QN. 1.

In reference to Makerere University, relate the influence of the organizational climate to

external social-cultural and economic forces in the environment.

INTRODUCTION.

Organizational climate refers to the shared perceptions or prevailing organizational norms for
conducting work place activities and it influences to a greater extent the performance of the
employees because it has a major impact on motivation and job satisfaction of individual
employees. But before discussing about organizational climate, we are required to understand the
organizational culture first.

Organizational culture refers to the collective vision of shared assumptions, values, beliefs and
behaviours which governs how people conduct themselves within organizations. The culture of an
organization provides a clear road map, empowerment, policies and guidelines that assist members
to know the precise and correct way to fulfill their roles. The culture of an organizational is
dependent on the behaviour of the members involved and after it has been agreed up on and
established, it is very difficult to change. As a result of this process, culture can be accepted as the
personality of the organization. The unique culture of any organization creates a distinct
surrounding that is perceived by the people, who are part of the team, hence this atmosphere is
known as the climate of an organization. There are many different types of climates that can be
produced by the culture of an organization and they can be grouped in many different ways and
one way to categorize the different types of organization climates is based on their end result thus
could be classified into people-oriented, rule-oriented, innovation-oriented and goal oriented.

Makerere University is one of the highest institutions of learning in Uganda. There are two systems
under which organizations can operate under the organization environment theory, i.e., an open
system and a closed system.Makerere university is an open system which interacts with the
environment as opposed to a closed system which is self-contained; in that it that takes students
from its external environment (community) and converts them into labour force that is then sent
back to that environment for employment by prospective organizations. Organizational
Environment refers to the set of forces and conditions that operate beyond an organization’s
boundaries but affect a manager’s ability to acquire and utilize resources Elements of the General
External Environment.

The external environmental forces.

We can use the PESTLE model for the identification and analysis of the factors in the general
environment. PESTLE Model covers:

• Political factors.
• Economic factors.
• Socio-cultural factors.
• Technological factors.
• Legal factors.
• (Natural) Environmental factors.

Along with these, we can add additional factors that suit the current modern business atmosphere.

• Demographic factors.
• International factors.

In reference to Makerere University we can relate the influence of organizational climate to

external socio-cultural and economic forces as shown below;

1. Economic forces.

The economic factor of an organization is the overall status of the economic system in which the
organization operates. The important economic factors are interest rates, inflation, the state of the
economy, and the unemployment rate, determine the level of demand for products and the price of
inputs. National differences in interest rates, exchange rates, wage levels, gross domestic

product, and per capita income have a dramatic effect on the way organizations operate.

• Level of income; This depends on the type and quality of work done by most people in
the society. The Makerere university organization climate encourages personal initiative
 and responsibility, positive attitude and loyalty all which encourage innovation, creativity
and high morale at the work place. These in turn lead to new problem-solving methods
(new types of work) and an improvement in the quality of work done which grow the
cash flow in the society through improved service delivery.
• The research climate at Makerere has externally impacted Uganda’s economy in a way
that the government has been compelled to put in funds to facilitate research at the
institution. A case in point is the KIIRA EV car project under CEDAT and the electric
bus project in conjunction with spear motors
• Makerere university has helped the government in formulating national policy. The
government often turns to Makerere for expertise to formulate policies. A case study has
been during the COVID-19 pandemic where the government turned to professors like
William Bazeeyo who is a professor of occupational medicine and professor Rhoda
Wanyeze who is a leading epidemiologist to help stir the country clear of danger
• Population distribution; The dense population around Makerere University has
contributed to the rise in the housing sector as most students live in hostels and rentals.
This has led to an increase in the standards of living of the people around Makerere
University as many of them have gotten job opportunities at the hostels like cleaning and
managing them and also service delivery.
• Academic Excellence; The organizational climate of Makerere University through its
academic excellence motivates multinational organizations like Mastercard to fund
financially disadvantaged students to access the same quality education.
• The level of technology; The climate in Makerere enhances students with knowledge
which enables them to come up with new innovations in the technology sector for
example computer applications, computer softwares such as AIMS and MUELE.
 2. Socio-cultural forces.

Socio-cultural environmental forces include different generations’ values, beliefs, attitudes,

customs and traditions, habits, and lifestyles. More specifically, other aspects of societal cultures
are education, language, religion, sex, law, demographics, politics, and social organizations.

• Level of education; The Makerere organizational climate has encouraged innovation, risk
taking, hunger for knowledge, self-improvement etc. all which have led to the society
seeing the value for education. This generally has grown the literacy levels and the general
outlook on life now from a learned perspective.
• Demographics; The organizational climate at Makerere university has broken the age
molds and encouraged things like adult education by encouraging risk taking,
determination and personal responsibility for one’s life. In this way education has not only
been limited to the young but is now unlimited to the older people as well.
• Sex-ratio; The organizational climate has encouraged diversification of roles and mental
prowess over physical attributes which has broken the gender molds of one sex not being
fit for certain roles. Makerere University has done this by creating an atmosphere of gender
equality and equal opportunities for both genders with examples of some departments
being headed by ladies, existence of female professors which wasn’t so before.
• Religion; The Makerere university organizational climate has encouraged support
(cooperation and supporting one another) and warmth (improved human relations) through
its many inter religious activities and denominations for example Catholics, Anglicans,
Moslems hence a non-religious biased study atmosphere which nurtures unity both in the
university but also in the external society that is eventually run by the graduate students.
• Leadership; The leadership positions such as the guild president are taken up by the
students and after leaving the campus, they move to the communities and take up the
leadership positions such as the member of parliament (Ann Adeke who is a woman MP
in eastern Uganda and she was once the guild president of Makerere. Other examples
include Nobert Mao, the deputy speaker Jacob Olanya). Additionally, Makerere students
serve as role models to students who haven’t made it to university yet. This is because the
organization climate that treasures academics makes them suitable models.
• Language; The organization climate of Makerere University encourages the use of the
English language as the official means of communication hence a drop in the usage of
students and employees’ native languages and the community around the university.
Question 2
Describe the various models of organizational leadership such as trait, position and situational
theory.

Introduction
Organizational leadership could be defined as the ability to influence members of an organization
or institution or social entity to work towards achieving specific goals.
This kind of influence can be conveyed in a number of ways that earlier scholars made theories or
hypotheses about.
Some of the leadership theories that were developed include;
• Trait theory
• Position theory
• Situational theory
Other theories are;
Behavioral theory
Contingency theory
Role theory

Trait theory
This theory considers personality (extroversion, persistence, self-assurance, decisiveness), social
(diplomacy, sociability and fluency), physical (appearance, height, age) and or intellectual
aspects/traits (knowledge, judgement, ability to accomplish tasks) to differentiate leaders from
non-leaders.
These traits are not responsible solely to identify whether a person will be a successful leader or
not, but they are essentially seen as preconditions that endow people with leadership potential.
The theory proposes that “leaders are born, not made”.
The trait theory focuses attention on the person in the job and not on the job itself. It suggests that
attention is given to the selection of leaders rather than to training for leadership.
The resulting lists of these traits are then compared to those of potential leaders to assess their
likelihood of success or failure.
The trait theory suggests that there are four (4) central/critical personality traits that define one as
a leader and they are;
i. Extroversion (ambition, energy)
ii. Conscientiousness (carefulness)
iii. Openness to experience
iv. Emotional stability (self-confidence)

Advantages of Trait Theory

 • It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory.
• The trait leadership approach also serves as a benchmark for identifying suitable leaders.
• It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed.
• It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the leadership
process.

Limitations of the trait theory

• There are no universal traits that predict leadership in all situations
• There is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining who is regarded as a ‘good’
or ‘successful’ leader
• The trait theory does not take the situation into consideration.
• The list of possible traits tends to be very long. More than 100 different traits of successful
leaders in various leadership positions have been identified. These descriptions are simply
generalities.
• There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an effective leader
• The model attempts to relate physical traits such as, height and weight, to effective
leadership. Most of these factors relate to situational factors. For example, a minimum
weight and height might be necessary to perform the tasks efficiently in a military
leadership position. In business organizations, these are not the requirements to be an
effective leader.
• The theory is very complex.
• The evidence of cause and effect of the relationship between traits and leadership is
unclear.
• The theory is a better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective
and ineffective leadership.
• The theory overlooks the needs of followers.

Conclusion
The trait theory paints a picture from which leadership can be based on and can be applied by
people at all levels in all types of organizations. Managers can use the knowledge from the theory
to assess their position in the organization and how their position can be made stronger. It makes
the manager aware of his/her abilities and weakness and see how to develop their leadership
qualities.
The suggestion that leaders are born or made; and whether leadership is an art or science is
questionable. However, these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Even though leadership
could be something of an art, special skills and techniques are necessary. Even when a person has
certain inborn qualities that make them a good leader, these inborn talents need encouragement
and development. For example, self-confidence is develop, honesty and integrity is a choice and
knowledge of business can be acquired. While cognitive ability partly has its origin in genes, it
still needs to be developed. All these qualities need development and are not acquired immediately.
Position Theory
This theory was developed from social psychology to bring about the details of interactions
between individuals that are positioned in particular ways.
It provides a framework to understand the reasoning behind why individuals choose to act with a
specific behavior or a narrowed set of behavior out of the many possibilities of behaviors they
have to themselves.
The term position can be defined in a number of ways. It can be defined as a collection of beliefs
that individuals have with regard to rights and duties to behave in a particular way. Studies about
the position theory have observed the narratives used by individuals to position themselves and
others;
Rights – what a person is owed by others
Duties – what a person owes to others
For instance in a work kind of environment, a supervisor is a leader by virtue of the position they
hold. They reserve the right of being reported to about the progress of any running project and
their duty is to issue instructions and oversee the running of the project to completion. This makes
them a leader by position.
This theory involves conventions of speech and action as well as the forms in which individuals
build themselves and others through activities such as oral and written expression, usage of
language, speech and other actions.
Earlier theorists, Harré and Van Langenhove in particular, explain that what people do is a function
of;
i. The capacities of people to do certain things
ii. The restrictions imposed on people to do certain things
iii. The intentions that people have to do certain things
They further explained that position has both social and individual components since positions can
be formed through traditions and customs as well as the characteristics and personal traits of an
individual.
In addition, they suggested that an individual’s speech and storyline can determine their position
and make them leaders; something they termed as the positioning triangle.

Position

Speech and Storylin

other acts e

Figure 1: Positioning triangle adapted from Van Langenhove & Harré (1999a, p.18)

Speech and other acts: Each socially meaningful action, intended movement or speech can be
seen as an act of significance. For instance an intended action could be community cleaning. If an
individual wakes up early morning and cleans the community say he or she collects all the dumped
polythene bags and plastic bottles, this action is seen as an accepted standard and moral behavior
that can get people to follow that individual provided the individual speaks and explains the
relevance of their actions. That one speech can make an individual a highly regarded person, hence
making them accountable and responsible.
Storyline: This is developed as a result of speech and other acts. Storylines come about as an
individual and those around them contribute to a pattern of narratives that occur. A storyline makes
the people around to know the individual in some respectable way. For instance the individual who
does community cleaning will be known as someone who has a heart for the sanitation concerns
of the community. That will be their storyline.
Position: This comes as a result of speech and other acts as well as the storyline.

Types of leadership positions

There are many ways for employees to act in a leadership capacity, however, there are also specific
jobs open to individuals who have experience working in managerial or other leadership positions
some examples include; supervisors, managers, directors etc.
Situational Theory of leadership
This is a leadership model that was developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard in the 1960s.
This theory is based on the proportion that there is no best style of leadership and that the kind of
leadership exhibited depends on the situation at hand. The type of leadership and strategies
employed are best suited for the task before the team.
The situational leader evaluates their team or organization by simply asking about the current
situation of the organization.
Henry and Blanchard suggested that there are four primary leadership styles;
• Telling (S1) – the leader tells people what to do and how to do it
• Selling (S2) – leaders sell their ideas and message to get group members buy into the
process. It involves a lot of back-and-forth engagements between leaders and followers.
• Participating (S3) – the leader offers less direction and allows group members to take a
more active role in coming up with ideas and making decisions.
• Delegating (S4) – involves a hands-off approach to leadership. The group members are
given the liberty to make most of the decisions and take most of the responsibility for what
happens.
Hersey and Blanchard also suggested that each of the above leadership styles can be best employed
depending on what they referred to as maturity levels of the group members. The maturity levels
are described below;
• Low maturity (M1) – group members lack the knowledge, skills and willingness to
complete the task.
• Medium maturity (M2) – group members are willing and enthusiastic but lack the ability
• Medium maturity (M3) – group members have the skills and capability to complete the
task but are unwilling to take responsibility
• High maturity (M4) – group members are very skilled and willing to complete the task.
Maturity level is a function of ability to do the task and the willingness to complete the task.

The table below shows which leadership style would be best for which maturity level;
Table 1: Matching maturity level with corresponding leadership style

Maturity level Leadership style

Low maturity (M1) Telling (S1)

Medium maturity (M2) Selling (S2)

Medium maturity (M3) Participating (S3)

High maturity (M4) Delegating (S4)

A more “telling” style may be necessary at the beginning of a project when followers lack the
responsibility or knowledge to work on their own. However, the leader may shift to a more
“delegating” approach as the subordinates become more experienced and knowledgeable about
what they are doing.

Situational Leadership II
Later, Ken Blanchard built on the Hersey-Blanchard original theory and suggested that leaders
should base their behavior on the developmental level of the group members for specific tasks.
The revised theory is referred to as Situational Leadership Theory II (SLII).
The developmental levels are a function of an individual’s commitment and competence. The
levels are;
• Enthusiastic beginner (D1) – High commitment, low competence
• Disillusioned learner (D2) – Some setbacks led to low commitment but there is some level
of competence
• Capable but cautious performer (D3) – Competence is growing, but the level of
commitment varies
• Self-reliant achiever (D4) – High competence, High commitment
Situational Leadership II also has its own leadership styles that are dependent on two (2) key
behaviors; supporting and directing.
Supporting involves listening, offering recognition and encouraging subordinates whereas
directing involves giving specific instructions and attempting to control the behavior of group
members.
The leadership styles under SLII are;
• Directing (S1) – High on directing, low on supporting
• Coaching (S2) – High on both directing and supporting
• Supporting (S3) – Low on directing, high on supporting
• Delegating (S4) – Low on both directing and supporting
When assessing the situation so as to choose the leadership style to employ, the following are the
relevant contextual factors that leaders must be aware of;
i. The relationship between the leaders and the group members (both social and interpersonal
aspects)
ii. The specifics of the task in question
iii. The level of authority the leader has over group members
iv. The level of maturity of each group member

Key Factors of situational leadership II

There are four key contextual factors that leaders must be aware of when making an assessment of
the situation.
1. Consider the Relationship
Leaders should consider the relationship between them and the members of the group. The Social
and interpersonal factors can be of help in determining which approach is best.
2. Consider the Task

The leader should consider the task itself. Tasks range from simple to complex, but the leader
needs be well acquainted with the task in order to determine if it has been successfully and
competently accomplished.
3. Consider the Level of Authority
The level of authority the leader has over group members should also be considered. Some leaders
have power conferred by the position itself, such as the capacity to fire, hire, reward, or reprimand
subordinates. Other leaders gain power through relationships with employees, often by gaining
respect from them, offering support to them, and helping them feel included in the decision-making
process.

4. Consider the Level of Maturity

As the Hersey-Blanchard model suggests, leaders need to consider the level of maturity of each
individual group member. The maturity level is a measure of an individual's ability to complete a
task, as well as his or her willingness to complete the task. Assigning a job to a member who is
willing but lacks the ability is a recipe for failure.
Being able to pinpoint each employee's level of maturity allows the leader to choose the best
leadership approach to help employees accomplish their goals.

Features of situational leadership.

Situational leaders share several characteristics and skills in common, including but certainly not
limited to the following:
Flexibility
There’s no fixed way of leading when it comes to situational leadership. The style changes
according to what’s needed to get the job done. If the development level of a team or individual is
low, the situational leader focuses more on tasks. If the individuals are satisfactorily developed,
the leader will play more of a supporting role.
Skilled at supervising
Effective situational leaders can immediately recognize when they have to supervise and when
they can comfortably step back. For example, with new team members just learning the ropes, the
leader may have to provide constant supervision and specific instructions about business objectives
and how they need to be accomplished.
A natural when it comes to coaching
In giving direction for a project, the leader will include encouragement and nurturing, which
benefit not only the employee but also the task at hand. A well-coached employee is bound to do
a better job, and the situational leader fully understands this.
Participation oriented
Situational managers often let teams make decisions. This encourages them to work independently,
fosters trust, and makes team members feel like they are an important driver in the decision-making
process.
Adept at delegating
Delegating can be a situational leader’s best friend. When a team is given freedom to tackle an
assignment on their own, they feel more empowered and encouraged to bring their A game. And
by granting this freedom to the team, the leader is freed up to focus on other responsibilities since
they don’t always have to engage in the daily activities of the team.
Insightful and trustworthy
Skilled situational leaders understand the needs of teams and team members and can swiftly adjust
their management style to fill those needs. They are also able to gain their followers’ trust, which
takes a high level of maturity.
Full of integrity
True situational leaders are thoughtful, big-picture thinkers. When they have to shift management
styles per situation, they take into account the maturity level of team members and their readiness
level, an organization’s structure and culture, and the goals to be achieved.

Courageous
Some leaders stick with a single way of running things. Not so with situational leaders, who have
the maturity to take chances and actually thrive on adopting a variety of management styles when
needed.

Advantages of Situational Leadership

• It allows for flexibility.
• It creates a comfortable environment for workers.
• It takes different developmental phases into account.
• It increases the awareness of the leader.
• It helps a team be able to work better together.
• It boosts the training routine.

Disadvantages of Situational Leadership

• It focuses more on immediate needs than long-term needs.
• It can be ineffective in task-orientated environments.
• It can be challenging to define maturity.
• It does not provide enough information for some leaders.
• It is based on the skill level of the leader.
 • It creates a corporate dependency.
• It may create confusion within the company
Question 3.
Discuss in detail the contributions of the following personalities to organizational theory.
a) Frederick Taylor
b) Henri Fayol
c) Douglas McGregor

Solution.
Frederick Taylor
Frederick Taylor in the late 1800`s defined scientific management as the systematic study of
relationships between people and tasks to redesign the work for higher efficiency.
He sought to reduce the time a worker spent on each task by optimizing the way the task was done.
He wanted to replace “the rule of thumb”.
He had a background in mechanical engineering.
He was a US steel manufacturer.
He designed experiments to determine optimal performance levels.
He started the scientific management system.
In 1909, Taylor published “The principle of scientific management”.
He proposed that by optimizing and simplifying jobs, productivity would increase.
He also advanced the idea that workers and managers needed to cooperate with one another.
He focused on the belief that making people work as hard as possible was not as efficient as
optimizing the way work was done.
He believed that all workers were motivated by money, so he promoted the idea of a fair day`s pay
for a fair day`s work (Pay depends on work done).
He experimented with shovel design until he had a design that would allow workers to shovel for
several hours straight.
He concluded that some people could work more efficiently than others.

Factors for efficiency

 • Monitoring workers.
• Payment depending on input.
• Proper selecting efficient workers.

Taylor`s principles of scientific management.

Four principles to increase efficiency.
1. Study the way the job is performed now and determine new ways to do it. Gather
detailed, time and information. Try different methods to see which is the best.
2. Codify the new method into rules. Teach to all workers.
3. Select workers whose skills match the rules set in the above step
4. Establish a fair level of performance and pay for higher performance. Workers should
benefit from higher output.
Replace working by rule of thumb or simple habits and common sense and use instead the scientific
method to study work and determine the most efficient way to perform specific tasks.
Rather than simply assigning workers to just any job, match workers to jobs based on capability
and motivation and train them to work at maximum efficiency.
Monitor workers performance and provide instructions and supervision to ensure that they are
using the most efficient ways of working.
Allocate the work between managers and workers so that the managers spend their time planning
and training, allowing the workers to perform their tasks efficiently.

Critiques of Taylorism
• It promotes the idea that there is only one way to do something.
• Rigid rules-driven organizations struggle to adapt in rapidly changing environments.
• Does not encourage teamwork.
• It separates manual work from mental work.

Assumptions
Managers assume;
• New burden of gathering all the traditional knowledge which in the past was possessed
by the workers.
• The burden of classifying, tabulating and reducing this knowledge to rules, laws and
formulae which are immensely helpful to the workers in doing their work.
Problems of scientific management
• Managers only implemented the output side of Taylor`s.
o They did not allow for workers to share in increased output.
o Specialized jobs became boring.
o Workers ended up disguising scientific management.
• Workers could purposely under perform.
• Managers responded with increased use of machines.
Conclusion.
The principles of Taylor’s scientific management theory became widely practiced, and the
resulting cooperation between workers and managers eventually developed into the teamwork we
enjoy today.
While Taylorism in a pure sense is not practiced much today, scientific management did provide
many significant contributions to the advancement of management practice. It introduced a
systematic way of selection and training procedures of workers. It also provided a way to study
workplace efficiency and encouraged the idea of systematic organizational design.
Henri Fayol
From his long managerial experience, Fayol advocates 14 general principles of management.
Henri Fayol (1841 – 1925) started his career as a junior engineer in a coal mine company in France
and became its general manager in 1880.
He saved a large coal and steel company from bankruptcy and also led to its success.
His ideas have been summed up as administrative management theory.
Fayol’s “14 principles” was one of the earliest theories of management to be created, and remains
one of the most comprehensive. He is considered to be among the most influencial contributors to
modern concept of management, even though people don’t refer to “The 14 principles” often today.
The theory falls under the administrative management school of thought (as opposed to the
scientific management school, led by Frederick Taylor).
The 14 principles give normative guidance on how managers might master and execute their 5
managerial functions effectively.
The 5 functions are;
1. Planning.
Managers must plan for future conditions, develop strategic objectives and secure the
achievements of future goals.
2. Organizing.
Managers must organize the workforce in an efficient manner and structure and align the activities
of the organization. Managers must also train and recruit the right people for the job, and always
secure a sufficient skilled and educated workforce.
3. Commanding.
Managers must supervise subordinates in their daily work, and inspire them to achieve company
goals. It is the responsibility of managers to communicate company goals and policies to
subordinates. The commanding of subordinates should always be consistent with company
policies, and every manager should treat subordinates in line with the standards of the company.
4. Coordinating.
Managers must harmonize the procedures and activities performed by the company, meaning that
every activity of each organization unit should complement and enrich the work of another.
5. Controlling.
Managers must control that company activities are in line with general company policies and
objectives. It is also the responsibility of the manager to observe and report deviations from plans
and objectives, and to make initiatives to correct potential deviations.

Fayol’s 14 principles of management.

1. Division of labour.
Allows for job specialization. A worker does what they do better. And Fayol realized firms do
have too much specialization leading to poor quality work and worker involvement and all its
issues of boredom, loss of skills, loss of flexibility.
2. Authority and responsibility.
Authority means formal, institutional or legal power in a particular job, function or position that
empowers the holder of a job, function or position to successfully perform a task.
Responsibility is the obligation of a subordinate to perform a duty which has been assigned to him
by his superior.
These are two key aspects of management.
Authority facilitates the management to work efficiently and responsibility makes them
responsible for work done under their guidance.
3. Unity of command.
It means that an employee should have only one boss and follow him. More than one boss causes
conflicts of interest and this leads to confusion.
4. Line of authority.
A clear chain from top to bottom should be established (hierarchy). It helps every employee know
their senior and who to contact.
5. Centralization.
Authority rests at the very top. There should be a balance between the hierarchy and division of
power.
6. Unity of direction.
One plan of action to guide the organization, like whoever is engaged in the same activity should
have a unified goal. All workers should have the same which makes work easy and achieve the set
goal.
7. Equity.
All employees should be treated fairly (equally and respectfully). It is the responsibility of
managers to ensure no discrimination.
8. Order.
Each employee is put where they have the most value. So, a company should maintain a well-
defined work order to have a favorable work culture the positive atmosphere in the workplace will
boost more positive productivity.
9. Initiative.
The management should support and encourage the employee to take initiatives (innovation) in
the organization. It increases their interests and worth.
10. Discipline.
This is the core value of any project or management, obedient and respectful employees yield good
performance and sensible interaction makes management easy. It helps employees to build their
career.
11. Remuneration of personnel. The payment system contributes to success. Remuneration
can be monetary or non-monetary. However, it should be according to an individual`s
effort they have made.
12. Stability of tenure.
Any employee delivers the best if they are stable that is, they feel secure in their job. It is the duty
of management to offer job security to their employees.
13. General interest over individual interest.
The organization should work unitedly towards interest of a company rather than personal interest.
14. Esprit de corps.
Share enthusiasm or devotion to the organization. It is the responsibility of the management to
motivate their employees and be supportive of each other regularly.

Douglas McGregor
He contributed much to the development of management and motivational theory. He is best
known for theory X and Y.
Theory X and Theory Y were first explained in his book “The Human Side of Enterprise,” and
they refer to two styles of management – authoritarian (Theory X) and participative (Theory Y).
Theory X
If you believe that your workers dislike their work and have little motivation, then according to
McGregor, you will likely use an authoritarian style of management. This approach is very “hands-
on” and usually involves micromanaging people`s work to ensure that it gets done properly.
Assumes that workers;
o Are lazy.
o Dislike work.
o Naturally unmotivated.
o Need to be supervised at every step.
o Will do as little as possible.
 o Avoid responsibility.
o Need constant direction.
o Have to be controlled, forced and threatened to deliver work.
As a result, managers think that workers need to be prompted, rewarded or punished constantly to
make sure that they complete their tasks.
According to McGregor, organizations with Theory X approach tend to have many managers and
supervisors to oversee and direct workers. Authority is rarely delegated, and control remains firmly
centralized.
Theory Y
On the other hand, if you believe that your workers take pride in their work and see it as a
challenge, then you will more likely adopt a participative management style. Managers who use
this approach trust their workers to take ownership of their work and do it effectively by
themselves.
Workers have greater responsibility and managers encourage them to develop their skills and
suggest improvements. Appraisals are regular, unlike in Theory X.
Assumes that workers are;
o Not lazy.
o Want to do a good job and want to do a good job.
o More involved in decision making.
o Self-motivated to complete their tasks.
o Enjoy takin ownership of their work.
o Seek and accept responsibility, and need little direction.
o View work as fulfilling and challenging.
o Solve problems creatively and imaginatively.
Managers should allow the worker get great latitude and create an organization to stimulate
workers.
The approach that you take will have a significant impact on your ability to motivate your workers.
So, it`s important to understand how your perceptions of what motivates them can shape your
management style.
Question 4
Leaders are made, they are not born. Discuss giving examples where necessary the above statement
and its applicability in modern organization management?

Abstract

The changing world economy has seen the world undergo a diversification of the organization of
different sectors with an innovative approach, intelligence, and its will to rise business processes
to a higher level. Firms and companies have been the basis for development and most people have
been seen by their way of work in these entities. Leaders are observed motivating employees in
the working environment towards achieving a common goal so as to maximize profits, subject to
any constraints.
This derives the importance of leadership and its study to examine the different roles played by
leaders, what makes good leaders and different relations to leaders in modern organizations.
Leadership and leaders continuously develop which leads to a change in a way we define these
terms and, in most cases, we develop different theories. Modern organizations are made up of
leaders with enriched skills that are developed overtime and experience in respective fields. With
all to desire about leaders, we tend to question ourselves about whether leaders are made or rather
born, which is our center of generating ideas in this write up.

Introduction

The ability to effectively lead, motivate and direct a group of people – whether it is in business,
sport or politics - requires a very complex set of skills, mostly acquired through experiences, self-
development as well as access to subsequent training. (Carter, 2019)
The phenomenon of leadership was attributed to great diplomats, generals, philosophers, thinkers,
or artists and the like. With the development of industry, transport, trade and finance, the concept
of leadership is more often related to economic activity and organization.
Leadership can be defined as the capacity of someone to guide, draw or direct by influence,
conduct, direct, or instruct others to work towards achieving a task.
 A Leader is made, not born

I’ll start with the question, “What if no leader was born, would the world have no leaders?”
Definitely not, the world is made up of situations that require an extra ordinary person to stand in
the gap and figure out random things before the majority can- and this clearly explains who a
leader is. Apart from titles and roles given to us in society, a leader is actually someone who takes
responsibility and acts like a guiding light to others. “We don’t need a title to lead. We just need
to care. People would rather follow a leader with a heart than a leader with a title” Craig Groeschel.
Someone who would take on the role of going before others may not be recognised and that’s
because we take only the people with powerful names as leaders according to the status quo.
However, because being a leader already makes one stand out, eventually (or not to a least extent)
one gains the great name. “Leaders become great, not because of their power, but because of their
power to empower others” John Maxwell.
Something special about leaders is that they seem to have a supernatural power to figure out
solutions before others can, they are meant to know how to handle issues before the rest of the
crew can. One can think that this supernatural power is born with them, but no. The pressure that
comes with knowing that everyone is looking at you creates a certain ability to reason a bit faster
than normal. Funny, it’s actually pressured not a power, for most people you will agree that we
tend to work better under pressure.
Taking a look at those born into royal families and end up being leaders, you would think that a
leader is born, not made. That would only count if they were born and left to themselves until it’s
their time to rule. Instead, they are subjected to a special kind of training that goes on for almost a
lifetime until they are “worthy of the throne”, but some even end up losing their kingship as a
result of incompetent leadership capabilities like king Louis XVI of France, as we shall be seeing
in the latter part of this writing.
I could be born as Obama’s daughter and take a completely different turn compared to that of my
father. I was born, but I wasn’t made into a leader. Leaders are made, not born.
The following examples can show some of the most influential leaders who were made.
Malcom X
Malcolm X grew up in extreme poverty, and spent years as a hustler and pimp on the streets of
Roxbury and Harlem with no signs of showing the leader he came to be, before ending up in
Norfolk State Prison in Massachusetts where he converted to Islam in 1947, and transitioned to
one of the most forthcoming leaders of the 20th century who fought for civil rights movement,
minister and supporter of Black nationalism.

Figure 2 Malcom X (1925-1965)

Elon Musk

Elon Musk, dubbed “the world’s most remarkable living entrepreneur” (Vance, 2017), despite the
rejection and backlash he has gotten over the years, he has proven to inspire people to achieve a
common goal collectively which created several billion-dollar companies based on his ideas, from
ZipX, to Tesla, to SpaceX. His view on leadership being an adaptive leader who will create a
culture of continuous learning and growth which will empower people to always look for ways to

improve.

Figure 3 Elon Musk (1971-Present)

Thomas Sankara
“The Upright man”, Sankara’s military achievements and charismatic leadership style made him
a popular choice for political appointments after visiting Madagascar and being inspired to be a
leader after seeing the uprising to chase colonial rule, then came to power in 1983 after a coup and
adopted radical left-wing policies and declared the objectives of the “democratic and popular
revolution” to be primarily concerned with the tasks of eradicating corruption, fighting
environmental degradation, empowering women, and increasing access to education and health
care, with the larger goal of liquidating imperial domination, Sankara successfully implemented
programs which sought to achieve those tasks.

Figure 4 Thomas Sankara (1949-1987)

On the other hand, there are leaders who are born leaders like the King of Buganda, Kabaka Ronald
Muwenda Mutebi II, who has been in leadership ever since the restoration of the Buganda kingdom
in 1993. He is an influence to many people in the country, not only in his kingdom but among
many people in Uganda as a country.

Figure 5 Muwenda Mutebi II of Buganda (1955-Present)

There are leaders who are also born leaders, and into leadership position, like king Louis XVI was
made king at only 20 years old at the time. While Louis XVI wanted to be a good king and help
his subjects, he faced enormous debt and rising resentment towards autocratic monarchy. His
failure to successfully address serious problems, while lacking sufficient strength of character and
influence to lead people ultimately lead to the end of his kingship and the French monarchy.

Figure 6 Louis XVI (1754-1793)

In modern organizations, we notice that leaders develop continuously due to experience in a given
field say engineering where we have professional career development in a way that an engineering
leader faces challenges that encourages him to work with his team to find a solution. This is a long-
time process in leadership.
We consider extroversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, emotional
stability/intelligence, adaptiveness to create a culture of continuous learning and growth are crucial
personality traits and how they come to affect a person’s way of influencing others as a leader.
Which can see can become very useful in modern organizational management in order to lead a
group of people to achieve a common goal.

Application of this in modern organizational management:

• Leadership involves other people - employees (subordinates) or followers. With their

willingness to accept guidance and direction of leaders, group members make it possible
to define the status of a leader, and the process of leadership; when there would be no other
people, all the qualities of leadership as a manager would be insignificant.
• Leadership means unequal distribution of power between leaders and group members.
Group members aren’t powerless: they can influence the activity of groups in different
ways. But leaders are required to oversee the bigger picture.
• Everyone you meet has different values, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, cultural values,
work habits, goals, ambitions, and dreams. Because of this incredible diversity of
human resources, it has never been more difficult and yet more necessary for diplomatic
leaders to emerge and form these people into high-performing teams.
• Organizations all around the world undertake Leadership Apprenticeship programs which
are aimed at equipping employees with on-the-job leadership skills. These programs are
created for employees who are being moved into a role in which management and
leadership skills are key. Currently, apprenticeships cover Team Leader/Supervisor roles
as well as middle and high-level management positions. The need for such programs
concretely emphasizes the fact that leaders are made by constantly developing skills.

Conclusion

On the centrally, we are limited by the fact that there are no universal traits found that predict
leadership in all situations, unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership
and traits, and better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and
ineffective leaders. However, a person learns to become a leader by doing what other excellent
leaders have done before, and also learning new things that apply to the time that person is in.
You become proficient in your job or skill, and then you become proficient at understanding
the motivations and behaviors of other people. Thus, in our view, leaders are both the marble
and the sculptors who continuously chisel themselves to become the perrons followers want,
and don’t get everything inherently.
In conclusion, as Elon Musk said, “A leader must be adaptive leader who will create a culture
of continuous learning and growth which will empower people to always look for ways to
improve.”
QUESTION 5

Using your experience in the just concluded Industrials Training (IT), explain the two types of
motivational theories; process and content theories.

ABSTRACT
This essay explains the two types of motivational theories; process and content theories, using the
experiences of the students during their Industrial Training (IT). The data was collected from the
experiences of the ten members of the discussion group, giving examples of their experiences
relating to the two theories. It was found that the different members had varying experiences. This
essay explains the different content and process theories using relevant experiences that students
had during their training.

INTRODUCTION
Motivation could be defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented
behaviours. (Kendra, 2020)
Motivational theory in an organization has to do with the way in which a company motivates its
employees to perform as a group and within their individual job roles.(What Is Motivational
Theory in an Organization?, 2011)
Motivation can either be intrinsic or extrinsic depending on both the motivator and the motivated.
The former, is that motivation is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself and exists
within the individual other than relying on any external pressure while an extrinsic motivation
refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, the individuals’ surrounding.
Motivation is then usually discussed under two theories:
o Content theories
o Process theories
Below is a summary of the major motivation theories separated into content and process theories.
MAJOR MOTIVATION THEORIES
The main content theories are: The main process theories are:
 Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Alderfer’s ERG Theory Adam’s Equity Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Motivation Locke’s Goal Setting Theory

DETAILS ABOUT THE MAIN CONTENT THEORIES

In a historical perspective, the content theories tend to be the earliest theories of motivation or later
modifications of early theories. Within the work environment they have had the greatest impact
on management practice and policy, whilst within academic circles they are the least accepted.
Content theories are also called needs theories, because they are generally associated with a view
that concentrates on the importance of determining 'what' motivates us. In other words, they try to
identify what our 'needs' are and relate motivation to the fulfilling of these needs.
There are four main theories under this namely;
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
2. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
3. Herzbergs' Two Factor Theory
4. McClellands Theory of Motivation

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow put forward the idea that there existed a hierarchy of needs consisting of five levels. These
needs progressed from lower-level needs through to higher level needs as shown in the diagram
below.
The hierarchy is a systematic way of thinking about the different needs employees may have at
any given point and explains different reactions they may have to similar treatment. An employee
who is trying to satisfy esteem needs may feel gratified when her supervisor praises an
accomplishment. However, another employee who is trying to satisfy social needs may resent
being praised by upper management in front of peers if the praise sets the individual apart from
the rest of the group.
Relating to the Industrial Training:
During the industrial training, it was observed that firms satisfied the employees’ needs on the
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in different ways. These include:
- The firms satisfied the employees’ physiological needs through salary and other
payments. In addition, for some employees, pay satisfied other needs such as safety and
esteem.
- It was also observed that the firms satisfied the employees’ safety needs by providing
some measure of job security and also through some benefits that include health
insurance and providing NSSF plans for all the employees.
- In the firms, it was also noticed that social needs were satisfied through the friendly
environment that was provided. In some, there were shared office spaces where
employees worked and this provided a workplace conducive for collaboration and
communication with others.
- It was a common practice at the firms to recognize employees’ and even interns’
accomplishments verbally and this satisfies their esteem needs to some extent.
- Finally, self-actualization needs for employees were satisfied by the provision of
development and growth opportunities on or off the job (through encouraging further
studies, providing study leaves, and workshops). Employees and interns were also given
opportunity to carry out work that is interesting and challenging to them.

By making the effort to satisfy the different needs of each employee, the firms are likely to ensure
a highly motivated workforce.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human
needs may be grouped under three categories, namely:
1. Existence
2. Relatedness
3. Growth

Existence corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, relatedness corresponds to

Maslow’s social needs, and growth refers to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization.
ERG theory does not rank needs in any particular order and explicitly recognizes that more than
one need may operate at a given time. The theory also has a hypothesis suggesting that individuals
who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one need may regress to another. For example,
someone who is frustrated by the growth opportunities in his job and progress toward career goals
may regress to relatedness need and start spending more time socializing with coworkers.
The implication of this theory is that we need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving
individuals at a given point to understand their behavior and properly motivate them.
Relating to the Industrial Training:
By making the effort to recognize and satisfy the multiple needs that may be driving the different
employees at any given point, the firm can be able to understand their behavior and properly
motivate them.
- It was observed that the firms provided multiple needs to each of the employees at any
given point of time i.e., an employee’s existence, relatedness and growth needs were
satisfied.
- Their existence needs were generally satisfied through their salaries and other payments.
 - The firm also satisfied the employees’ and interns’ relatedness needs through the shared
office spaces previously mentioned, where employees worked and this provided a
workplace conducive for collaboration and communication with others. Also, for some
firms' meals were shared in the same space which improved on the relations with other
employees.
- Additionally, growth needs for employees were satisfied by the provision of
development and growth opportunities on or off the job through workshops. Employees
and interns were also given opportunity to carry out work that is interesting and
challenging.
- The employees’ growth needs were also satisfied through recognizing their
achievements and promoting the commendable employees.
-

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a different way. Herzberg was of the
view that aspects of the work environment that satisfy employees are very different from aspects
that dissatisfy them.
The two factors he considers are:
1. Motivation factors: the factors that cause satisfaction of workers. In other words, these
are the conditions that truly encourage employees to try harder.

These are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement, recognition,
interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement, and growth opportunities.
2. Hygiene factors: these are factors that cause dissatisfaction of workers. In simple terms,
we miss them when they are absent but take them for granted when they are present.

They are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as company policies, supervision,
working conditions, salary, safety, and security on the job.
Relating to the Industrial Training:
- During the Industrial Training, sometimes at the firm offices, when there was political
stability, no one cared but when there was a bit of a scuffle involving the police that came
with stampedes, tear gas, and sometimes death in the environment, the employees were
 greatly demotivated. For this reason, working environment could be considered to be a
hygiene factor.
- Another hygiene factor observed was the presence of sugar at one of the sites. When
there was no sugar in the tea, the employees expressed great dissatisfaction but when it
was there, they were indifferent.
- Managers also enriched jobs by giving employees opportunities to do challenging work
and giving them greater responsibilities. This improved employee satisfaction and
encouraged employee motivation and these can be considered to be motivation factors.

McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED-NEEDS THEORY

Among the need-based approaches to motivation, David McClelland’s acquired-needs theory is
the one that has received the greatest amount of support. According to this theory, individuals
acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. These needs are:
3. The need for achievement
4. The need for affiliation
5. The need for power

All individuals possess a combination of these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive
employee behaviour.
McClelland’s theory of acquired needs has important implications for the motivation of
employees. Managers need to understand the dominant needs of their employees to be able to
motivate them. While people who have a high need for achievement may respond to goals, those
with a high need for power may attempt to gain influence over those they work with, and
individuals high in their need for affiliation may be motivated to gain the approval of their peers
and supervisors. Finally, those who have a high drive for success may experience difficulties in
managerial positions, and making them aware of common pitfalls may increase their effectiveness.
Relating to the Industrial Training:
- Some employees greatly demonstrated a need for achievement, these often set
challenging goals and worked to achieve them.
 - Other employees demonstrated a need for affiliation, they work to gain approval of their
peers and supervisors.
- A few employees demonstrated a need for power and these were promoted into
managerial positions.

DETAILS ABOUT THE MAIN PROCESS THEORIES

Process based theories view motivation as a rational process. Individuals analyse their
environment, develop thoughts and feelings and react in certain ways.
Process theories also attempt to explain the thought processes of an individual who demonstrates
motivated behaviour.
Process theories also attempt to identify the relationships between the dynamic variables that make
up motivation and the actions required to influence behaviour and actions.
These theories are concerned more with the actual process of motivation and how behaviour is
initiated, directed and sustained.
There are four major categories under this i.e.
1. Equity theory
2. Expectancy theory
3. Reinforcement theory
4. Goal theory

EQUITY THEORY
Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they have been treated in comparison with
the treatment received by others.
Specifically, we compare our inputs and outcomes with other people’s inputs and outcomes. Equity
is determined by comparing ones’ input – outcome ratio with the input – outcome ratio of a
referent, when the two ratios are equal, equity exists.
A referent may be a specific person as well as a category of people. They should be comparable
to us, otherwise the comparison is not meaningful e.g., individuals may compare themselves to
someone performing a similar task within the same organization or in the case of CEO, the CEO
a different organization.
Inputs are the contributions people feel they are making to the environment or organization e.g.,
person’s hard work, loyalty to the organization, level of education, training and skills.
Outcomes are the perceived rewards someone can receive from the situation e.g., salary / wages,
acknowledgment from managers.
Examples of employee reactions to unfairness / inequity, some of which were observed during
industrial training
- Employees could decide to leave the situation e.g., through quitting one’s job.
- They could also choose to deliberately reduce their input through deliberately putting less
effort into their work.
- The perceptions of employees who are unfairly treated may be distorted e.g.; they could
begin to believe that the referent is more skilled than them.
- The employee who is unfairly treated may seek legal action e.g., through suing the
company or filing a complaint.
- The favored employee may increase their inputs i.e., they could get encouraged to work
hard.
- The unfairly treated employee could work to increase their own outcomes e.g., through
negotiating a raise for oneself.

Relating to the Industrial Training:

- At one site, the site project manager tasked the interns to make design specifications of
the plans, he grouped them into two teams. In the end, he praised the outcome /design of
one team and thus rewarded them and the other team received neither praise nor reward.
Members of the team that was not awarded felt judgement was not fair since their output
was better, as a result, they were demotivated when carrying out other assignments.
- In one firm, the younger employees are paid a lot less, had fewer benefits and low
recognition i.e., lower output yet they put in a lot of input in terms of time, effort, loyalty,
tolerance, flexibility, integrity, commitment, reliability, heart and soul, personal sacrifice.
For some, this really affected their motivation in the long run.
- In one of the firms, needs of people working on bigger and more important projects were
considered before the needs of the rest of the employees. For this reason, employees
 working on some projects had to negotiate a lot more in order to get per diem to go to the
field (output).

EXPECTANCY THEORY
According to expectancy theory, individual’s motivation to put in more or less effort is determined
by a rational calculation in which individuals evaluate their situation.
According to this theory, individuals ask themselves three questions.(Theories of Motivation,
2009)

According to this theory, there are three key elements;

1. Expectancy; whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to
outcomes of interest such as performance or success.
2. Instrumentality; the degree to which the person believes that performance is related
to subsequent outcomes such as rewards.
3. Valence; individuals are concerned about the value of the rewards awaiting them as a
result of performance. Valence is the anticipated satisfaction that will result from an
outcome.

It is also the belief that an individual will choose their behaviours based on what they believe will
lead to the most beneficial outcome.
Performance depends upon the perceived expectation regarding effort expended and achieving the
desired outcome.
Relating to the Industrial Training:
On site or in a firm, one would be motivated to put in higher amount of effort to perform better on
the job if he or she knew the rewards like payment, allowances such as food, transport, were
satisfactory. A person’s behaviour reflects a conscious choice between the comparative
evaluations of alternative behaviours. Specific examples include:
- In one of the firms, majority of the engineering graduates were motivated to specialize in
Highways Engineering because they believe highways engineers in many cases have the
highest pay in the engineering field.
- In one of the firms, many employees were motivated to go to the field rather than
working in the office since they would get per diem if they went to the field.
- At one site, interns were given monetary rewards for having the best performance on any
specific day e.g., making the most rings. This motivated the interns to perform to the best
of their ability on any particular day in hopes of getting the reward.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY
This theory aims at achieving the desired level of motivation among the employees by means of
reinforcement, punishment and extinction.
This is based on the work of Ivan Pavlov on behavioural conditioning and later work of B.F
Skinner on operant conditioning.
According to reinforcement theory, behaviour is a function of its outcomes and is based on a
simple idea that may be viewed as a common sense.
Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcement theory describes four interventions to modify employee behaviour.
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Extinction
4. Punishment

Two of these are methods of increasing the frequency of desired behaviours i.e., positive
reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
The other two are methods of reducing the frequency of undesired behaviours i.e., extinction and
punishment.
 1. Positive Reinforcement

It is a method of increasing the frequency of desired behaviour. It involves making sure that
desirable behaviour is met with positive consequences e.g., praising an employee for treating a
customer respectfully. If the praise immediately follows the positive behaviour, the employee will
see a link between the behaviour and positive consequences and will be motivated to repeat a
similar behaviour.
2. Negative Reinforcement

It is also a method of increasing the frequency desired behaviour. It involves removal of unpleasant
outcomes once desired behaviour is demonstrated. Nagging an employee to complete a report is
an example of negative reinforcement.
The Negative stimulus in the environment will remain present until positive behaviour is
demonstrated.
3. Extinction

It is used to decrease the frequency of negative behaviour. Extinction is the removal of rewards
following negative behaviour e.g., when people are rewarded for their unethical behaviour, they
tend to demonstrate higher levels of unethical behaviour, thus when the reward following
unwanted behaviours are removed, the frequency of future negative behaviour may be reduced.
4. Punishment

It is also used to decrease the frequency of negative behaviour. It involves presenting negative
consequences following unwanted behaviours. Giving an employee a warning for consistently
being late for work is an example of punishment.
Relating to the Industrial Training:
- At one site, if you arrive at work early, you would get praised for putting in more time
towards the project. This is a form of positive reinforcement.
- At one firm, the project manager for a certain project kept nagging the engineers involved
until a certain target of the project was reached. This was a form of negative
reinforcement.
 - At one firm, one of the employees kept making unsolicited jokes about the interns but
since their co-workers did not comment or laugh at the jokes, they soon stopped making
them altogether. This is a form of extinction.
- At one construction site, it was a rule for casual laborers to complete targets for a given
task e.g., compaction, construction of brick walls, etc. within a specific time period. In
case the laborers fell short, their wages would be reduced. This is a form of punishment.

GOAL SETTING THEORY

This theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific
and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task
performance.
This was developed by Locke (1968), it stresses the significance of setting and achieving of goals
in the motivation process. The central idea is that an individual’s conscious intention (goals)
regulates their actions.(Aina, 2014)
Goal theory directs work behaviour and performance and lead to certain consequences or feedback
and people strive to achieve goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires.
Relating to the Industrial Training:
- At the different industrial training sites and firms, the interns had goals to learn different
skills e.g., making reinforced concrete beams, carrying out pavement design for roads,
etc., and because of this they were motivated to work harder to learn as much as possible
during the training period.
- At one firm, employees who had a goal to specialize in a certain field were motivated to
do work related to that field in order to gain experience.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, no theory is used singly in a firm or construction site or any other internship place
a student may have found, but rather, a number of different theories were used in one way or
another as most complement each other. Motivation is indeed a driving force/ necessity to boost
productivity of all people in a workplace, that is, leaders, managers and employees with different
aims in order to achieve their needs and for the organization to achieve its goals.
QUESTION 6
Giving examples of 4 world leaders, past and present. Justify the statement ‘Leadership is
practiced by the leadership style’.
SOLUTION
To begin with, Leadership is a skill where a leader influences, guides and motivates a group of
people with an aim of achieving a specific goal.
Different leaders are distinctively unique in the way they lead their teams. This means that the
different leaders use different styles to influence their teams.
There are various styles of leadership that have been practiced by world leaders. In our research,
we are looking the some of the styles with examples of prominent world leaders that have used
those styles.
We have focussed on four leadership styles which include;
Paternalistic style.
Laissez-faire style; also known as delegating.
Autocratic style.
Democratic style; also known as participative.
1. Paternalistic leadership style

This leadership style is defined by a dominant authoritative personality who acts as a matriarch
or patriarch and treats employees like they are members of a large extended family.
The authority figure talks about objectives with his/ her subordinates to ensure that they're all
working towards the same goal. He makes decisions and, in most cases, explains why certain
decisions were made and addresses any concerns raised by his subordinates. In turn, the leader
expects obedience and loyalty from the employees.
This style enables leaders to pay attention to people in the company, their recommendations and
feedback.
Advantages of Paternalistic leadership.
There is effective communication between the managers and the employees
Absenteeism rates and staff turnover will decrease as emphasis is placed on the employees’
needs.
It focusses on the employees’ welfare since the leader makes most decisions in favour of the
employees.
Feedback is invited and encouraged, which improves morale and makes employees feel
important.

Disadvantages of Paternalistic leadership

Employees rely on the leader more than they would in a typical work setting.
If loyalty to the manager is not established quickly then there can be poor staff motivation.
The employees will become more and more dependent on the employer, which can cause an
increase in necessary supervision in order to get things done in a timely and appropriate manner.
Examples of leaders who have used this leadership style are Henry Ford and Jose Mourinho.
Jose Mourinho
Jose Mourinho is a football manager who has reached success with teams like real Madrid,
Chelsea and Inter Milan.
He has shown the paternalistic ability to influence his players to achieve the best success by
supporting and defending them. He has told them they're the best even when they have not
performed well. He keeps the pressure off the players and instead takes it on himself in the press
rooms so that they can focus on their practice and performance.
Mourinho uses the tactic of "us" against "them," his team is a family unit that must go and fight
against the other. "As the coach and leader, you must be the master motivator of your team.
When performances drop, your energy, motivation and drive can be the turning point for
change." Mourinho once said.
He shows resilience, commitment and passion to win, which results his players to look up to
him. Because he has been able to achieve success, he is respected as an accomplished leader. "
The more you understand your team, the more you can lead them. I never liked the kind of
leadership where the boys say, he's my leader, so I have to respect him. I prefer them to say, I
respect him and he is my leader." Mourinho explained his leadership mentality.
Mourinho also has shown the downside of paternalistic leadership. If the loyalty of the players is
no more, then the leadership is hard to maintain. This happened to him the last time he was
managing Chelsea when players stopped believing in his vision after a series of losses.
2. Delegating style

This is sometimes referred to as the laissez-faire style.

It is a leadership style whereby a leader assigns tasks to his/her employees and gives them free
reign to work.
These employees get to make all the decisions and choices which they are then responsible for.
It simply means handling off a responsibility from a leader to a worker- Paul Hersey and
Kenneth Blanchard.
In order for this style to be successful, there are three elements involved; responsibility, authority
and accountability
Characteristics of laissez-faire style.
There is little guidance from leaders
Employees have the ability to make decisions
There is constructive criticism from leaders
Leaders take charge where necessary.

Advantages of this style

It allows members to maximize their own leadership skills.

It frees the superior from minute details and gives him time to concentrate on key result areas.
 It promotes the feeling of belonging and involvement by the subordinates.

It provides for management succession.

Disadvantages of this style.

It reduces the cohesiveness of the group since the manager is withdrawn from the group.

It is a leadership style which employees can abuse since there is little oversight offered by the
managers.

One example of a world leader that uses delegating style is Warren Buffett.

Warren Buffett
He is the CEO of Berkshire Hathaway and one of the most successful investors of all time.
He employs a “hands-off” leadership style when it comes to his employees.
He chooses highly motivated capable managers whom he allows full autonomy. He has created a
working atmosphere where his employees feel confident and motivated by their extreme latitude.
In ”The Berkshire Hathaway’s 2010 Annual Report”, Buffett states, “we tend to let our many
subsidiaries operate on their own, without monitoring and supervising them to any degree.”

3. Autocratic/ Authoritarian leadership style

This style involves a command-compliance relationship between the leader and followers.
The leader is the key and only decision maker in the group. He/she formulates all plans while the
followers are tasked with execution.
The autocratic style is commonly used in places that require quick and urgent decision making
like the military, hospital emergency rooms, etc.
Characteristics of Autocratic leadership
Allows little or no input from the group members
Leader has authority to dictate all work methods and processes
Employees or subordinates are expected to carry out instructions promptly without any
arguments

Advantages of the Autocratic style

Allows for quick decision making
Has proven to be effective in places where directive leadership is required; especially when
the leader is the most knowledgeable person in the group.
Relieves pressure off of the group members so they can focus on given tasks without worrying
about the decision making
It offers a clear and defined structure in a group

Disadvantages of the Autocratic style

 Tends to create a dictatorial environment when over used
Limits creativity in problem solving
Hurts the morale of group members since it discourages group input

One of the most notable autocratic leaders in history was Napoleon Bonaparte.
Napoleon Bonaparte
He was the first emperor of France. He was born in 1769 in France and enrolled into a military
academy at 10 years of age. While there, he demonstrated great leadership skills which led to his
quick rise through the ranks.
Having grown up in a time where the French aristocracy were of the richest, Napoleon
envisioned a France with social equality and worked towards this. He understood that a leader
must win the trust and loyalty of his followers and used promises of victory and glory during his
first years as a commanding general to slowly build an army that would later conquer France and
most of Western Europe by 1812. He promised and delivered looted silver and gold to his
soldiers as payment for their loyalty and work.
Napoleon was an exceptional military strategist who commanded a large army, all while hardly
sharing any of his ideas and tactics with anyone.
He is said to have researched in libraries about his enemy weeks before a battle commenced. He
was the brains of the army while his subordinates were the backbone.
Though Napoleon was kind and compassionate to those who were loyal, he demonstrated
dictatorial tendencies in the way he governed them. Cruel punishments were often given to those
who opposed him.
4. Democratic leadership style

Democratic leadership style is any power-sharing arrangement in which workplace influence is

shared among individuals who are otherwise hierarchical unequal. It is also known as
participative style.
The democratic leadership style always involves participative decision-making. It empowers
employees to have a strong hand in managing organizations.
Democratic leadership style is based on mutual respect. it requires collaboration between leaders
and the people they guide.
Participation is key to all successful democratic enterprises.
Advantages
Employees have increased job satisfaction and a sense of empowerment.

Relationships are built on mutual trust between labor and management.

Absenteeism is lower among employees with a stronger commitment to performance.

Productivity increases as a result of a solutions-centric workforce that has input.

Creativity and innovation increase among employees through team collaboration.

Disadvantages
 Leaders can become overly dependent on the expertise and experience of subordinates.

Collaboration can consume valuable time getting input from people who aren’t in agreement.

Fast, incisive decisions may be difficult or even impossible, resulting in missed deadlines.

Relying on consensus from people who are misinformed or lack accurate data can be costly.

Leaders can become burdened by the challenge of overseeing experts on collaborative teams.

One example of a Democratic leader is George Washington.

George Washington
He was an American president, military general, statesman and founding father. He served as a
president from 1789 to 1797. He commanded the continental Army during the American
Revolution(1775-83) and presided over the convention that drafted the U.S constitution.
Unlike commanding troops during the American Revolution, Washington was notably
democratic when guiding the U.S. government.
He showed early signs of his democratic leadership style by appointing strong leaders to his
staff. His decision not to serve a third term exemplified a democratic leader who knows when to
pass the torch.
Conclusion
Basing on how the above-mentioned leaders led their teams to success, leadership is practiced by
the leadership styles. The leadership style is dependent on the kind of team you are leading and for
what purpose. We have looked at different leaders using different styles to lead their teams and all
reach their success. A style which works for one, may not work for the other.
QUESTION 7
Organizations exists and operate in a very competitive environment
Discuss with illustrations the various sources and forms of competition an organization is
faced with.
An organization is an entity comprised of a number of people working together and all
focused on achieving a certain goal for example a charity, a union, a corporation, an association,
an institution or a company. In organizations, competition acts as the main motivator and morale
booster to the members of the organization in pursuit of satisfactory end result from the objectives.
It also promotes innovation and efficiency within the organization. Competition is a form of
rivalry between two or more parties in pursuit of gaining advantage over the other. Sources and
drivers such as nature of product or service, exit barrier, ease of entry among others, ignite and
encourage all forms of competition. Competition arises from the principle of scarcity in
Economics.
There are five forms of competition namely monopolistic competition, oligopoly, perfect
competition, monopsony and monopoly. The forms of competition act as a scale to show to which
degree the competition within the organizatio. The forms of competition help in the valuation of
the company and production decisions, or when determining whether to enter or leave a particular
industry.
Perfect Competition comprises of Infinite Buyers and Sellers. It is a form of competition
characterized by many different demanders and suppliers. With so many organizations, it is
impossible for any one participant to change the price in the market. If they try to do so, demanders
have infinite alternatives to pursue. For example in the agriculture industry whereby if the price of
vegetables such as cabbage rises at one market place then the demander moves to a much cheaper
establishment since there are many alternatives.
A monopoly is the exact opposite form of competition from perfect competition. In a pure
monopoly, there is only one producer of a particular good or service, and generally there is no
substitute. In such a market system, the monopolist is able to charge whatever price they wish due
to the absence of competition, but their overall revenue will be limited by the ability or willingness
of customers to pay their price. There are two types of monopolies namely legal and natural
whereby legal monopolies arise when a company receive a patent giving it use of a invented
product such Reinforced Earth Ltd South Africa. Natural monopolies include public utilities such
as electricity, water and fuel suppliers for example UMEME in Uganda.
An oligopoly is similar in many ways to a monopoly. The primary difference is that instead
of only one producer of a good or service, there are a handful of producers, or at least a handful of
producers that make up a dominant majority of the production in the market system. The
oligopolists may not have the same pricing power as monopolists, it is possible, without diligent
government regulation that oligopolists will conspire with one another to set prices in the same
way a monopolist would for instance major airlines such as Qatar Airways and Emirates.
Monopolistic competition is a type of market system combining elements of a monopoly
and perfect competition. Like a perfectly competitive market system, there are numerous
competitors in the market. The difference is that each competitor is sufficiently differentiated from
the others that some can charge greater prices than a perfectly competitive firm. An example of
monopolistic competition is the market for music. While there are many artists, each artist is
different and is not perfectly substitutable with another artist.
The degree of competition between organization and within an industry depends on 10 factors.
These can be known as the factors contributing to competitive rivalry. They are as follows.
1) Opportunity potential
If the opportunity in the market is very high, then the competition rises at a frantic pace, and the
competition is tough too. An example of this is the Home PC market of 1980’s which saw strong
companies like Microsoft, Apple, IBM and several others rise and fall. The 3 brands mentioned
stuck around, but several others like Atari and Timex failed to make a mark in the Home PC
market. Similarly, when a market promises potential, you will see the competitive rivalry rising
fast.
2) Ease of entry
A problem which is facing most localized businesses is the ease of entry of foreign entrants. They
will adopt competitive strategies to maintain market share in their own territories. This gives rise
to increased degree of competition and an increase in competitive rivalry.
3) Nature of the product
The easier the manufacturing or attainment of the product is determines how difficult it is to get
into the market. The prices of Diamonds and gold is always increasing and the companies which
are large jewellery buyers and sellers are surviving in this market because they hold larger amounts
of these rare products hence the demand margin is high.
But if it is a bathing soap or liquid soap which can be manufactured anywhere, then we see the
competition rising instead of the price rising. The change in currency can affect the soap market
as there are just so many competitors in it.
4) Homogeneity or Very low differentiation possible.
Differentiation is measure to which the product, offered by the organization, is unique. For
instance, there are 10,000 different types of pens in the market, each of them selling and each of
them having its own demand. It is a homogenous market. The product is required, and there are
very few differentiating points in the product. So because of the homogeneity of the market, the
competition rises.
Still, the market can be differentiated by targeting the frequent users or occasional users. Like
Parker pens and Mont blanc market themselves on the basis of status. Hence, their pens are
different from the homogenous market. But with pens like Natarag, Bic and Nice Clear then most
of their products are similar or same, hence causing a rise in competition between the companies
and within the industry.
5) Commitment to the industry
There are some organizations that are hyper committed to the work they are in. For example –
Gillette is a known Razor blades manufacturer and that is all it does. It literally dominates that
market. It is the dominant industry leader. If a new product form another organization was
introduced, they usually do not last very long on the market. Still in the US, the Dollar shave club
is challenging Gillette by delivering personal grooming products directly to the end customers.
This means there are 2 players who are now hyper targeted towards the shaving industry. When
the commitment to the industry of a competitor is very high, and they are leading that industry by
a big margin, competition becomes over bearing.
6) Technology
When technology is the major reason for the industry to exist, then it becomes one of the driving
factors for competition. Looking at the Smartphone market, we can easily see that each of the
smart phone makers is bringing a new technology in the market (hardware or software based). The
leading organization is one with the latest technology. The search for something else or something
new becomes a dirining force so as to dominate the market and have an edge over the competitors.
So when Apple launches the IOS with the Apple Iphone and Ipad, Samsung launches the Galaxy
and the Edge series as well as Galaxy tablets, and the other competitors soon catch up, all the time
promoting the top players to keep searching for new technologies so that they can remain
competitive.
7) Economic climate
The Economic climate is such that a new guy, with a new idea and an experience to implement
that idea, can become rich. The idea of a positive economic climate enables the creation of jobs
and generation of revenue but at the cost of old participants of the market. For examples Safe Boda,
Bolt, Uber among other apps have created a lot of jobs and a convenient transportation source at
the expense of taxi drivers. This creates a healthy competition between the old players and new
participants of the market through the creation of promotions and discounts to attract buyers.
In conclusion, organizations are drawn to competition in order to attract demanders and
have an edge over competitors in the society. Competition can be encouraged due to the uniqueness
of the product or service, the willingness of the demanders to pay, commitment of the participants
to accomplishing the common goal and technology. It is important for organizations to take note
of the form competitive environment they are so as to strategically make decisions.
QUESTION 8

Discuss some of the new developments in leadership theory related to spirituality and the need for
greater flexibility today.

Brief Abstract

Leadership is a very crucial role in our societies as it determines the efficiency of any given
organization. Leadership theories don’t only exist in history, they are concepts with actionable
advice that can be adopted by many from executive managers to community leaders and
government officials. The new developments in leadership theory related to spirituality are
transformational and charismatic, Leader-member exchange and servant leadership theories. (The
complete leader, n.d.)

Introduction

Leadership is defined as “a process by which a person influences other people to accomplish

objectives or a goal, by guiding them to ensure a cohesive and coherent direction” (Northhouse,
2007).
Spirituality in leadership is a holistic approach to leadership in which the leadership thrives to
encourage a sense of significance and interconnectedness among employees. Spiritual leadership
involves the application of spiritual values and principles to workplace (Reference for Bussiness,
n.d.).
Flexibility in leadership is the agility in adapting to change. Flexible leaders have the ability to
change their plans to match the reality of the situation. As a result, they maintain productivity
during transitions or periods of chaos (The complete leader, n.d.).

Leadership theories

Leadership theories are schools of thought brought forward to explain how and why certain
individuals become leaders. The theories emphasize traits and behaviours that individuals can
adopt to boost their own leadership abilities. Early studies on psychology pointed to the facts that
leadership skills are inherent abilities that individuals are born with. (Leadership Theories, n.d.)
A number of leadership theories have been introduced over the years to explain exactly how and
why some people become great leaders. Five key leadership theories are explained below.
• Great Man Theory
According to the great man theory, leaders are born with just the right traits and abilities for
leading. These abilities are; charisma, intellect, confidence, communication skills and social skills.
The theory defines leaders as valiant, mythic and ordained to rise to leadership when the situation
arises.
• Trait Theory.
The trait theory is very similar to the great man theory. It is founded on the characteristics of
different leaders, both successful and unsuccessful. The identified characteristics are compared to
those of potential leaders to determine their likelihood of leading effectively.
• Contingency theory.
The contingency theory emphasises different variables in a specific setting that determine the style
of leadership best suited for the said situation. It is founded on the principle that no one leadership
style is applicable to all situations and suggests that a great leader is a combination of many key
variables.
• Situational theory.
The situational theory is similar to the contingency theory as it also proposes that no one leadership
style supersedes others. The theory implies that leadership depends on the situation at hand and
that leaders should always correspond their leadership to the respective situation by assessing
certain variables such as the type of task, nature of followers and more.
• Behavioural theory.
In behavioural theory, the focus is on the specific behaviours and actions of the leaders rather than
their traits or characteristics. The theory suggests that effective leadership is a result of many
learned skills.

Leadership theories related to spirituality

Although there is little if any empirical evidence that any particular leadership approach or style
would be more or less consistent with spirituality in the workplace, three leadership approaches
seem to be more closely related to the concept of spiritual leadership than others: transformational
and charismatic, servant leadership and Leader-member exchange theories.

1. Transformational and charismatic leadership theory

Beginning in the 1970s, a number of leadership theories emerged that focus on the importance of
the leaders charisma to leadership effectiveness. Included within this class of theories are House’s
theory of charismatic leadership, Bass’s transformation leadership theory, and Conger and
Kanungo’s charismatic leadership theory.

These theories have much in common; they all focus on attempting to explain how leaders can
accomplish extraordinary things against the odds, such as turning around the failing company,
founding a successful company or achieving great military success against incredible odds. The
theories also emphasize the importance of leaders inspiring subordinates’ admiration, dedication,
and unquestioned loyalty through articulating a clear and compelling vision.

2. Servant leadership

Building on the work on Greenleaf (1991), Spears (2004), listed ten characteristics representing a
servant leader: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight,
stewardship, commitment, and building community. Russell and Stone (2002) reviewed the
literature on servant leadership, distinguishing such leadership into two broad categories:
functional and accompany attributes.

Functional attributes include having vision, being honest, trustworthy, service oriented, a role
model, demonstrating appreciation of others service and empowerment.

In terms of accompany attributes, servant leaders a described as good communicators and listeners,
credible, competent, encouraging of others, teachers, and delegators.

In general, the limited empirical research on servant leadership has shown that it is positively
related to follower satisfaction, their job satisfaction, intrinsic work satisfaction, caring for the
safety of others, and organizational commitment. Joseph & Winston (2005) examined the
relationship between employee perceptions of servant leadership and organizational trust, and
reported a positive relationship with both trust in the leader as well as trust in one’s organization.
Washington et al. (2006) examined the relationship between servant leadership and the leader’s
values of empathy, integrity, competence, and agreeableness, and reported that “followers’ ratings
of leaders’ servant leadership were positively related to followers’ ratings of leaders’ values of
empathy, integrity, and competence”

3. Leader-member exchange theory(LMX)

Leader-member exchange theory was initially called the vertical dyad linkage theory. The theory
was introduced by George Graen and various colleagues in the 1970s and has been revised and
refined in the years since. LMX theory emphasises that the dyadic i.e. one on one relationships
between leaders and individual subordinates, instead of the traits or behaviours of leaders or
situational characteristics.

Need for greater flexibility today

Research on leadership and management during the past several decades provide strong evidence
that flexibility, adaptive leadership is essential for most managers. The evidence comes from
several different types of research and many different theories. Flexible, adaptive leadership is
especially important when there is substantial change in situation and the leadership behaviours
that are relevant for it. Differences in the situation occur within the same position, when a person
is transitioning to a different leadership position, or when major changes are made in the current
position (reorganization, merger).

The research on workplace spirituality also now includes a focus on spiritual leadership—defined
as “comprising the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are necessary to intrinsically motivate
one’s self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and
membership”.

Conclusion

Basing on the facts lain out through research and unanswered questions, such as the one above, we
concluded that Leaders are made and not born; because leadership as a skill can be learned (Giulio,
2015), especially by committed individuals who display an interest in doing so.
QUESTION 9
JUSTIFICATION FOR THE EXISTENCE OF BOTH MANAGERS AND LEADERS IN THE
OPERATIONS OF THE ORGANIZATION.
Leadership and management are the terms that are often considered synonymous. It is essential to
understand that leadership is an essential part of effective management. As a crucial component of
management, remarkable leadership behaviour stresses upon building an environment in which
each and every employee develops and excels. Influence and inspiration separate leaders from
managers, not power and control
The organizations which are over managed and under-led do not perform up to the benchmark.
Leadership accompanied by management sets a new direction and makes efficient use of resources
to achieve it. Both leadership and management are essential for individual as well as organizational
success. (Juneja, 2015).
Leadership is defined as the potential to influence and drive the group efforts towards the
accomplishment of goals. This influence may originate from formal sources, such as that provided
by acquisition of managerial position in an organization.
South African President Nelson Mandela demonstrated remarkable leadership qualities, including
advocacy for peace, powerful presence that disarmed enemies with his smile, high level of
forgiveness, positive thinking, ability to see the big picture, focus on goals and missions beyond
himself, remarkable endurance, grit and determination, humility, hopefulness and patience. Well,
these and other perspectives, like politics, religion, economics, society, morale and ethics, play a
vital role in the process of opinions and thoughts required to become a great leader who can change
and lead people to a better future. Mandela and other revolutionary leaders, as well as their
leadership styles, motivate and inspire the public with action.
Management consists of controlling a group or a set of entities to accomplish a goal. A manager
must have traits of a leader, i.e., he must possess leadership qualities. Leaders develop and begin
strategies that build and sustain competitive advantage. Organizations require robust leadership
and robust management for optimal performance.
Prof. Emmanuel Tumusiime-Mutebile has served as Governor and Chairman of the Board of
Directors of the Bank of Uganda since 2001 to date.
A seasoned professional economist and reformer, he spearheaded the design and implementation
of the Economic Reform Program that restored Uganda from the economic
crises of the 1970s and 1980s to sound economic performance during his service as the Permanent
Secretary/Secretary to the Treasury in the ministry responsible for finance, planning, and economic
development. The rapid growth of Uganda’s economy and the banking sector has been largely due
to his good management skills
IMPORTANCE OF LEADERS IN AN ORGANIZATION
1. Coach. As a leader has a responsibility and need to develop others to succeed in their roles and
prepare for future roles.
2. Facilitator. The leader makes things easier for others. While we might think of this most often
in a meeting or group situation, there are many times when you will serve as facilitator to help
processes flow better and boost productivity.
3. Strategist. This role isn’t just for the highest-level leaders in an organization. All leaders must
think strategically, keep the big picture in mind, and plot what directions and approaches the team
should use to reach the desired results.
4. Visionary. Related to strategy, leaders have a picture of where they are heading and why that
destination matters to the organization, their team and themselves.
5. Change agent. With strategy and vision comes the ever-present need for change. A leader guides
and champions the changes that you envision and the ones that have been entrusted to you from
up the ladder.
6. Decision-maker. You want others to engage and offer their feedback. However, as a leader, you
will need to be decisive and make the hard choices. You can’t be afraid to make a decision, even
when you are working with less-than-perfect information or you must make one that will be
unpopular.
7. Influencer. Call it mediation or negation or even arbitration, but this role is really about
influence. A leader constantly influences others in a positive way.
8. Team player. You can’t always take the lead. You need to be a teammate, too, and that means
understanding when to step out of your leadership role and let others take the lead.
9. Delegator. You can’t do it all. The best leaders delegate both willingly and strategically to ensure
everything is done and to train their employees to take on bigger roles in the organization.

10. Listener. Leaders often think they need to be doing all the talking, but that is a mistake. In fact,
the best leaders talk less, and ask, listen, and observe more. Make sure you really listen to the
people you lead

IMPORTANCE OF MANAGERS IN AN ORGANIZATION

1. Figurehead – As a manager, you have social, ceremonial and legal responsibilities. You're
expected to be a source of inspiration. People look up to you as a person with authority, and as a
figurehead.
2. Leader – This is where you provide leadership for your team, your department or perhaps your
entire organization; and it's where you manage the performance and responsibilities of everyone
in the group.
3. Liaison – Managers communicate with internal and external contacts. You need to be able to
network effectively on behalf of your organization
4. Monitor – In this role, the manager regularly seeks out information related to your organization
and industry, looking for relevant changes in the environment. You also monitor your team, in
terms of both their productivity, and their well-being.
5. Disseminator – This is where the manager communicates potentially useful information to your
colleagues and your team.
6. Spokesperson – Managers represent and speak for their organization. In this role, you're
responsible for transmitting information about your organization and its goals to the people outside
it.
7. Entrepreneur – As a manager, you create and control change within the organization. This means
solving problems, generating new ideas, and implementing them.
8. Disturbance Handler – When an organization or team hits an unexpected roadblock, it's the
manager who must take charge. You also need to help mediate disputes within it.
9. Resource Allocator – You'll also need to determine where organizational resources are best
applied. This involves allocating funding, as well as assigning staff and other organizational
resources.
10. Negotiator – You may be needed to take part in, and direct, important negotiations within your
team, department, or organization.

Leadership differs from management in a sense that:

1. While managers lay down the structure and delegates authority and responsibility, leaders
provide direction by developing the organizational vision and communicating it to the employees
and inspiring them to achieve it.
2. While management includes focus on planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling;
leadership is mainly a part of directing function of management. Leaders focus on listening,
building relationships, teamwork, inspiring, motivating and persuading the followers.
3. While a leader gets his authority from his followers, a manager gets his authority by virtue of
his position in the organization.
4. While managers follow the organization’s policies and procedure, the leaders follow their own
instinct.
5. Management is more of science as the managers are exact, planned, standard, logical and more
of mind. Leadership, on the other hand, is an art. In an organization, if the managers are required,
then leaders are a must/essential.
6. While management deals with the technical dimension in an organization or the job content;
leadership deals with the people aspect in an organization.
7. While management measures/evaluates people by their name, past records, present
performance; leadership sees and evaluates individuals as having potential for things that can’t be
measured, i.e., it deals with future and the performance of people if their potential is fully extracted.
8. If management is reactive, leadership is proactive.
9. Management is based more on written communication, while leadership is based more on verbal
communication.

In conclusion, the different roles of a manager and the leader are discussed separately for
convenience, they are in fact inseparable. Both of them perform these roles simultaneously by
integrating one with the another in the decision-making process.