a structural material
– lay down certain principles, theories and procedures to allow design of safe
and sound structures
• Foundation engineering deals with design of
substructures under different soil conditions
– All structures are built on soils
– Foundation engineer must have ability to match his design requirements/
approaches with prevailing ground conditions
• This course aims at helping the Engineer understand/
interpret ground conditions
 Examples of Foundation Related
Problems
• Given 4 types of soils: clay, sand, rock, loam;
Which soil is suitable for
i. Walking along
ii. A residential house
iii. Wastewater treatment plant
iv. Water reservoir
v. Safaricom’s 50 m high mast
vi. 20 km road project

‘Soils are a necessary evil, you just have to deal with them’
 Tutorial 1
I. What are the roles of a geotechnical Engineer?

II. What is the role of geotechnical engineering in

sustainable development?
ECV 301- Soil Mechanics 1

Lesson 2
Soil Formation and
Characterization
 Lesson 2 Outline
• Definitions
• Formation of soils
• Types of soils
• Soil particle sizes
• Clay Minerals
• Natural Attenuation
 Definitions of soil mechanics
Geomaterials - natural soils and engineered materials (e.g. geosythentics,
tire shreds, composts)

Soils - earth materials, organic and inorganic occurring in the zone above the
rock crust- vadoze zone

Rocks – compact, semi-hard to nard mass of natural material : 3 Groups –

igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic

Minerals – natural inorganic substance of a definite structure and chemical

composition
Most common: Feldspar, quartz, Ca, Fe, Mg, silicates
 Formation of Soils
• Mechanical/ physical weathering
 drying and wetting processes; abrasion
• Chemical weathering
 mineral dissolution, mineral oxidation
• Biological weathering
 Microorganisms create a complex microbial environment
 Microorganisms promote chemical weathering
 Plants and fungal filaments exploit cracks that cause
physical disintegration of rock material
 Types of soils
• Soils are classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay
– depending on grain size:

 Gravel – 4.75- 76.2 mm

 Sand 4.75-0.075 mm
 Silt – 0.075- 0.002 mm
 Clay finer than 0.002 mm
 Types of soils
• Soils can also be classified depending on origin
of the constituents
– Residual soils
– Transported soils – wind, water, sea water, glaciers
 Clay Minerals
• Clays consist of small mineral particles –
aluminum silicates
• Particles exhibit plasticity

• Clays can be divided into 3 groups- Kaolin,

montmorillonite, illite groups
 Structure of clay minerals
• Two main building blocks (layers)
- Tetrahedral (silica)
 silica atom enclosed by 4 oxygen atoms
 I (-) negative charge per unit
 Forms silica sheet
- Octahedral (aluminum hydroxide)
 Aluminum ion enclosed by 6 OH ions
 2 (-) negative charges per unit
 Forms gibbsite sheet
- Arrangements of silica and gibbsite give different
clay minerals
 Structure of clay minerals
• Two layers clays
- E.g. Kaolinite
- More stable form of clays
- Difficult for water to enter through the sheets
- Occurs in heavily weathered environments
• 3 layer clays
- E.g. Bentonite (montmorillonite)
- 2 silica sheets, 1 gibbisite sheet
- Weak bonds between sheets
- Water enters between sheets, making expansive clays
- Exchangeable cations between the sheets
- Hydrogen atoms can be replaced with Na, K, Mg
 Natural attenuation
• In clays, substitution of ions occurs
- Al3+ for a Si4+
-negatively charged surface
- Mg2+ for a Al3+
• Clays attract soluble cations ( 3 layer clays the best)
• This way, clays can be used to removal heavy metal pollutants
• Clay soils can be engineered to reduce contamination
potential of dumpsites
 ECV 301- Soil Mechanics 1

Lesson 3
Soil Phase Relationships, index
properties and Classification
 Lesson 3 Outline
• Phase relationships
• Weight-volume relationships
• Index properties
• Shape and size of particles
• Sieve analysis
• Grain size distribution curves
• Atterberg Limits
• Classification of soils
Phase relationships
Soil is a 3- phase system
 Soil particles
 Liquid - water
 Gas- air

Interrelationships of phases affect mass-

volume and weight-volume
relationships of soils
 Soil as a three phase system

Mineral skeleton Three phase diagram

Soil consist of solid particles which make up the soil
skeleton and voids (full of water if the soil is saturated,
full of air if the soil is dry, or may be partially saturated )

Mineral Skeleton Fully saturated Dry soil Partially saturated

 Weight-volume relationships
To develop the weight-volume relationships, we separate the three
phases (solid, water, and air)

Ws = weight of soil solid

Ww = weight of water
Wa = weight of air ≈ 0
Vs = volume of soil solid
Vv = volume of voids
Vw = volume of water
Va = volume of air
V = total volume

W= Ws+Ww V= Vs+Vv= Vs+Vw + Va

Some important volumetric ratios
Weight-volume relationships
Weight-volume relationships
Common terms
 Index properties
Index properties are those properties used for
classification and identification of soils

Soils are identified by visual examination and by means

of their index properties (grain-size distribution,
Atterberg limits, water content, specific gravity, and void
ratio).
A description based on visual examination should
include color, odor when present, size and shape of
grains, gradation, and density and consistency
characteristics.
Shape and size of particles
Coarse grained soils: soils have more than 50 percent by
weight retained on the No. 200 sieve and are described
primarily on the basis of grain size and density

Fine-grained soils have more than 50 percent by weight finer

than the No. 200 sieve. Descriptions of these soils should
state the color, texture, stratification, and odor, and whether
the soils are soft, firm, or stiff, intact or fissured
Particle Shapes:
–Angular
–Sub Angular
–Rounded
–Elongated
–Flaky
 Sieve analysis
Carried out by use of standard sieves

Sieve analysis is carried out by sieving a known dry mass of sample through
the nest of sieves placed one below the other so that the opening decrease
in size from the top downwards
Grain size distribution curves
Atterberg Limits
Classification of soils
ECV 301- Soil Mechanics 1

Lesson 4
Soil Classification

Eng. Mwai
Particle Shapes:
–Angular
–Sub Angular
–Rounded
–Elongated
–Flaky
 Sieve analysis
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils

• This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes

contained within a soil.

• The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of

the coarser, larger-sized particles,

• the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer

particles.

Carried out by use of standard sieves

• Sieve analysis is carried out by sieving a known dry mass of sample through the
nest of sieves placed one below the other so that the opening decrease in size
from the top downwards
 Significance of the test
• The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of
soil.

• Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in
classifying the soil.
Set of sieves arranged in order of diminishing sizes
Sieve Analysis:

(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the
analysis.

(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.

(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order
of sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200
sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.

(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.

(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of
each sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight
of the bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
Sieve Analysis:

(1) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of
the empty sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass
as the weight retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses
should be approximately equals the initial mass of the soil sample. A loss of
more than two percent is unsatisfactory.

(2) Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight
retained on each sieve by the original sample mass.

(3) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent
and subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.

For example: Total mass = 500 g

Mass retained on No. 4 sieve = 9.7 g
For the No.4 sieve:

Quantity passing = Total mass - Mass retained

= 500 - 9.7 = 490.3 g

The percent retained is calculated as;

% retained = Mass retained/Total mass
= (9.7/500) X 100 = 1.9 %

From this, the % passing = 100 - 1.9 = 98.1 %

For the No. 10 sieve:

Quantity passing = Mass arriving - Mass retained

= 490.3 - 39.5 = 450.8 g
% Retained = (39.5/500) X 100 = 7.9 %
% Passing = 100 - 1.9 - 7.9 = 90.2 %
(4) Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.

(5) Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.

Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture
content at which soil begins to behave as a
liquid material and begins to flow
 Plastic Limit - Definition

• The moisture content (%) at which the soil

when rolled into threads of 3.2mm (1/8 in) in
diameter, will crumble.
 Plasticity Index - Definition

• Plasticity Index is the difference between the

liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil.

• PI = LL – PL
Shrinkage Limit - Definition
Liquidity Index - Definition
• Plasticity is directly related to amount of
clay in soil
• A term called activity (A) to describe the
importance of the clay fractions on the
plasticity index.
Description of Strength of fine grained soils based on Liquidity Index
Typical Atterberg Limits for soils
Question 1
Fine-grained soil has a liquid limit of 300% and a plastic
limit of 55%. The natural water content of the soil in
the field is 80% and the clay content is 60%.

(a) Determine the plasticity index, the liquidity index, and the activity.
(b) What is the soil state in the field?
(c) What is the predominant mineral in this soil?
(d) If this soil were under a concrete slab used as a foundation for a
building and water were to seep into it from watering of a lawn, what
would you expect to happen to the foundation?
Plasticity Chart - Definition
 Interpretation of the Plasticity Chart
• Experimental results from soils tested from different parts of the world were
plotted on a graph of plasticity index (ordinate) versus liquid limit (abscissa). It
was found that clays, silts, and organic soils lie in distinct regions of the graph.

• A line defined by the equation

PI=0.73 (LL – 20)%

called the “A-line,” delineates the boundaries between clays (above the line) and
silts and organic soils (below the line)- see previous slide,

• A second line, the U-line, expressed as

PI=0.9(LL- 8)%,
defines the upper limit of the correlation between plasticity index and liquid limit. If
the results of your soil tests fall above the U-line, you should be suspicious of your
results and repeat your tests.
 Classification of soils
• Many methods exist, we focus on USCS

• The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is a soil classification system used to
describe the texture and grain size of a soil. The classification is represented by a
two-letter symbol.

First and/or second letters Second letter

Letter Definition Letter Definition
poorly graded (uniform
G gravel P
particle sizes)
well-graded (diversified
S sand W
particle sizes)
M silt H high plasticity
C clay L low plasticity
O organic
 Why Classify the soils
• “How do I use a soil classification to select a soil for a particular type of
construction, for example, a dam?”

• Geotechnical engineers have prepared charts based on experience to assist you

in selecting a soil for a particular construction purpose.
 Question 2

An embankment for a highway 30 m wide and 1.5 m in compacted thickness is to

be constructed from a sandy soil trucked from a borrow pit. The water content of
the sandy soil in the borrow pit is 15% and its void ratio is 0.69. The swell index is
1.2. The specification requires the embankment to be compacted to a dry unit
weight of 18 kN/m3. Determine, for a 1-km length of embankment, the following:

(a) The weight of sandy soil from the borrow pit required to construct the
embankment.
(b) The number of truckloads of sandy soil required for the construction. The full
capacity of each truck is 22.2 m3, and local government regulations require a
maximum loaded capacity of 90%.
(c) The weight of water per truckload of sandy soil.
(d) The degree of saturation of the sandy soil in situ.
Three boreholes (BH) along a proposed road intersection are shown below.
The soils were classified using USCS. Sketch a soil profile along the center line.
ECV 301- Soil Mechanics

Lesson 7
Soil Compaction

Dr. Eng. Mwai

 Soil Compaction

Definition:
- Soil compaction is the densification—reduction in
void ratio—of a soil through the expulsion of air.

- Achieved by using mechanical compactors,

rollers, and rammers with the addition of water
 Soil Compaction

Definition:
- Soil compaction is the densification—reduction in
void ratio—of a soil through the expulsion of air.

- Achieved by using mechanical compactors,

rollers, and rammers with the addition of water
 Course Objectives
 Understand the importance of soil compaction.
 Determine maximum dry unit weight and optimum water
content.
 Specify soil compaction criteria for field applications.
 Identify suitable equipment for field compaction.
 Specify soil compaction quality control tests.
 Questions to guide your study
1. What is soil compaction?
2. What is the importance of soil compaction?
3. What factors affect soil compaction?
4. How is soil compaction achieved in the laboratory?
5. What are the requirements for soil compaction in the field?
6. What types of equipment are used for soil compaction?
7. How is soil compaction monitored in the field?
Remember eqn. for dry unit weight
• The water content at which the maximum dry unit weight, (gd)max, is
achieved is called the optimum water content (wopt).

• At water contents below optimum (dry of optimum), air is expelled and

water facilitates the rearrangement of soil grains into a denser
configuration—the number of soil grains per unit volume of soil increases.

• At water contents just above optimum (wet of optimum), the compactive

effort cannot expel more air and additional water displaces soil grains, thus
decreasing the number of soil grains per unit volume of soil. Consequently,
the dry unit weight decreases.

• The modified Proctor test, using higher levels of compaction energy,

achieves a higher maximum dry unit weight at a lower optimum water
content than the standard test .
Illustration of compaction specification of soils in the field.
 Tutorial
Question 1
The wet mass of one of the standard Proctor test samples is
1806 grams at a water content of 8%. The volume of the
standard Proctor test sample is 9.44 x 10-4 m3. Determine the
bulk and dry unit weights.
 Tutorial
Question 2

(a) Determine the maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content.
(b) What is the dry unit weight and water content at 95% standard
compaction, dry of optimum?
(c) Determine the degree of saturation at the maximum dry density.
(d) Plot the zero air voids line.
 Field Compaction
• Compaction is accomplished by static and vibratory vertical
force
• Static vertical forces are applied by deadweights that impart
pressure and/or kneading action to the soil mass.
• Vibratory vertical forces are applied by engine-driven systems
with rotating eccentric weights or spring/piston mechanisms
that impart a rapid sequence of blows to the soil surface
• grid rollers, rubber-tired, rollers, drum rollers, loaders, and
scrapers apply static vertical forces.
• vibrating plate compactors, vibrating rollers, and vibrating
sheepsfoot rollers apply dynamic forces.
 Compaction Quality Control
• A geotechnical engineer needs to check that field compaction
meets specifications
• A measure of the degree of compaction (DC) is the ratio of the
measured dry unit weight achieved to the desired dry unit
weight.
• Various types of equipment are available to check the amount
of compaction achieved in the field
• A sand cone apparatus is most popular field equipment
Tutorial Question 3
The standard Proctor test for a gravelly sand (24% gravel, 76% sand) to be used as a
base course (a soil layer above the existing soil) of a highway embankment is
shown below

(a) Specify the compaction criteria for the field.

(b) Recommend field compaction equipment that would achieve the desired
compaction.
(c) Specify an appropriate quality control test.
ECV 301- Soil Mechanics 1

Lesson 6
Permeability

Dr. Eng. Mwai

Definition
Permeability
• A measure of the ability of porous material to
allow fluids to pass through it
• Expressed as velocity (m/s)
 Why study flow of water in soils?
• The more permeable the soil, the greater the
seepage

• Common Examples:
• Water changes the soil states
• Saturated and unsaturated soil
• The greater the water content, the
weaker the soil
• E.g. walking in muddy clay

• Water flow can cause instability and

failure
• What happens if house is built
on a wetland?
 Key Questions to guide your study

a) What causes the flow of water through soils?

b) What law describes the flow of water through soils?

c) What is hydraulic conductivity and how is it determined?

d) What are the typical values of hydraulic conductivities for coarse-grained

and fine-grained soils?
 What causes flow of water in soils

Flow in soils occur if there is a head difference

Fig. 5.1. total head and hydraulic gradient

Consider a point B in a mass of saturated uniform porous
soil. Let B be at a height z above some arbitrary datum
level (A-A in Fig. 5.1), and let the pore pressure at B be u. A
column of water in equilibrium with the pore pressure at B
would rise to a height u/yw, above B

There are 2 components of the total head, h

Pressure head- hp

Elevation head (hz)

h= hz+ hp = hz + u/yw
• If the head, h is the same everywhere, no flow occurs
through the soil

• If the head differs in different parts of the soil mass,

water flows away from points at which the head is
high, and towards points at which the head is lower.
• The rate of water flow in soils flow is governed by the
hydraulic gradient, which is defined as
𝑑ℎ
i=-
𝑑𝑙
I is the distance measured along the flow path.

• Permeability is a measure of the rate at which fluid

passes through a porous medium.

• Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity

through soils is proportional to the gradient of the
total head
• Darcy defined a coefficient of permeability (k)
such that
𝑑ℎ
𝑣 = −𝑘 = ki
𝑑𝑙

where v is the apparent velocity of flow, and is equal to the average rate of
flow of water across unit area in the soil; k is a coefficient of proportionality
called the hydraulic conductivity (or the coefficient of permeability).
• The unit of measurement for k is length/time, that is,
cm/s

• The velocity through the void spaces is called

seepage velocity (vs) and is obtained by dividing the
average velocity by the porosity of the soil:
𝑘𝑖
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛
• The volume rate of flow, q, or, simply, flow rate is the
product of the average velocity and the cross-
sectional area:
𝑣𝑠 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑘𝑖
The unit of measurement for q is m3/s or cm3/s
Factors affecting permeability

The coefficient of permeability varies with

(a) the density and viscosity of the soil water
(b) the turbulence of flow
(c) the porosity of the soil- pore size and number of pores
(d) the shape and arrangement of the soil particles -
this affects porosity, engineers alter this property to influence soil permeability
(e.g. through compaction
(e) the degree of saturation, and
(f) the thickness of the adsorbed layers, in the case of
fine-grained soils.
Typical values of k
Empirical relationships
Examples
 Example 1
A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1 m long. A constant supply of water
is allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A, and the outflow at B is collected by a
beaker (Figure E6.1). The average amount of water collected is 1 cm3 for every 10
seconds. The tube is inclined as shown in Figure E6.1. Determine the (a) hydraulic
gradient, (b) flow rate, (c) average velocity, (d) seepage velocity if e = 0.6, and (e)
hydraulic conductivity.
 Example 2
A drainage pipe (Figure E6.3a) became completely blocked during a storm by a plug of
sand 1.5 m long, followed by another plug of a mixture of clays, silts, and sands 0.5 m
long. When the storm was over, the water level above ground was 1 m. The hydraulic
conductivity of the sand is 2 times that of the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.

(a) Plot the variation of pressure, elevation, and total head over the length of the pipe.
(b) Calculate the porewater pressure at (1) the center of the sand plug and (2) the
center of the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
(c) Find the average hydraulic gradients in the sand and in the mixture of clays, silts,
and sands.
Figure Example 2. Illustration of a blocked pipe
Flow in layered/ stratified soils
 Determination of hydraulic conductivity

• In order to calculate flow, we need to know

the hydraulic conductivity, K

How is K determined in the laboratory and in

the field?
 Constant Head Test
• The constant-head test is used to determine the
hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils.
• Water is allowed to flow through a cylindrical sample
(area of sample = A) of soil under a constant head (h)

• The outflow (Q) is collected in a graduated cylinder

at a convenient duration (t).
 Tank

Figure 6.4. A constant head test set-up

 Example 3
A sample of sand, 5 cm in diameter and 15 cm long,
was prepared at a porosity of 60% in a constant-head
apparatus. The total head was kept constant at 30 cm
and the amount of water collected in 5 seconds was 40
cm3. The test temperature was 20oC. Calculate the
hydraulic conductivity and the seepage velocity.
 Pumping test to determine the
hydraulic conductivity
One common method of determining the hydraulic conductivity
in the field is by pumping water at a constant flow rate from a
well and measuring the decrease in groundwater level at
observation wells

A simple equation is used to determine K

Layout to determine hydraulic conductivity
 Assumptions
• The water-bearing layer (called an aquifer) is unconfined and non
leaky.
• The pumping well penetrates through the water-bearing stratum and
is perforated only at the section that is below the groundwater level.
• The soil mass is homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite size.
• Darcy’s law is valid.
• Flow is radial toward the well.
• The hydraulic gradient at any point in the water-bearing stratum is
constant
 Derivation of well formula
Let dz be the drop in total head over a distance dr

𝑑𝑧
Then, i=
𝑑𝑟

Area of flow at a radial distance, r from the center of

the well

A = 2πrz
• From Darcy’s law
𝑑𝑧
𝑞𝑧 = 2π𝑟𝑧𝑘𝑖 = 2π𝑟𝑧𝑘
𝑑𝑟
Rearranging,

Completing the integration

 Example 5
• A pumping test was carried out in a soil bed of thickness 15 m and the
following measurements were recorded. Rate of pumping was 10.6 x 10-3
m3/s; drawdowns in observation wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the
center of the pumping well were 1.6 m and 1.4 m, respectively, from the
initial groundwater level. The initial groundwater level was located at 1.9
m below ground level. Determine k.
ECV 301- Soil Mechanics 1

Lesson 7
Permeability- Seepage

Eng. Mwai
 Introduction
• Geotechnical engineers are actively involved in management is
groundwater

- a major source of domestic and industrial water supply

- susceptible to pollution - pollutants transported from other sources
- flow of groundwater is accompanied with forces that, if excessive,
cause instability problems to built infrastructure
- Inflow of water into excavations can complicate construction works

• Geotechnical Engineers required to determine the path which water seeps

through, the velocity of water and the prevailing pore pressures
Derivation of Laplace Equation
Consider a soil element with dimensions Δx, Δy and Δz

Figure 1. Element illustrating groundwater flow components

Let vx, vy and vz b the entry velocity components in x, y and z directions

The corresponding exit velocity components are

[1]
 The amount of water leaving the element per unit time is given by

The amount of water entering is equal to the water leaving the element per
unit time

[2]
 [3]

Since ΔxΔyΔz cannot be zero (volume of soil element), then only the term in
square brackets can be zero. That is

 v x v y v z 
   0
 x y z  [4]
Applying Darcy’s law for the given soil element,

[5]

Where Kx, Ky and Kz are the coefficients of permeability in the x, y and z

directions.

Substituting Eqn. (5 into Eqn. (4):

[6]
 If Kx= Ky = Kz in case of a isotropic and homogenous soil mass, then eqn.
[6] reduces to

 2h  2h  2h
  0
x 2 y 2 z 2
[7]

For a two dimensional flow, Eqn. [7] reduces to

 2h  2h [Gives the rate of change of h

 0 in 2 dimensions]
x 2 y 2
Laplace Equation – governs flow of ground water in a soil skeleton

How to solve this equation?

 Solving Laplace Equation
• Laplace’s equation may be solved graphically using a
technique known as flownet sketching.
• A flownet is a network of flowlines, which represent
the trajectories of individual fluid particles, and
equipotentials (total head or potential is constant and therefore there is
no flow)

• Flow net provide a graphical representation of the flow pattern,

• the flownet may be used to calculate the seepage flowrate and
pore water pressures at any point on the cross-section.
• Flow net constructed by trial and error method to
satisfy the following conditions
1. Flowlines cross equipotentials at right-angles. This is because there is

by definition no flow along an equipotential, which means that all of the

flow must be at 90° to it.
2. Flowlines cannot cross other flowlines.
3. Equipotentials cannot cross other equipotentials
4. Impermeable boundaries and lines of symmetry are flowlines: as
there is no flow across them, all of the flow must be along them
5. Bodies of water such as reservoirs are equipotentials.
6. The drop in head between any two consecutive equipotentials is the
same; flowrate through all flowtubes is the same
Examples of Flow Nets
 Critical gradient
Soil can loose strength due to seepage

ic is called critical hydraulic gradient, then

Example
 ECV 301- Soil Mechanics 1

Lesson 7
Permeability- Ground water flow

Eng. Mwai
 Introduction
• Geotechnical engineers are actively involved in management is
groundwater

- a major source of domestic and industrial water supply

- susceptible to pollution - pollutants transported from other sources
- flow of groundwater is accompanied with forces that, if excessive,
cause instability problems to built infrastructure
- Inflow of water into excavations can complicate construction works

• Geotechnical Engineers required to determine the path which water seeps

through, the velocity of water and the prevailing pore pressures
Derivation of Laplace Equation
Consider a soil element with dimensions Δx, Δy and Δz

Figure 1. Element illustrating groundwater flow components

Let vx, vy and vz b the entry velocity components in x, y and z directions

The corresponding exit velocity components are

[1]
 The amount of water leaving the element per unit time is given by

The amount of water entering is equal to the water leaving the element per
unit time

[2]
 [3]

Since ΔxΔyΔz cannot be zero (volume of soil element), then only the term in
square brackets can be zero. That is

 v x v y v z 
   0
 x y z  [4]
Applying Darcy’s law for the given soil element,

[5]

Where Kx, Ky and Kz are the coefficients of permeability in the x, y and z

directions.

Substituting Eqn. (5 into Eqn. (4):

[6]
 If Kx= Ky = Kz in case of a isotropic and homogenous soil mass, then eqn.
[6] reduces to

 2h  2h  2h
  0 [7]
x 2 y 2 z 2

For a two dimensional flow, Eqn. [7] reduces to

 2h  2h [Gives the rate of change of h

 0 in 2 dimensions]
x 2 y 2
Laplace Equation – governs flow of ground water in a soil skeleton

How to solve this equation?

 Solving Laplace Equation
• Laplace’s equation may be solved graphically using a
technique known as flownet sketching.
• A flownet is a network of flowlines, which represent
the trajectories of individual fluid particles, and
equipotentials (total head or potential is constant and therefore there is
no flow)

• Flow net provide a graphical representation of the flow pattern,

• the flownet may be used to calculate the seepage flowrate and
pore water pressures at any point on the cross-section.
• Flow net constructed by trial and error method to
satisfy the following conditions
no flow along an equipotential, which means
that all of the flow must be at 90° to it.
2. Flowlines cannot cross other flowlines. Two
molecules of water cannot occupy the
same space at the same time, which is what
flowlines crossing each other would
imply.
3. Equipotentials cannot cross other
equipotentials: one point cannot have two
different
values of total head.
4. Impermeable boundaries and lines of
symmetry are flowlines: as there is no flow
across them, all of the flow must be along
them. (Flow across a line of symmetry
would require flowlines from opposite sides to
cross.)
5. Bodies of water such as reservoirs are
equipotentials. (Try imagining standpipe
piezometers inserted at a number of different
locations within a lake: the water level
in all of the standpipes will coincide with the
water level in the lake.)
1. Flowlines cross equipotentials at right-angles. This is because there is

by definition no flow along an equipotential, which means that all of the

flow must be at 90° to it.
2. Flowlines cannot cross other flowlines.
3. Equipotentials cannot cross other equipotentials
4. Impermeable boundaries and lines of symmetry are flowlines: as
there is no flow across them, all of the flow must be along them
5. Bodies of water such as reservoirs are equipotentials.
6. The drop in head between any two consecutive equipotentials is the
same; flowrate through all flowtubes is the same
Examples of Flow Nets
 Critical gradient
Soil can loose strength due to seepage

ic is called critical hydraulic gradient, then

Example
ECV 301- Soil Mechanics 1

Lesson 8
Effective Stresses

Eng. Mwai
 Introduction

• What is effective stress

• For equilibrium, the stresses in soil must be equal and

opposite to σ
• The resistance to σ is provided by a combination of stresses
called effective stress σ’ and from the water in the pores,
called porewater pressure

• For equilibrium
σ = σ’ + u
σ’ = σ - u
 Effective stress due to weight of soil

For case (a) soil element at a depth z

 Effective stress due to weight of soil

For case (b) soil element at a depth z and ground water at depth zw
 Stresses in soil from surface loads
• The distribution of stresses based on assumption that soil is a
semi-infinite, homogeneous, linear, isotropic, elastic material.
• Because of the assumption of a linear elastic soil mass, we can
use the principle of superposition [stress increase at a given
point in a soil mass in a certain direction from different loads
can be added together]
• Examples of finite loads are point loads, circular loads, and
rectangular loads, fills and surcharges
 Point Loads
An example of a point load is the vertical load transferred to
the soil from an electric power line pole.

Point load and vertical stress distribution with depth and radial distance.
Example
A pole carries a vertical load of 200 kN. Determine the vertical
total stress increase at a depth 5 m (a) directly below the pole
and (b) at a radial distance of 2 m.
 Line Loads
A practical example of a line load is the load from a long
brick wall
 Uniformly loaded circular area
An example of a circular area that transmits stresses to a soil
mass is a circular foundation of an oil or water tank. The
increases of vertical and radial stresses under the center of a
circular area of radius ro are

Where
 Rectangular area
• Approximate method
The surface load on an area B x L is dispersed at a depth z over an area (B + z) X
(L + z),

The vertical stress increase under the center of the load is:
 Rectangular area

• Use influence factors from charts

 Consolidation of soils
Terminologies

Elastic compression
Settlement that occurs immediately after the application of the foundation
load. Occurs as a result of expulsion of gases and the elastic bending and
reorientation of the soil particles

Primary compression
Sudden application of load creates a state of hydrostatic pressure in saturated
soils. The excess pore pressure can be dissipated by the gradual expulsion of
water through the voids of soils, causing volume change that is time dependent.
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