86 Work Sdy and Ergonomics

0ccur at the end of the shift. e.g. cleaning allowance is given while an operator has s
repeatedly for cleaning his machine or workplace. Atool allowance is given to to give
funing and repairs of tools. COver up the fine. attention
I is generally preferedto give allthese allowances as aperiod of ftime per day
them withinthestandard times. Typically. it is better asit has an advantage ofrather than
drawing therepresenting
of the managementtowards the amount of time being given to these
will be effort to reduce the same. activities: consequentlatyt,entthioeren
Some of the allowances are usually set perchance or per lot, e.g., set-up
up the time needed to set up a machine, cquipment or production allowanceis
i
given to cover
process, a necessary
start the production of abatch of a new product or component. This set-up time
is operation
to
as make-ready time: its contrary is called as tear-down or sometimes
dismantling time, which iS given, totermed
up the time required for doing adjustments and changesto machine or cover
production run. e.g..changing adie. Extremely alike is the change-overprocesS settingssafter finishing a
provided to the allowance, which is normalu
operators who are not truly occupied in setting-up or dismantling. Hence it is to
reimburse operators for the time spent on necessary activities or may be
the given
and/or the ending of a job or batch. These allowances are termed as waiting time at beginnino
There is another allowance, called as learning job/batch change-over allowances
allowances, which is
occupied in activities or jobs having set standard times. It is provided as agiven to the trainee workers
trainees can develop their skills. Similarly we have a training temporary benefit while the
worker to compensate his training period. These are given asallowance
some
which given to an experienced
scale so that the allowances taper off to zero over the minutes per hour, on a declining
Very similar is an implementation allowance, given to
expected learning period.
workers asked to adopt a new ways and
prevent their loss of earnings by doing so. In fact, it is sometimes
actually be increased during the change-over period, so as to enablearranged that their earnings will
the new method to encourage
them to implement enthusiastically and prevent their down
earnings. For example, one system of
implementation allowances credits the workers with ten minutes per hour on the first day, nine on
the second, and so on, down to zero.

4.16. Calculations of Standard Time

In general practice, the time study engineer will end up with
the calculation of allowed time: the
allowed time is calculated by adding the percentage of rest
special allowance, in basic or normal time: however, the allowance, process allowance ad ue
the decision of the management. Therefore,
addition of policy allowance iS Ielt
standard time may be defined as the amount of t
required to complete aunit of work under existing working conditions, using the
and machinery, by a qualified worker or operator who is speciftied eu
and at a standard pace.
able to do the work in a proper a
Thesequence wise calculations of basic/normal time. allowed time
as follows:
and standard time are dei

4.16.1. Basic time

It is the time required to perform atask by a normal operator working at a standard pace (rate) with
no allowances for personal delays,
unavoidable delays, or fatigue.
Basic Time (Normal Time) = Observed Time x Observed Rating i.c.,
Standard Rating(100)
 Work Measurement 87

BT (or NT) = 0T x OR
i.e. OT x OR = BTx SR
SR(100)
Dacie(Normal) Time can be
represented as = (Observed Time) x Rating factor in %
100
Pating factor (RF) is in percentage like if observed rating is 90
per cent, RF =0.9, if rating is 110
per cent then R.F = 1.10
where, BT:Basic time
NT: Normal time
0T: the observed time with the
OR: Observed rating
stopwatch
SR: Standard rating

4.16.2. Allowed time

Itis the time obtained by adding the
percentage of rest
allowance, in basic or normal time. It can be calculatedallowance,
as:
process allowance, and the special

Allowed Time = (Normal Time) xl1+ Allowances in %

100
4.16.3. Standard time
When all the rest allowances are considered alone, then it is
called
calculation of the same is illustrated in the example given ahead. It sustained
is
performance time, the
allowance to the allowed time. obtained by adding the policy

Standard Time (ST) = (Allowed Time) x 1+ Policy Allowances in %

100
Thus the standard time is ultimately determined from the
'observed time' noted from the stopwatch
time study or alternately it can be represented as follows:
Standard Time (ST) =(Normal Time x Allowance factor)
where, Allowance factor
=-Allowances in %
Note: Standard time calculated by both the above mentioned methods willgive almost
similar results;
hence any one of them can be used unless or otherwise specified.
The constituents of standard time are diagrammatically represented in Figure 4.9 as follows.

Observed Rating Rest Process Special Policy

Time Factor Allowance Allowance Allowance Allowance
Normal Allowances
Time
Sustained Performance Time

Allowed Time
Standard Time

Fig. 4.9: Constituents of standard time.

88 Work Study and Ergonomics
calculation of standard time. let us consider a
In onder to understand the situation in which
stopwatch readings were taken in seconds. Consider fatigue allowances
continuous ar policy as 10
allowances 5 per cent, contingency allowances 5 per cent,,and is per cent,
allowance
process allowed time 20
Let uscalculate the normal time, sustained
time, and standard time per centfor the
elements is shown in Table 4.8.
The time recorded for the four
ratingfor cach cycle and element
operation.
Table 4.8: Showing the observations and
1 2 3
respectively.
Element No.
Stopwatch Reading in Seconds
Cvcle No.
10 30 50
1

90 107 125
2 145
155 175 195
210
240 260
4 225 280
310 330
290 350
110 120
Average Rating 110 90

Solution: The initial stopwatch reading is taken as zero, the observed time for each elenmens :.
determined from the continuous readings taken at the end of each element by subtracting the initisl
from the final, therefore observed timings for each element is shown in Table 4.9.
Therefore normal time for the operation = 14.3+ 20.24+ 23.52 + 17.1 = 75.16 sec

The given fatigue allowance = 10%

110
Therefore, sustained performance time = (Normal Time) x 100 =75.16x 1.10 = 82.68 sec

Table 4.9: Calculation of average observed time and basic time for each element.

3 4
Element No.
Cycle No. Stopwatch Reading in Seconds
20 20 20
10
20
2 20 17 18
20
10 20 20
15
15 15 20
20
10 20 20

92 98 = 19.6 95- 19
Average 6513 5
= 18.4
5
5
90
Average Rating 110 110 120
19x 90 = 17.1
Normal Time 13 x 110 18.4 × 1 10 19.6 x 120 = 23.52
= 14.3 = 20.24 100
I00 100 100

Total fatigue, process, and contingency allowances = 10 +5 +5=20%

 Work Measurement 89

Allowed Time = Alllowances in %

(NormalTime) 100

Allowed Time = (82.68) × 20%

100
Allowed Time = (82.68)×
(1+0.20)
Allowed Time = (82.68) x (1.20) =
Since.the given policy
99.22 sec.
allowances are 20 per cent of the normal time.
Standard Time (ST) = (Allowed Time) x 1 + Policy Allowances in %
100
Standard Time (ST) =(99.22) x1+ 20%
100
= (99.22) x (1.20)
Standard Time (ST) = 119.64 sec or 1.98 or 2.0minutes
4.17. Synthesis
It is one of the work
measurement techniques for setting up the standard time for a
synthetic data. It is done by summing up the elemental times at a specific job using
elemental times are obtained from time studies on defined level of performance; the
other jobs containing
the same concerned elements.
4.17.1. Synthetic data
It consists of tables and
formulae derived from analysis of accumulated time study
in a suitable form for developing the standard times bysynthesis. D.V. Merrick has been data, arranged
the forerunner to adapt this technique. He had known as
compiled tables for various activities in machine shop
operations. Synthetictime data are usefulfor determining the standard time from the
specifications of the components. This method enables the time study man to drawings and
in advanceof actual estimate the time required
implementation of the job. Therefore, it is very useful in process planning and
scheduling. The development of standard time by synthesis needs to divide the elements
perform the operation into following three categories: required to
(a) Constant elements: The time required for these elements is
(b) Variable elements: The time required for these elements
independent of the type of job.
depends upon the size, shape and
weight of the component.
(C) Machining or process elements: Here the time taken by these elements are in fact the
machining times, these can be estimated based upon the speed, feed and depth of cut,etc.
For the variable and machining elements, the formula, tables and graphs can beused for the
calculations of time taken by these elements.
Let us consider an example of a drilling operation, which consists of elements as mentioned below:
hck up the work piece, place and fix in the jig = 0.20 minutes