THE SKELETAL AND ARTICULAR SYSTEM New cartilage is continuously formed

Functions Older cartilage becomes ossified

1. Supports surrounding structures Bones are remodeled and lengthened until

growth stops
2. Protects vital visceral organs
Bones change shape
3. Gives attachment to the muscles and
provides leverage Bones grow in width

4. Produces blood cells (bone marrow)

5. Storage of mineral salts

Histology and Physiology of Bone

A. collagenous fibers: responsible for its
resilience

B. calcified ground substance: responsible for

its hardness

Mainly made up of calcium phosphate Hormonal Regulation

Small amounts of calcium carbonate are A. Parathyroid hormone

present also
Bone Cells
A. Osteoblasts: active in bone formation
B. Osteoclasts: active in bone resorption
C. Osteocytes: principal cells of mature bone
Bone Deposition and Resorption
Bones develop from cells (osteoblasts)
Osteoblasts secrete the organic components
of the matrix
Large cells osteoclasts are present in all
cavities of bone and they function to cause
resorption
Released when blood calcium level is low
*Increased: results to bone resorption
B. Calcitonin
Released when blood calcium level is high
Inhibits bone resoprtion
Types of Bone Tissue
A. Compact: dense and strong e.g. outer
surface of bones
B. Cancellous (spongy): with many spaces, red
bone marrow where hematopoiesis takes
place e.g. inside flat bones like in skull, sternum
and ribs

Osteocytes: are osteoblasts that are now Classification of Bones

surrounded by the bone matrix as the bone is
A. According to Shape
formed
B. According to Development
Bone Growth
A. According to Shape
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long
bone during childhood • 1. Long bones: consist of a shaft, or diaphysis
and two extremities, each called epiphysis
• e.g. humerus, radius, tibia and fibula Bones of upper extremities (64 including the
shoulder girdle)
• 2. Short bones: typified by the carpal bones
of the wrist and the tarsal bones of the ankle Bones of lower extremities (62 including the
pelvic girdle)
• 3. Flat bones: consist of two plates of
compact tissues enclosing a layer of spongy
bone • e.g. ribs, scapula, parts of hip bone
and bones of the skull

4. Irregular bones: comprises bones of peculiar

and differing shapes, such as the vertebrae
and the ossicles of the ear

5. Sesamoid bones: enclosed in tendon and

fascial tissue and are found adjacent to joints
e.g. patella

B. According to Development
1. Bones formed by Intramembranous
ossification

Involves the direct mineralization of dense

connective tissue membrane forming bones

e.g. flat bones of the cranium

2. Bones formed by endochondral ossification

Most bones are formed by the process of

endochondral ossification, the replacement of
cartilage by bone

Divisions of the Skeleton

A. Axial Skeleton
Consists of skull (28bones: 8 cranial, 14 facial, 6
ear ossicles), the hyoid bone, the vertebrae
(26bones), the ribs (24bones) and the sternum

B. Appendicular Skeleton
 Area of union between 2 or more bones

Types of Joints

1. Fibrous joints: fibrous connective tissue holds

the bones together

Immovable and called as Synarthroses e.g.

suture

2. Cartilagenous joints: cartilage holds the

bones together

Slightly moveable called as Amphiarthroses

e.g. symphysis pubis, intervertebral disk

3. Synovial joints: a cavity with fluid found

between bones

Freely moveable and called as Diarthroses

e.g. most joints in the body like in the
extremities

Synovial Joints
1. Ball and socket: allows movement in many
directions

e.g. shoulder joint

2. Hinge: allows movement in one direction

e.g. elbow and knee joints

3. Pivot: allows rotation around length of bone

e.g. atlantoaxial joint

4. Condyloid: allows movement in 2 directions

e.g. wrist joint

5. Saddle: like condyloid only with deeper

articulating surface

e.g. carpometacarpal joint of the thumb

6. Gliding: bones slide over one another

e.g. carpal and tarsal joints

CLINICAL CORRELATION

. FRACTURE
Break in a bone or cartilage
JOINTS (ARTHROSES)
Can be simple or compound depending on C. Degenerative joint disease comes from
whether or not the skin is broken prolonged wear and tear of joints

2. VERTEBRAL COLUM INJURIES D. Primary fibrositis (Rheumatism or Lumbago)

in the lower back region is an inflammation of
A. Exaggerations of the spinal curvature
the fibrous connective tissue of joints
Kyphosis: when posterior curvature is
E. Tenosynovitis: tendon sheaths become
accentuated in thoracic area
inflamed and may deter movement of the
Lordosis: when anterior curvature is involved joints
accentuated in lumbar region
CLINICAL FORMS OF ARTHRITIS
Scoliosis: when there is a lateral curvature and
• Osteoarthritis
rotation of vertebrae
• Most common chronic arthritis
B. Herniated intervertebral disk when the outer
covering ruptures owing trauma and the inner • Rheumatoid arthritis
core protrudes usually postero-laterally
• An autoimmune disease – the immune
towards the vertebral canal
system attacks the joints

• Often leads to deformities

• Gouty Arthritis

• inflammation of joints is caused by a

deposition of urate crystals from the blood

3. DISORDERS OF JOINTS
A, Bursitis: inflammation of the synovial bursa

B. Arthritis: inflammation of joints