9.

0 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY

Making things from wood is one of the oldest occupations in the world. In the past, the carpenter
and joiner was the most important person in the house building Industry being the designer, builder
and furnisher of the home. He cut his material direct from the tree, fashioning it to size and shape
on site. At a workshop bench, a joiner can make a great range of components: door and screens,
windows and stairs to name a few. On site, a carpenter will be involved in the construction of a
building, building partitions, floors, roofs and the installation of the components made by the
joiner.

Joinery
This can vary from the flow production where one product such as flush doors is being made
usually with the aid of purpose designed and built machines, to batch production where a limited
number of similar items are being made with the aid of conventional woodworking machines.
Purpose made joinery is very often largely hand made with a limited use of machines and is
considered when special and/or high class joinery components are required.

Purpose Made Joinery items in the form of doors, windows, and stairs and cupboard fitments can
be purchased as stock items from manufacturers. There is also a need for purpose made joinery to
fulfil client/designer/user requirement to suit a specific need, to fit into a non-standard space, as a
specific décor requirement or to complement a particular internal environment. These purpose
made joinery items can range from the simple to the complex which require high degrees of
workshop and site skills.

9.1 BASIC CARPENTRY AND JOINERY TERMS

Section The breadth, thickness and length of a material e.g. 100 x 50 x 2400 mm
size indicates a piece of timber that is 100 mm wide, 50mm thick and 2400 mm long.
Stitch This is a technique where the nail is almost driven in but the head is left protruding
Nailing to allow the nail to be easily removed. This technique is used when a piece of
timber is to be temporarily fixed or is held in position until the carpenter and joiner
is happy that it is correctly positioned.
Bevel A single angled cut on a piece of timber.
Level When a piece of timber is perfectly horizontal it is said to be level.
Plumb When a piece of timber is vertical (90° to the horizontal) it is said to be plumb.
Mitre This is a joint used when 2 pieces of timber are to be joined together to form a
90° angle. The mitre is when each piece is cut at 45°.

9.2 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

There is a wide range of tools in a carpenter and joiner’s tool kit.

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 A. Measuring tools
Measuring tools are used either to transfer measurements from one item to another or for
checking pre-stated sizes.

 Scale rule
Helps to take sizes from or enter sizes on to a drawing – one must familiarize oneself with methods
of enlarging or reducing measurements accordingly. It is essential to remember that all sizes stated
and labelled on working drawings, will be true full sizes, but for practical reasons these sizes will,
in some cases, have to be proportionally reduced to suit various paper sizes by using one of the
following scales: 1:2 (half full size), 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:1250, 1:2500.

 Four-fold metre rule:

This rule should have top priority on your list of tools. Not only is it capable of accurate
measurement, it is also very adaptable.

 Flexible steel tapes

These tapes retract on to a small enclosed spring-
loaded drum and are pulled out and either pushed
back in or have an automatic return which can be
stopped at any distance within the limit of the tape’s
length. This type of tool is an invaluable asset,
particularly when involved in site work, as it fits
easily in the pocket or clips over the belt.

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 B. Setting-out, marking-out & marking-off tools
Setting out involves redrawing various full-size sections through all the components necessary for
the construction, to enable the joiner to visualize all the joint details etc. and make any adjustments
to section sizes.
i. Setting-out bench equipment

Setting-out is done on what is known as a rod. A rod may be a sheet of paper, hardboard, plywood,
or a board of timber. Setting-out will involve the use of some, if not all, of the following tools and
equipment;

a scale rule
a straight-edge (400–1000 mm),
a four-fold metre rule
precision metal rules
drafting tape, drawing-board clips,
or drawing pins,
an HB pencil,
a try-square
a combination square
dividers
compasses – can be used as dividers
a trammel – used with a trammel The advantage of the folding rule over a rigid
bar for scribing large circles or arcs rule is that it closes or folds from 1 metre down
etc. – one of the scribers can be to 250mm by means of hinges therefore is more
replaced with a pencil easily transported by the joiner.

Marking-off involves the transfer of rod dimensions on to the pieces of timber and/or other
materials needed. Once all the material has been reduced to size (as per the cutting list) and checked
to see that its face side is not twisted and that all the face edges are square with their respective
face sides, the marking-off process can begin.
ii. Try-squares

These (try) test pieces of timber for squareness or for

marking lines at right angles from either a face side or a
face edge. It can also be used to check if the bottom of a
joint is level.

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 iii. Combination square

This can be used as a try-square, but has the added

advantage of being very versatile. For example, as a
mitre square, marking and testing angles of 450, height
gauge, depth gauge, marking gauge, spirit-level (some
models only), and as a rule.

iv. Cutting gauge: This is used to cut across the fibres of timber. It therefore has a similar
function to that of a marking knife.
v. Site measuring tools: For example:
long tape measures – measuring long distances
site squares – setting-out large angles
Levels-spirit levels (for checking lines both horizontally and vertically), water
levels (setting-out and checking lines and heights horizontally), optical levels
(setting out and checking lines and heights horizontally).
C. Saws
Saws are designed to cut both along and across the grain of wood, and the saw’s efficiency will
be determined by

the type and choice of saw,

the saw’s condition,
the application,
the material being cut.
The way the saw is used will depend on the following factors:

the type and condition of the wood being cut,

the direction of cut – ripping or cross-cutting,
The location – bench work or site work.

The emphasis should be on safety, i.e. the position of hands and blades and body balance etc. The
position of the fore finger should be clear of the saw and the arm and shoulder should be in line
with the saw blade.

D. Planes
There are many types of planes. All are capable of cutting wood by
producing shavings, but not all are designed to produce plane flat
surfaces as the name implies. A smoothing plane is the type most
woodworkers will have in their tool kit and can be used to dress or
reduce the size of timber

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 E. Boring tools
Boring tools are those tools that enable the cutting of circular holes of a predetermined size into
and below the surface of a given material. They can be divided into three groups;-standard bits,
special bits, and drills.

F. Chisels (wood)
Woodcutting chisels are designed to meet either general or specific cutting requirements.

Chisels can be divided into two groups, those that cut by paring
(This simply means the act of cutting thin slices of wood – either
across end grain or across the grain’s length. Chisels used for this
purpose are slender and designed for easy handling), and chopping
(Chisels used for this purpose are more robust than paring chisels,
to withstand being struck by a mallet. Their main function is to cut
(chop) through end grain – usually to form an opening or mortise
hole to receive a tenon; hence the common name mortise chisel).

G. Shaping tools
All cutting tools can be regarded as shaping tools. The commonest is the axe. Provided an axe is
used correctly, i.e. always keeping fingers and body behind its cutting edge, it can be a highly
efficient tool – invaluable to the site worker for quick removal of waste wood or for cutting wedges.

H. Driving (Impelling) tools

These tools have been designed to apply a striking or turning force to fixing devices or cutting
tools. For example;
hammers – striking,
Punches
Mallets-striking
Screw drivers: The type and size of screwdriver used should relate not only to the type and
size of screw but also to the speed of application and the location and quality of the work.

I. Lever & withdrawing tools

A claw hammer can be a very effective tool for withdrawing small
to medium-sized nails. Used to drive in and remove nails from
timber and to aid knocking together frames. But where heavy
application is required in withdrawing connectors, using a
wrecking or pincers can provide extra leverage.

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 J. Finishing tools & abrasives
The final cleaning-up process is determined by whether the grain of the wood is to receive a
transparent protective coating or is to be obscured by paint. In the former case, treatment will
depend on the type and species of wood, whereas the treatment for painting is common to most
woods.

Hardwood is usually given a transparent protective coating. Unfortunately, the grain pattern of
many hardwoods makes them difficult to work – planing often results in torn or ragged grain. A
scraper can resolve this problem, and should be used before finally rubbing down the surface with
abrasive paper.

Scrapers: These are pieces of hardened steel sheet, the edges of which have been turned to
form a cutting edge. Scrapers are slightly bent during use, to avoid digging their sharp
corners into the wood.
Sanding: The application of abrasive-coated paper or cloth to the surface of wood. There
are several kinds of grit used in the manufacture of abrasive sheets, the three most popular
being glass, garnet, and aluminium oxide.

K. Holding equipment and devices

Holding tools are general-purpose mechanical aids used in the preparation and assembly of timber
components.
Joiner’s bench vice
Cramps
Bench stops

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9.3 CARE, SAFETY AND MAINTENANCE OF TOOLS,
9.3.1 Storage
No matter what means of storage is chosen, the most important factors to consider about a
container, are that each item is housed separately or is individually protected from being knocked
against another, and that all cutting edges are enclosed or sheathed in some way. Of course the
body of the tool must also be protected from damage – unfortunately many joiners seem to regard
this form of protection as secondary.

All tools should be restricted from any movement when being stored, particularly if they are to be
transported. (The cutting edges and sharp points are the most vulnerable to damage.)
Planes: All planes should have the cutting face of their blades retracted before storage

Saws: It is important that saws are kept clean (free from rust) and sharp at all times. Dull or blunt
teeth not only reduce the efficiency of the saw, but also render it potentially dangerous. For
example, insufficient set could cause the saw to jam in its own kerf and then buckle, or even break.
Where box protection is not available, a saw bag made from a strong material is a good alternative.
In both cases the teeth will still need protecting – protection can be provided by plastic sheaths.

Axes: must be kept sharp however, and at the finish of each operation the blade must be protected
with a thick leather sheath.

Chisels – most new chisels are now provided with a plastics end cover (sheath) by their
manufacturer to safely protect the cutting edge of each blade. Where chisels are not racked or
safely compartmentalized, a strong purpose made chisel roll is a useful storage alternative.
Twist bits – end protection is essential – plastic sheathes are available.

Containing fixings: Ideally all the different types and sizes of fixing should be kept separate.
Screws are boxed and labelled according to gauge, size, head style and finish etc., so all that is
required is a tray or box to contain them. Nails on the other hand are usually bought in bulk
therefore these need to be moved to smaller containers according to size. On site, nails tend to get
mixed up so a compartmentalized nail tray should be considered. The site joiner frequently
acquires an assortment of different sized nails and screws.

9.3.2 Tool maintenance

Of all the common cutting tools mentioned, only saws are purchased ready for use – the remainder
will need sharpening. Once tools have been sharpened, it is only a question of time before they
become dull (blunt) again. Some makes of tools dull much quicker than others, due to the quality
of steel used to make their blade or cutter, but general dulling is caused either by the type of work
or by the abrasive nature of the material being cut. However, other contributory factors include
foreign bodies encased in the material being cut, for example hidden nails or screws. Keeping
tools sharp will require varying amounts of skill in the use and maintenance of those tools.

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Try squares: It is advisable periodically to test the try-square for squareness. Misalignment could
be due to misuse or accidentally dropping the try-square on to the floor.

Grinding machines – every time a blade is sharpened, part of its grinding angle is worn away,
making sharpening more difficult. The grinding angle must therefore be re-formed by machine.

Screw drivers: These are probably the most misused of all hand tools. They have been known to
be used as levers, chisels, and scrapers. This is not only bad practice; it is also dangerous. Points
do, however, become misshapenned after long service, even with correct use. The point should be
re-formed to suit the screw eye by filing (using a fine-cut file), rubbing over an oilstone, or
regrinding.

Hammers: The face of your nail hammers should always be free of dirt, oil, grease or resin picked
up from timber. Signs that a hammer needs this treatment are usually when the hammer slides from
the nail it is striking. Should a wood shaft show signs of damage it should be replaced. A fractured
shaft or loose head can be very dangerous.

9.4 WOOD WORKING MACHINES, OPERATION AND SAFETY

Except for the portable electric tools such as drills, most woodworking machines need to be fixed
to a solid base and connected to an extractor system to extract and collect the sawdust and
chippings produced by the machines.
Undoubtedly the most important aspect of any woodworking machine is its safe use.

9.4.1 Crosscutting machines

These machines are designed to cut timber across its grain into predetermined lengths, with a
straight, angled or compound-angular (angled both ways) cut. However, its primary function is to
cut long lengths of timber into lengths that are more manageable.

The length of timber must always be fully supported at both the board back towards the fence,
trapping the saw blade. Because the operative may use one hand to hold timber against the fence
and the other to pull the saw, he must be constantly aware of the danger of a hand (particularly a
thumb) coming in line with the saw cut.

9.2.2 Hand feed circular saw benches

These are primarily used for resawing timber lengthwise in its width (ripping) or its depth (deep-
cutting or Deeping). They can vary the depth at which the blade projects above the saw bench
table.

9.4.2 Stability of Work Equipment

Work equipment must be stable in use. This may mean the bolting down of heavy machinery;
lockable castors for mobile machinery; or the addition of stabilisers/outriggers for support.

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9.5 TIMBERS FOR CARPENTRY AND JOINERY
Both hardwoods and softwoods can be used for joinery works. Softwoods can be selected for their
stability, durability and/or workability if the finish is to be painted but if it is left in its natural
colour with a sealing coat, the grain texture and appearance should be taken into consideration.
Hardwoods are usually left in their natural colour and treated with a protective clear sealer or polish
therefore texture, colour and grain pattern are important when selecting hardwoods for high class
joinery work.

The terms hardwood and softwood can be very confusing, as not all commercially classified
hardwoods are physically hard, or softwoods soft.

Typical Softwoods Suitable for Joinery work include:

a. Douglas fir: Has a straight grain. Colour is reddish brown to pink. Suitable for general
and high class joinery.
b. Redwood: It is a widely used softwood for general joinery work having good durability,
a straight grain and is reddish brown to straw in colour.
c. European Spruce: Similar to redwood but with a lower durability. It is pale yellow to
pinkish white in colour and is used mainly for basic framing work and simple internal
joinery.
d. Pine: durable softwood suitable for general joinery work.
e. Western Hemlock: durable softwood suitable for interior joinery work such as panelling.
f. Western Red Cedar: A straight grained timber suitable for flush doors and panel work.
Typical Hardwoods suitable for joinery works include

a) Beech: hard close grained timber with some silver grain in the predominately reddish
yellow to light brown colour.
b) Iroko: hard durable hardwood with a figured grain and is usually golden brown in colour.
c) Mahogany: interlocking grained hardwood with good durability. It has an attractive light
brown to deep red colour and is suitable for panelling and all high class joinery work.
d) Oak: very durable hardwood with a wide variety of grain patterns. It is usually a light
yellow brown to a warm brown in colour and is suitable for all forms of joinery but should
not be used in conjunction with ferrous metals due to the risk of staining caused by an
interaction of the two materials.
e) Teak: very strong and durable timber but hard to work. It is light golden brown to dark
golden yellow in colour which darkens with age and is suitable for high class joinery work
and laboratory fittings.

Whenever timber is incorporated as an item of joinery, a distinction is made as to which faces will
be visible after installation. BS EN 942 separates joinery timber into five classes according to
allowable knot size, and other factors such as, shakes, resin and bark pockets, discoloured
sapwood, exposed pith, and Ambrosia beetle damage as they appear on the visible face of joinery

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timber. Timber to be used for external joinery should either have an appropriate level of natural
durability or, suitably treated with a wood preservative.

TIMBER JOINTS
There are many different joints that the carpenter and joiner may use. Joints generally fall into
three categories and carry out the following functions:
Category Joint Function
Lengthening End To increase the effective length of timber
Widening Edge To increase the width of timber or board material
Framing Angle To terminate or to change direction

a) Lengthening joints-end joints:

Where timber is not long enough, a suitable end joint must be made. The type of joint used will
depend on the situation and end use.
 Lap joint: The two adjoining lengths of
timber are lapped at their ends.

 Butt Joint (cleated): Depending on whether

the joint is to be concealed or not, and the
required strength, a ‘single’ or ‘double’
cleat can be used

 Scarf joint: The one for structural use will

require a slope of 1 in 12 or less. The
second method incorporates a hook that
enables the joint to be tightened with
folding wedges.

 Laminated joint: By laminating

(overlapping) different lengths of timber
together with nails and/or glue, large long
lengths of timber can be manufactured.

 Finger joint: This is produced by machine,

then glued and assembled by controlled end
pressure. This is a useful method of using
up short ends and upgrading timber – after
the degraded portion or portions have been
removed, the remaining pieces are rejoined.

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  Half-lap & sloping halving joints: These
joints are also used as ‘Framing Joints’.
They can also be used for lengthening and
intersecting wallplates in floor and roof
construction.

b) Widening – edge joints

Whether the joint is to be permanent (glued), or flexible (dry joint – without the use of an
adhesive.), will depend on its location.
All edge glued joints enable a board’s width
to be increased. Examples of these joints
include:
Butt joints
dowelled joints
tongued joints
Loose tongued joints
slot-screwed joints

Whatever method of jointing is chosen, it is

always wise to try to visualise how a board
will react if subjected to moisture

c) Framing – angle joints

Joints used to form angles and/or junctions can be divided into the following groups:
● Housing: Often used in the construction of
shelf and cabinet units, partitions, and sectional
timber framed buildings.
● halving: These are used where timber members
are required either to cross or to lap each other.
● mortise and tenon,
● bridle,
● dowelled,
● notched and cogged,
● dovetail,

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 ● Mitre and scribe. Housing joints

FIXING DEVICES/CONNECTIONS
The decision as to how a piece of timber is fixed and which device to use is usually left to the
joiner – unless the designer states otherwise. Where the method of jointing and fixing are critical
to the stability of the structure and or its attachments, a structural engineer must be responsible for
its design, in which case the specification must be followed to the letter.

Generally, where ever fixing devices are to be used, the following factors should be kept in
mind;
location,
strength requirements,
resistance to corrosion,
appearance,
availability,
Cost.

Fixing devices can be broadly classified as:

a) Nails
Nails offer the quickest, simplest, and least expensive method of forming or securing a joint and,
provided the material being fixed is suitable, the nails are the correct type, size (length, and gauge),
and correctly positioned to avoid splitting, a satisfactory joint can be made.
b) Wood screws
Wood screws have a dual function – not only do they hold joints or articles together, they also act
as a permanent clamp, which in most cases can be removed later for either adjustment or
modification purposes.
c) Bolts (threaded)
d) Metal fixing plates
e) Plugs
f) Anchor bolts
g) Chemical fixings

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9.6 CONCRETE FORMWORK

Formwork is ‘ a mould or box into which wet concrete can be

poured and compacted so that it will flow and finally set to the
inner profile of the box or mould’.
Its purpose is to
contain freshly placed and compacted concrete until it has
gained enough strength to be self-supporting
to produce a concrete member of the required shape and
size
to produce the desired finish to the concrete

There are two distinct types of formwork:

a) Pre-cast formwork (mould boxes)
Used when concrete units are pre-cast by forming them in a mould, either at a convenient position
on site or under factory conditions to be used as and when required such as building blocks, paving
slabs, lintels, coping stones, kerbstones, sills,beams,Stairs or cladding.

The quality of pre-cast components will depend upon:

 The quality of the concrete and the way it is placed and vibrated in the moulds.
 The stiffness of the mould box, its dimensional accuracy, and the finish of the surface in
contact with the concrete. Open joints or poor detailing of the mould box will lead to poor
surface finishes on the finished product.

b) In situ formwork (Shuttering)

In this case formwork is assembled on site for casting elements that will form part of the structure
in their actual position relevant to the building such as: columns, walls, suspended floors and roofs,
steps and stairs.

9.6.1 Design of formwork

As wet concrete is a heavy semi-fluid material, its formwork must be capable of restraining not
only its mass but also its fluid pressure. The deeper the formwork, the greater the pressure it has
to bear. It is important to remember that the finished concrete surface will reflect the surface of its
formwork. For example, sawn timber will produce a textured finish, just as planed timber,
plywood, tempered hardboard or sheet steel, etc. will produce a smooth finish, provided their
surfaces do not adhere to the concrete, which may be the case unless they are pre-treated with some
form of release agent.

For reasons of economy, formwork (particularly mould boxes) can be re-used many times,
therefore initial design must include quick, simple, and in some cases mechanical methods of

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assembly and striking (dismantling) without undue damage, by such means as wedges, bolts,
cramps, and nails which can be easily redrawn without damaging the structure.

Formwork should be designed and suitably constructed to be capable of:

withstanding dead and live loads
Dead loads are static loads such as the weight of the formwork and wet concrete. The dead load
on the formwork due to the concrete and its steel reinforcement will become less as the concrete
hardens and becomes self-supporting.

Live loads are those which are imposed during the erection of the formwork and the placing of
concrete. They include the movement of the workforce, their materials, and equipment. Unlike
formwork used for suspended floor or roof slabs, which in the main is subjected to vertical loads,
formwork for columns, walls, and deep beams will have to resist varying degrees of lateral
(sideways) pressure as a result of the build up of concrete in its fluid state (fluidity is increased
during its compaction by vibration) within the confines of the formwork. Fluid pressure exerted
on the formwork can be compared to the pressure built-up under a head of water, known as
‘hydrostatic’ pressure.
being easily assembled and dismantled,
accurately producing or reproducing concrete items of correct size and shape,
producing the desired finish on the concrete face,
reusability for reasons of economy.

9.6.2 Insitu formwork

Forms consist of those parts of the formwork that come into contact with the concrete (sheeting)
together with their stiffening members, and they are often made up into panels. They will not be
strong enough to withstand the loads and pressures mentioned without added support.

Sheeting (sheathing) and form lining

Sheeting makes contact with the concrete. Form linings also contact the concrete but refer to those
materials applied or fixed to the inside face of the form to give the face of the concrete a special
finish. Sheeting materials include boards of timber, but in the main these have been superseded by
sheets of exterior (formwork-grade) plywood.

Preparing forms for concrete

Screw and nail holes which may affect the finish should be filled with a waterproof stopper.
Sheeting and lining cut edges should be sealed, and their surfaces should be clear of dirt, sawdust,
chippings, or any foreign matter which could affect the ‘keying’ (adhesion to kickers and
reinforcement) and setting qualities of the concrete. Deep formwork may require a purpose-made
clean-out hole.

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To prevent concrete sticking to the surface of the forms, a parting or release agent is used. Release
agents may be in the form of an oil (mould oil), an emulsion, or a synthetic resin or plastics
compound, the latter two may also require oil treatment. Treatment of this nature also increases
the life of the forms (reusability) and helps reduce the number of surface blemishes and ‘blow-
holes’ (holes left by pockets of air) appearing on the finished concrete.

Column formwork
This consists of a vertical mould of the desired shape and size which has to retain the wet concrete
and resist the initial hydrostatic pressure caused by the wet concrete. To keep the thickness of the
formwork material to a minimum, horizontal clamps or yokes are used at equal centres for batch
filling and at varying centres for complete filling in one pour. The head of the column formwork
can be used to support the incoming beam formwork which gives good top lateral restraint but
results in complex formwork.

Column forms are located at the bottom

around a 75 to 100 mm high concrete plinth
or kicker which has the dual function of
location and preventing grout loss from the
bottom of the column formwork.

Formwork must be securely anchored at its

base, to ensure that it does not move from its
appointed place during its construction or
while the concrete is being poured.

Wall forms
Wall forms are usually made up of pre-fabricated units or panels. Wall forms use ‘form ties’
‘walings’ (horizontal members), and/or ‘soldiers’ (vertical members) as well as raking props.

Beam forms
This is basically a three sided box supported and propped in the correct position and to the desired
level. The beam formwork sides have to retain the wet concrete in the required shape and be able
to withstand the initial hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete whereas the formwork soffit apart
from retaining the concrete has to support the initial load of the wet concrete and finally the set
concrete until it has gained sufficient strength to be self-supporting. It is essential that all joints in
the formwork are constructed to prevent the escape of grout which could result in honeycombing.

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 To avoid members
becoming trapped or
boxed-in, attention should
be paid to the sequence of
striking, particularly when
beam and slab formwork
are as one. Beam forms
may take their support
from ‘beam clamps’ (vice
mechanisms supported by
adjustable steel props)
‘head trees’ (strutted
bearers on top of props as),
and props, or suspended
steel hangers.

Suspended floor and roof formwork

Decking units (forms) are usually pre-

fabricated into standard sizes. These framed
panels, made up of joists and decking, are
positioned on to a pre-arranged assembly of
ledgers, props, and bracing. Provision must be
made for easy removal of all the formwork
from within the structure – sizes of openings
and doorways should be taken into account,
as these may be the only exit once the floor or
roof is cast. Either props of timber with
hardwood folding wedges for adjustment or
adjustable steel props, are used to give
support to the joists and decking (form)
against vertical loads.

9.6.3 Striking formwork

Formwork must not be removed from any structural concrete until the concrete is strong enough
to carry both its own weight and any weight which may be superimposed upon it. Approval to
strike formwork should come only from the engineer in charge of the project.

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 The period before striking formwork
depends on:
• The concrete used
• Weather and exposure of the site
• Any subsequent treatment to be
given to the concrete
• The method of curing and other
factors

Striking must be a gradual process carried out with care to avoid giving the concrete any sudden
shock. In the stages of formwork construction, provision should have been made for column forms
to be removed without disturbing beams and soffits, and beam side forms before soffits, etc. As
each form is struck, it should be de-nailed and cleaned, with any damage made good, then stacked
flat (out of twist) ready for retreatment and reuse.

9.6.4 Timber formwork

Advantages Disadvantages
more economic not enough strength as compared to steel formwork to
easy to handle and carry large pressure
formed into required excessive shrinkage due to temperature changes
shape leakage through joints and apertures
maximum reuse easily damaged during fixing and dismantling
easy to fix formwork
the pattern of grain, knots bad flaws will leave imprint
to the face of the concrete

9.6.5 Metal Formwork-Steel

Advantages Disadvantages
double used compared to timber limited to the
produces smooth concrete surface shape of the
able to carry large concrete weight and pressure structure
can be erected, dismantled, moved and re-erected rapidly standard steel unit
leakage can be avoided is heavy and
no shrinkage due to temperature changes difficult to handle
easy to fix joints with bolt and nut
economic if there are enough re-uses

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9.6.6. Formwork failures
Common failures of formwork are caused by:

dimensional inaccuracy
inadequate number of props
loss of material-ties or props incorrectly spaced
surface blemishes

9.7 WINDOWS
The main purpose of a window is to allow natural light to enter a building yet still exclude wind
and rain. Windows are also a means of providing ventilation when the glazed area is made to open.
An openable ‘light’ (a single glazed unit of a window) is called a ‘casement’ or ‘sash’ – hence the
term ‘casement window’ or ‘sash window’.

Functional requirements of windows:-

 A window must be aesthetically acceptable in the context of building design and
surrounding environment
 Durability
 Acceptable thermal and sound insulation properties
 Weather tightness when the openings are closed

Windows should be selected or designed to resist wind loadings, be easy to clean and provide for
safety and security. They should be sited to provide visual contact with the outside.

WINDOW PROFILES
Timber components of the window need to be profiled externally in such a way as to prevent
water penetrating the building through small gaps by the process of capillarity.

Failure to do so could result

in a high moisture content of
timber and its eventual
breakdown by moisture-
seeking fungi, not to
mention the many other
structural and
environmental effects
associated with dampness.

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 An opening light may operate
in many different ways, for
example, it may be swung,
tilted, turned, or slid; and in
some cases it may combine
more than one of these
operations to facilitate
cleaning or draught
prevention.

Single light casement windows

Generally, the frame will consist of a
head, jambs, and sill (or cill) for a simple
single-light casement window, but other
types, such as multi-light casement
windows, include Transoms and
Mullions.

Glass is not usually fixed until the window

is built into the structure, but its weight
must be taken into account with regard to
hinge and screw sizes.
Window frames can either be built into the fabric of the structure as the building progresses – in
a similar manner to door frames– or more commonly now fixed with screws and plugs into a pre-
formed opening after the main structure is built.

Sash windows
Both casement and sash windows are designed to house the glazing, but opening casements are
hinged, whereas sashes slide open. Double-hung sash windows consist of two vertical sliding
sashes, one offset above the other. Both sashes are counterbalanced at each side either by a weight,
suspended by a line (cord or chain), or by a spring balance mechanism.

Metal casement in wood surround

With the possible exception of some types of louvred windows, windows made of steel and
aluminium alloys are now generally fixed direct to masonry without a timber subframe, which in

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the case of aluminium-alloy windows was formerly thought necessary to avoid direct contact with
the alkaline components of mortar and concrete (especially when damp). However, with the use
of modern gaskets and sealants (chalking agents) the adverse reactions, which were previously
expected, now seem to be avoided

Glass louvred windows

With these windows,
glass blades 152 mm to
170 mm wide are slotted
into flanged clips at each
end, which pivot about a
frame with centres less
than the glass width so
that the blades overlap
one another
The number of blades can vary from one to fifteen and – depending upon the design – any
number of blades may be opened in unison.

GLASS AND GLAZING

Glass is produced by fusing together soda, lime and silica with other minor ingredients such as
magnesia and alumina.

Window glass may be clear, patterned or wired, for use as follows:

(a) Clear Float glass: this provides undistorted through vision.
(b) Patterned glass: this may be decorative and/or offer varying amounts of privacy, depending
on its obscurity.
(c) Wired-glass: this is used mainly where security is a factor or where a window contributes to
the fire resistance of the building structure. The glass will crack when subjected to excessive heat
but, because of the wire which is embedded within it, the whole pane will remain intact and planted
within its rebate much longer than ordinary glass.
(d) Fire protection: this special type of glass provides a barrier to smoke, hot gasses, and flame as
well as being an effective insulator against the heat of a blaze.
e) Toughened: this can be up to five times stronger that ordinary glass of the same thickness and
is used in areas where security and safety are important. When broken, it will break into relatively
small pieces, thus eliminating the possibility of cuts to the skin.
(f) Laminated: this is manufactured with two or more layers of polyvinylbutyral (PVB) between
the panes of glass to provide a reduction in noise and ensures that the glass, if broken, remains in
place.

The main factors to be considered while choosing which glass type to use are:-

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  Resistance to wind loadings.
 Clear vision required.
 Privacy
 Security
 Fire resistance
 Aesthetics.
Glazing is the act of fixing glass into a frame. In domestic work, this is usually achieved by locating
the glass in a rebate and securing it with putty or beading and should be carried out in accordance
with the recommendations contained in BS 6262: Glazing for buildings. Double Glazing is where
two layers of glass are used instead of the traditional single layer. Double glazing can be used to:-
 Reduce the rate of heat loss through windows and glazed doors. A small void between the
two glass layers is often left.
 Reduce the sound transmission through windows. The installation should be airtight and
the heavier the glass, the better the sound insulation.

WINDOW HARDWARE (IRONMONGERY)

a. hinges
b. Casement stays: face
fixed onto the bottom rail
with two pins secured to
the top edge of the sill, it
allows the sash to be
opened and secured in a
number of set positions.
c. Window fastener: secured
to the face of the sash
closing stile, with the
‘striking plate’ housed or
surfaced fixed to the
window jamb.

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9.8 DOMESTIC DOORS, FRAMES AND LININGS
Doors, door frames and linings are an integral part of a domestic building. The main functions of
any door are to:
 Provide a means of access and egress.
 Maintain continuity of wall function when closed.
 Provide a degree of privacy and security.

Doors are always hung in a frame; on hinges; with a latch or lock to keep the door closed, with
stops against which the door closes; sometimes with architraves to cover the joint between frame
and wall; and handles or ‘furniture’ with which to operate the latch and open and close the door.
There are many
different door designs
that may be
straightforward and
plain, or ones that
include panels, glazed
areas and even circular
headed. However,
whichever door is
selected it must suit the
dwelling and be
aesthetic in design.

The Choice of door type depends on:-

 Position: whether internal or external.
 Properties required: fire resistant, glazed to provide for borrowed light or vision through,
etc.
 Appearance: flush or panelled, painted or polished, etc.

Ledged braced and battened door

These types of doors (door leafs) are commonly used as exterior doors to outhouses, sheds, garages
(for pedestrian access). Provided they are made and fixed correctly, they will withstand a lot of
harsh treatment and remain serviceable for many years.

The face of the door is made up of V or beaded tongue-and-groove matchboard, known as

‘battens’. These are nailed or stapled to three horizontal members called ‘ledges’. These ledges are
held square to the battens by similarly fixing two diagonal pieces of timber called ‘braces’

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 A less expensive version
of this door is the ledged-
and-battened door. As its
name implies, it is built
without a brace – its
suitability therefore
relies entirely upon its
nailed construction,
which under normal
circumstances would
prove inadequate. It can
however, be used quite
satisfactory in small
openings or as a
temporary door

Door braces: The effectiveness of a brace is controlled by its

direction. If the door is to retain its shape, the brace must
always point away and in an upwards direction from the
hanging side (hinged side), otherwise the door could sag at the
closing side– hence the term ‘sag bar’ sometimes used when
referring to a brace.

Louvred doors
In most cases, the purpose of a louvre sited within a door is
to accommodate the need for permanent ventilation through
it.

Double margin doors

This type of door is used where an opening is too wide to
accommodate a normal size door and not wide enough for two
separate doors, which would otherwise look out of proportion.
For this reason a double margin door is used to give the Door sag(missing sag bar)
impression that there are two separate doors, but in fact there
is only one door.

Panelled doors
These consist of a softwood or hardwood outer framework housing one or more panels of solid
wood, manufactured boards, glass, or a combination thereof.

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 Double margin doors

DOOR HANGING
A door is not fixed or fitted or built in, it is hung, generally on hinges. The door is hung on two or
three hinges. Hinges are always referred to as being in ‘pairs’ so a door is hung on a ‘pair’ or a
‘pair and a half’ of hinges. Hinges are always screwed to door and frame.

Doors are used to seal off rooms or areas for security as well as for privacy even if the door is
slightly ajar. The door hanging side is determined by the architect’s floor plans where
consideration is given to the required maximum floor space and the area taken up by the door when
in the open position. Furthermore, the location of the light switch needs to be easily assessable
when entering the room.

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DOOR FRAMES
Door frames require a rebate to act as a door check, otherwise the door would swing through the
opening, straining the hinge and/or splitting the jamb. Door frames should be strong enough to
carry a door without receiving support from a wall and should usually arrive on site ready
assembled – with the exception of large openings.

If the frame is to be built into the structure, temporary propping will be needed. When the frame
has been accurately positioned– both level and plumb – the permanent securing process can
begin.

Typical internal door lining

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DOOR HARDWARE (IRONMONGERY)
In order for it to operate correctly, door hardware (often referred to as ‘ironmongery’) and is
available in a wide variety of materials, styles and finishes but will consist of essentially the
same components:-
1. Hinges or Butts: these are used to fix the door to its frame or lining and to enable it to
pivot about its hanging edge.
2. Locks, Latches and Bolts: the means of keeping the door in its closed position and
providing the required degree of security.
3. Door furniture: The handles and cover plates used in conjunction with locks and latches
4. Letter Plates: fitted in external doors to enable letters etc., to be deposited through the
door.

9.9 SKIRTING, DADO RAILS, ARCHITRAVES, PICTURE RAILS & COVER

MOULDINGS
Architraves and skirting boards have several functions including:-
(a) Concealing gaps which are likely to occur as a result of moisture or thermal movement from
abutting dissimilar materials
(b) Protecting plasterwork from the occasional knock at floor level by floor cleaning machines;
(c) Providing a decorative finish, and in some cases a decorative feature.

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Dado rails on the other hand can:

(a) Physically protect plasterwork at or about waist height when moving furniture or chairs up
against a wall;
(b) Serve solely as a decorative feature.

MOULDINGS (SHAPED SECTIONS)

If a painted finish is required, it can be most cost effective to use clear grades of softwood,
preferably Redwood (dead and large live knots must be avoided on the moulded portion). Medium
density fibreboard mouldings are a more modern and popular alternative, providing an
unblemished surface usually pre-painted as part of the manufacturing process. The use of
hardwood moulded profiles is usually reserved for small decorative features and finishes.
ARCHITRAVES
Architraves are more usually associated with forming a frame around internal door linings, but in
fact architraves are also used to frame wall and ceiling hatches and some window linings. In all
cases they cover the joint between the plasterwork and the wood lining or reveal.
The amount (linear metres) required for each door opening will depend on:

(a) The opening size (this will vary between door sizes. Beware of the term ‘Standard Opening
Size’ – always check before ordering).
(b) The width of the architrave (generally available from 50 to 75mm)

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(c) The condition of the architrave. This is very important, reject any lengths with severe defects,
such as large ‘dead knots’.

SKIRTING BOARDS
Skirting boards form a decorative finish between the wall and floor, and they offer protection to
the wall against everyday activities like vacuuming the carpet or sweeping the floor. Skirting
boards are generally fixed to walls by nailing through the face of a board.

RAILS AROUND A ROOM

The two rails commonly fixed around a room are the ‘dado’ and ‘picture rail’.
The dado rail can have two main functions:

 to divide the height of the room into two horizontal areas

 as a means of protecting the wall from being damaged from chair backs and wall furniture,
hence the reason for calling it a ‘chair wall rail’, or possibly a ‘waist rail’ because it is
usually situated at about waist height.

Originally, the primary function of the picture rail was to act as a bracket for a picture hook from
which a picture was hung – these could be very large and heavy so their fixings were very
important. Today, picture rails, just like dado rails, are often provided more as a decorative feature.

PREPARATION OF WOODWORK FOR PAINTING

The main objectives of applying coats of paint to a surface are preservation, protection and
decoration to give a finish which is easy to clean and maintain. To achieve these objectives the
surface preparation and paint application must be adequate. The preparation of new and previously
painted surfaces should ensure that prior to painting the surface is smooth, clean, dry and stable.

To ensure a good adhesion of the paint film, all timber should have a moisture content of less than
18%. The timber surface should be prepared using an abrasive paper to produce a smooth surface
brushed and wiped free of dust and any grease removed with a suitable spirit.

Careful treatment of knots is essential either by sealing with two coats of knotting or in extreme
cases cutting out the knot and replacing with sound timber. The stopping and filling of cracks and
fixing holes with putty or an appropriate filler should be carried out after the application of the
priming coat.

Each coat of paint must be allowed to dry hard and be rubbed down with a fine abrasive paper
before applying the next coat.

On previously painted surfaces if the paint is in a reasonable condition the surface will only require
cleaning and rubbing down before repainting. When the paint is in a poor condition, it will be

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necessary to remove completely the layers of paint and then prepare the surface as described above
for new timber.

Most of the Building Boards require no special preparation except for the application of a sealer
as specified by the manufacturer.

9.10 DOMESTIC STAIRS

The primary function of any stair is to provide safe access from one floor, or landing level, to
another.
Several aspects have
to be considered
when a stair is
designed, including:-
(a) The siting of the
proposed stair –
whether there is
enough room (this
requires accurate site
measurement);
(b) Suitable material
for the stair
members;
(c) The finished
appearance
(aesthetics).

Unless if it only
provides access to or
from a platform, or
balcony, the stair will
have to pass through
a floor in order to
reach its upper
landing. The opening
in the floor is called a
‘stairwell’.

Terminology
a. Stair: refers to a number of ‘steps’ together with any ‘balustrade’;

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 b. A step: consists of one ‘tread’ and its ‘riser’;
c. A flight: has a continuous number of steps from a floor or ’landing’
d. A balustrade: contains a handrail with an infilling between it and a ‘string, landing, or floor.
e. Going: the horizontal distance across the width of a tread from its nosing to the nosing of
the tread or landing above it.
f. Landing a floor or platform at the top or bottom of a flight or between flights.
g. Nosing: the front edge of a tread and/or landing –usually rounded or splayed.
h. Pitch: the slope of the stair (measured in degrees).
i. Rise: the vertical distance between the upper surface of a tread or landing and that of the
tread or landing immediately above or below it.
j. Tread: the top surface of a step.

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
Stair construction may be dealt with in the following sequence:

(ii) Setting-out; this is the most critical part of the job. Any inaccuracies at this stage could
result in the overall stair length being too long or too short and once the stair has been
assembled very little can be done to rectify any errors.
(iii) Preparation of stair members, i.e. strings, treads, risers (if used), newels, and handrails;
(iv) assembly of stair members;
(v) bottom step (if applicable);
(vi) Balustrades.

9.11 FABRICATION OF TIMBER TRUSSES AND BEAMS

Roof trusses are triangulated plane roof frames designed to give clear spans between the external
supporting walls. They are usually partially prefabricated off site and fixed to support purlins
which accept loads.

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Composite Beams

Fabricated softwood
box, lattice and plywood
beams are an economic
consideration for
medium spans. They are
produced with adequate
depth to resist deflection
and with sufficient
strength for spans into
double figures. The high
strength to weight ratio
and simple construction
provides advantages in
many situations
otherwise associated
with steel or reinforced
concrete, e.g. frames,
trusses, beams and
purlins in gymnasia,
workshops, garages,
churches, shops, etc.

9.12 LAYOUT OF A SIMPLE CARPENTRY & JOINERY WORKSHOP/PRODUCTION

UNIT.

Before any decision is made with regard to workshop layout, some, if not all of the following
factors should be considered:

 the size of firm

 the type of work
 the available space (a clear space of 900 mm plus the maximum length of material to be
handled should be allowed around three sides of every machine)
 the workforce – whether full-time wood machinists are to be employed
 the number and type of machines likely to be cost effective
 the methods of providing separate chip and dust extraction systems
 the provision for a self-contained tool room (for tool and machine maintenance)
 the storage and racking facilities

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  suitable and adequate lighting
 a suitable and sufficient power supply.
Ideally, for a machine shop to work with maximum efficiency, machines should not occupy
valuable space unless if they are used regularly or contribute towards a steady flow of jobs through
the workshop.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Always allow the blade/cutters to reach maximum speed before making a cut
Know the correct stance and posture for the operative.
Use an assistant as necessary.
Concentrate on the job – never become distracted while the machine is in motion
Never allow hands to travel near or over a blade/cutter while it is in motion
Never leave a machine until the blade/cutters are stationary
Always isolate the machine after use.
Ensure that dress and hair cannot become caught in moving parts or obstruct vision.
Finger rings should never be worn in a machine shop, for fear of directing splinters of
wood into the hand or crushing the finger if the hand becomes trapped.
Footwear should be sound with non-slip soles of adequate thickness and firm upper to
afford good toe protection.
Wear eye protection.
Wear ear protection

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