RAD Conference Proceedings, vol. 6, pp.

1–4, 2022
ISSN 2466-4626 (online) | DOI: 10.21175/RadProc.2022.00
www.rad-proceedings.org

RADON BACKGROUND IN THE RARE EVENT SEARCHES AT DARWIN EXPERIMENT

Mila Pandurovic1*,
(On behalf of the DARWIN collaboration)
1
Vinca Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract. One of the most intriguing questions of new physics is the possible existence of, so called, “dark” or “missing” matter.
Weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) is one of the potential candidates for cold dark matter and is studied using several
types of experiments. Among many, the direct detection liquid noble gasses experiments are the leading ones in terms of
sensitivity to above GeV WIMP mass parameter space. The foreseen future European astroparticle observatory, DARWIN, is
designed as an ultimate direct detection liquid xenon-based experiment in dark matter searches. DARWIN’s rich experimental
program also includes other rare event searches, such as an investigation of the Majorana nature of neutrinos though neutrino-
less double beta decay, the search for the axion, a hypothetical particle proposed as a solution of the strong CP problem, or many
others.
Rare event searches, besides large-scale detectors with low detection threshold, require high control and almost background-free
environment. Two types of background processes can mimic the WIMP recoil signal, nuclear and electronic recoil events. The
dominant electronic recoil background is coming from the radon progenies ( 222Rn). Since it is created by radioactive decay inside
all detector materials, the effective detector shielding is hindered. Here we present the requirements of radon level in xenon target
necessary to reach the foreseen sensitivity in rare event searches. We also give the state-of-the-art of radon mitigation strategies
which include material selection and screening, on-line radon removal techniques, as well as the off-line methods of tagging
electronic recoil events from radon progenies.

Keywords: DARWIN, liquid xenon detectors,

rare event searches, WIMP, radon background

1. INTRODUCTION In order to search for the WIMP dark matter

candidate particle, several types of experiments are
employed: direct and indirect dark matter searches
Open questions of particle physics today include and collider experiments. Direct dark matter searches
the phenomena that are characterized by the extremely involve several detection techniques that depend on
low number of signal processes covered up under a the detector's working medium (target). Figure 1. gives
huge amount of background. The experimental the achieved and projected sensitivities of WIMP dark
measurements of these processes are classified as rare matter searches for collider and direct detection
event searches. One of the lead examples is the experiments.
question of dark matter, a hypothetical form of matter
that is proposed to explain many cosmological
observations. These observations suggest that the vast
majority of matter in the universe cannot be accounted
for by the ordinary matter which is governed by the
Standard model of particle physics. Out of all missing
mass, around twenty-five percent of the matter in the
Universe is attributed to the so-called dark matter.
This type of matter does not interact with strong or
electromagnetic force with ordinary matter, but rather
through a gravitational and weak force. If any
additional force governs the behavior of dark matter, it
is suggested to be very weak, thus overall, these
interactions have exceptionally low cross sections.
Since the Standard model of particle physics cannot
account for this type of matter, this indicates a new
physics besides this phenomenon. Many theories Figure 1. Comparison of sensitivities of direct detection
propose dark matter particle candidates, where one of and future collider experiments within a simplified model
the main ones is a Weakly Interacting Massive Particle scenario of a WIMP where the interaction between Standard
Model quarks and the dark matter is mediated by a new scalar
(WIMP).
particle.
*
mila.pandurovic@gmail.com
 M. Pandurovic, on behalf of DARWIN Collaboration, Radon background at DARWIN, RAD Conf. Proc., vol. 5, 2022,
As can be seen, liquid xenon detectors such as
XENON1T, XENONnT, and its successor future
experiment DARWIN are one of the leading detection
techniques for the dark matter searches in the region
above 10 GeV of WIMP masses [1][2]. For these
detector types the improvement of sensitivity, that is
improvement of signal-to-background ratio of
processes of interest, implies increasing the number of
detected signal processes while minimizing the
background. Signal increase is achieved by the longer
detector exposure and the higher target mass, while
background minimization involves numerous
mitigation techniques and procedures which will be
presented in detail.
In order to increase the sensitivity to the rare
processes, dark matter in the first place, the ultimate
dark matter detector DARWIN (DARk matter WImp
search with liquid xenoN) is proposed [3].
2. DARWIN ASTROPARTICLE OBSERVATORY
DARWIN is a dual-phase liquid xenon time projection
chamber (TPC), with the gaseous phase located at the
top of the detector, and the liquid one at the bottom.
The current baseline detector design is based on a LXe
TPC (∼2.6 m high and 2.6 m large) with photosensor
arrays, placed on the top and bottom of the chamber,
which is given in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Detailed view of the DARWIN TPC inner detector.
The inner detector will be surrounded by a large,
instrumented water shield, which passively reduces the
environmental radioactivity as well as muon-induced
neutrons, and will act as an active Cherenkov muon
veto. In order to reduce neutron-induced background
a neutron veto, outside the inner detector is also
foreseen [4]. The detector is foreseen to be located at
2
1–4
the INFN underground Laboratori Nazionali del Gran
Sasso (LNGS), at 1400 m depth, which corresponds to
3600 m.w.e.
The detection principle of dual-phase LXe TPC is
based on the excitation of the xenon atom by the recoil
of the impinging particle in the liquid xenon phase.
The subsequent de-excitation of excited xenon atoms
will produce prompt scintillation light of 178 nm
wavelength, which is denoted as the S1 signal, and the
ionization electrons. The electrons are accelerated by
the drift field Edrift towards the gaseous xenon phase at
the top of the detector, in which, after the extraction by
the extraction field from the liquid phase, accelerated
electrons will produce a secondary delayed scintillation
signal S2. The delayed scintillation signal alongside the
prompt scintillation signal S1, provides the xyz position
of the collision. The principle of signal formation is
given in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Working principle of a dual-phase TPC.
The collision of the incoming particle with the
xenon atom can produce a nuclear recoil (NR), where
the impinging particle scatters of xenon nucleus, and
electronic recoil (ER) where the collision with an
electronic cloud of xenon atoms occurs. The shape of
the S1/S2 signal ratio gives the possibility of
discrimination between these two types of recoil, which
is important since scientific channels have different
signatures. For example, the main physics channel,
WIMP, is characterized as a single scatter nuclear
recoil, which serves as the basis of its detection.
Future astroparticle observatory DARWIN foresees
the rich physics program where dark matter searches
are at the primary focus. However, other physics
channels also include the fundamental questions of
particle physics. In the first place, the question of
possible Majorana nature of neutrinos, is going to be
answered with the most sensitive probe, the
measurement of the neutrinoless double beta decay
[5]. Also, the search for axion-like particles, which will
shed light on the strong CP problem or the existence of
sterile neutrinos, are questions that are also being
pursued. The common factor in these searches is their
extremely low cross-section. Considering the rarity of
the studied processes, a very good understanding of all
possible background sources and targeted mitigation
 M. Pandurovic, on behalf of DARWIN Collaboration, Radon background at DARWIN, RAD Conf. Proc., vol. 5, 2022,
strategies for the reduction of the background is crucial
for the success of the measurement.
3. BACKGROUND IN RARE EVENT SEARCHES
By the origin of the background sources, the
background can be classified as external or intrinsic.
By external background, all radioactive background is
produced outside the working medium of the detector
(target), the liquid xenon, while intrinsic background
refers to radioactive processes produced in the target
itself. External background originates from the
interaction of cosmic muons and muon-induced
neutrons or (α, n) reactions and spontaneous fission in
the detector material of surroundings and
environmental radioactivity. As the detector will be
operated in an underground laboratory, the muon flux
at LNGS will be reduced by a factor of 106 relative to a
flat overburden. To further reduce environmental
radioactivity and muon-induced neutrons the inner
detector will be surrounded by a large water shield,
which will act as an active Cherenkov muon veto and
will be equipped by the neutron veto. However
radiogenic neutrons which cannot be effectively
reduced in this manner are the most critical
background for direct WIMP detection, since in
general, neutrons give a signature similar to WIMP.
The background is coming from neutrinos, which are
being investigated with high precision as one of the
physics channels at DARWIN, while in the WIMP
searches it represents a special kind of background
since high energy neutrino-induced nuclear recoils
(CEvNS) cannot be distinguished from the WIMP
signal. Also, from this type of background, the detector
cannot be effectively shielded. Overall neutrino
presence thus will become the relevant background for
the cross sections below 10-48 cm2 and possibly will
determine the limit of the detector sensitivity.
For external background sources, background
events will be located near detector surfaces, due to
the self-screening property of liquid xenon. Figure
3. gives the spatial distribution of external
background events in an LXe volume, with the
visible decreasing gradient towards the center of
the detector.
Figure 3. Spatial distribution of external background
events inside the instrumented volume, given for 100
3
1–4
years of DARWIN run time. The colored lines indicate
the contours of the optimized fiducial volumes
containing different LXe target masses.
This spatial distribution of background events
allows for the application of the fiducialization
technique that can be used for further reduction of
external background. It is a process of choosing the
physical volume of the detector in which the actual
measurement will be performed. The fiducial volume is
obtained in the process of optimization of the
background-to-signal ratio and signal efficiency. Figure
3. also gives the investigated volumes for DARWIN in
the case of neutrinoless double beta decay physics
channel, for which the fiducial volumes have been
calculated.
Another type of background by the origin is the
intrinsic background which are radioactive impurities
present in the detector target. Thus, for this type of
background active detector shielding and
fiducialization cannot be used. In the case of the liquid
xenon experiments these are the progenies of
primordial elements 238U and 232Th, 222Rn, and 220Rn
respectively, as well as anthropogenic krypton isotope
85
Kr. It was shown that by using cryogenic distillation
krypton background can be reduced to 56 ppq which is
well below the desired level of 200 ppq [5]. While the
primordial elements which are ever-present ensure the
constant emanation of radon 222Rn and thoron, 220Rn,
the latter, due to its short lifetime is far less present in
the target than radon. On the other hand, the long
lifetime of radon ensures the homogeneous mixing
with the xenon target. Therefore, for the rare event
searches background coming from radon progenies,
along with irreducible neutrino background, represent
the major source of background.
4. RADON BACKGROUND
The primordial nature of the 238U ensures the radon
presence in detector building materials as well as the
surroundings. Its half-life of 3.8 days leads to the
homogeneous mixing with the target within the full
active volume. While α- decays of the progenies in the
radon 222Rn decay chain, deposit a substantial amount
of energy, due to its signature it does not pose a
significant background source for the WIMP searches.
On the other hand, β particles, especially ones that are
not accompanied by the emission of γ particles
contribute significantly to the background, giving the
signature of single scatter ER events.
Radon emanation from the material proceeds via
two emanation patterns, the emanation by recoil and
by diffusion. In the emanation by recoil the 226Ra
decays into the daughter nuclei, 222Rn which recoils
against the emitted α particle. With the energy
obtained from this recoil, emanation is limited to the
radium atoms located at 20 nm depth or less. The
second emanation process is diffusion, which is
characterized by the diffusion constant, and for metals,
 M. Pandurovic, on behalf of DARWIN Collaboration, Radon background at DARWIN, RAD Conf. Proc., vol. 5, 2022,
which are the main construction materials in the
detector, diffusion constant is very small.
The necessary sensitivity imposed by the physics
program of the future astroparticle observatory
DARWIN requires the radon presence at the level of
0.1 µBq/kg, which is nearly an order of magnitude
better then currently achieved one [6]. In order to
achieve the sensitivity goal multiple simultaneous lines
of radon mitigation are foreseen.
5. RADON BACKGROUND MITIGATION
The radon background is dealt with at several
different lines of mitigation. The first one is concerned
with the choice of detector building materials and
contains material radioassay and selection, radon
emanation prevention using the coating of the separate
parts of the detectors, and surface treatment. The
second line of mitigation concerns the radon removal
from the target itself, using purification techniques.
The proposed improved/novel detector concepts also
deal with the radon reduction. The last line of radon
mitigation is performed in the offline analysis of the
data.
1.1. Material screening and selection
The selection of low-radioactive materials is of
paramount importance. In order to select very radio
pure material a number of dedicated facilities are
employed [7][8], using different detection techniques.
Two measurement methods are used to determine
the amount and isotopic composition of
radionuclides present in the materials, gamma-ray
spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Gamma-ray
spectroscopy is a non-invasive method sensitive to
a wide range of gamma emitters. The mass of
samples can range from a few grams to 100 kg. To
reach the necessary sensitivity, the needed
exposure ranges from 10 to 40 days. The achieved
sensitivities reach down to 10 µBq/kg. The
complementary analytic technique used is
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
(ICP-MS) which is among the most sensitive ones
to assess the composition of a given sample
through separation and measurement of individual
isotopes. This is particularly useful in determining
the amount of 238U and 232Th within materials. This
mass spectroscopy method requires only a few
grams of sample material and short measurement
times. They are also used when the mass of the
sample is too small or the available measurement
time is too short to achieve the desired sensitivity
in an HPGe spectrometer. The achieved
sensitivities range from 1 to 10 µBq/kg.
However, the measurement of the 226Ra bulk
activity is not adequate to predict how much 222Rn
emanates from the material. Therefore, special
methods and equipment for the determination and
measurements of radon emanation are developed.
1.2. 222
Rn emanation measurement
4
1–4
Since the background rate at the current xenon dark
matter detectors is dominated by the 222Rn induced
events, in addition to the bulk background
measurement, dedicated radon emanation
measurements for detector materials and subsystems
are performed. Two detection techniques are used,
ultralow background miniaturized proportional
counters and electrostatic radon monitors [9][10]. The
miniaturized counters are used for smaller samples.
The active volume of the counters is around 1 cm 3 and
the counting gas consists of 90% argon and 10%
methane to which the radon to be measured is added.
222
Rn atoms decay by α-disintegration, followed by two
further α-decays from 218Po and 214Po until the long-
lived 210Pb breaks the secular equilibrium. On average
around 50% of all α decays are detected leading to
approximately 1.5 counts per one 222 Rn decay. The
chambers are not sensitive to muons, electrons, and
gammas (µ, e, γ), since they deposit less than 50 keV,
thus background count is one count per day on
average, leading to the minimum detectable activity of
∼ 20 μBq that can be achieved. About twenty counters
are available, where eight counters can run in parallel.
For larger samples and subsystems of the detector,
electrostatic radon monitors are used. The sensitivity
of the chambers is around four times better than in the
case of electrostatic monitors.
In order to be able to handle several samples in
parallel, an automated system to extract, purify, and
collect emanated radon from different samples on a
charcoal trap has also been developed, Auto-Ema
(Automated emanation system).
1.3. Coating of the material
The novel technique of radon emanation prevention is
the “coating” of the materials. That is the process of the
application of the surface radium-free materials on the
surface of the detector building materials. The applied
layers will form a barrier with the goal of physically
preventing radon emanation. The coating width must
exceed the range 222Rn by the recoil, 20 nm.
Different coating techniques of different materials
have been evaluated, among others titanium,
copper, and carbon. The most effective one was the
electrodeposition of copper, where the most
successful radon suppression, by three orders of
magnitude better, than other samples that were
being investigated [11].
1.4. Surface treatment methods
A thorough cleaning of materials serves multiple
purposes. Besides removing residual particulates that
if released inside the detector, might compromise the
detector’s operation, the removal of the radioactive
isotopes that have been accumulated on the material
surfaces, during production, storage, and handling is of
paramount importance. In particular, special attention
is paid to the radon progenies. As said all detector
materials, surrounding materials as well as the dust
contain traces of 238U and 232Th. Subsequently, 222Rn is
ever-present in the air, and its progenies tend to plate
 M. Pandurovic, on behalf of DARWIN Collaboration, Radon background at DARWIN, RAD Conf. Proc., vol. 5, 2022,
out on the materials that are later employed in the
experiment. This is particularly the case with
radioactive polonium, bismuth, and especially lead
isotopes such as 210Pb, which is a stable element with
22.3 years decay time. Of greater importance are the
materials which are in the proximity of liquid xenon.
One of the critical components is the PTFE reflector
due to its proximity to the detector target. The PTFE
surrounds the whole vertical volume of the detector
thus providing a nearly perfect reflection of the
scintillation signal to be recaptured by the PMT on the
top and bottom of the detector. However, it is very
porous and thus capable of trapping the radioactive
impurities. In order to eliminate this source of
background special dedicated procedures for PTFE
cleaning [12] and other various material types have
been developed [8].The next two lines of mitigation
deal with the radon impurities in the LXe target.
1.5. Purification of xenon
Even after careful material choice, surface
treatment and coating of detector material, traces
of radon are still going to be present in the liquid
xenon, due to the constant emanation from
detector material into the volume of the detector.
In addition to the purification of
the liquid xenon before the start of data taking, in
order to achieve further background mitigation, the
purification of xenon from electronegative impurities
[8], krypton and radon have to be performed
continuously.
Figure 5. Radon removal system of XENONnT experiment.
The key components are the top condenser, package tube,
reboiler, and four-cylinder magnetically-coupled piston
pump.
The purification of krypon is performed by a krypton
distillation coloumn. The predecessor of the DARWIN
experiment, XENONnT is the first experiment to have
a dedicated online radon removal system based on
cryogenic distillation an it achieved <1µBq/kg [13].
1.6. The novel detector designs
5
1–4
Since the radon is distributed homogeneously and
isotropically throughout the detector volume,
classical self-screening, using the fiducial volume,
cannot be applied to the intrinsic background.
Several proposals of the detector design are
proposed [14][15][16]. One of the proposals to
surmount the problem, targeting the first place
222
Rn, is the novel detector design hermetic dual-
phase TPC [14]. The design principle relies on the
self-screening property of the xenon target. The
design features double volume dual-phase TPC,
with the considered mechanical separation based
on cryofitting technique, which exploits the
different thermal expansion coefficients of the
main TPC construction materials PTFE, stainless
steel, and Kovar.
The outer, „screening “volume receives the majority of
radon which is emanated from detector surfaces. Both,
screening and active volumes are connected to the
same xenon storage but use independent purification
and supply systems. A schematic view of the design is
given in Figure 5. A small-scale hermetic prototype
was built and operated. By scaling up the results
achieved to the DARWIN scale, it was shown that with
the proposed hermetic TPC concept substantial
reduction of the 222Rn concentration can be achieved.
Figure 6. Sketch of the double volume TPC, inner (blue) and
outer (green) with the separate purifying systems.
1.7. Offline analysis and tagging of the radon
induced background.
The WIMP signal event would produce a single
scatter nuclear recoil. On the basis of that several
offline background-to-signal separation methods have
been developed.
In radon and thoron decay chains, the decays of
214
Bi and 212Bi are followed by fast decays of their
 M. Pandurovic, on behalf of DARWIN Collaboration, Radon background at DARWIN, RAD Conf. Proc., vol. 5, 2022,
polonium daughters of 214Po and 212Po (BiPo
coincidence). The decay time of these two consecutive
decays is within the event recording time frame This
leads to the recording of these successive decays within
the same event, which allow rejecting of this event
Also, by measuring 218Po and 214Bi-214Po and if using the
convective motion of Xe in the detector, one can find
and tag the 214Pb background event. These delayed
coincidence signatures cause multiple S1 and S2
signals to be present in an event, making it possible to
identify and reject them. The reduction efficiency is
more than 98%.
Incoming particles will recoil against the xenon
target either in the collision with the xenon electron
cloud or with the nucleus itself. The collision with
electron could, electronic recoil (ER), is
characteristically produced by incoming gamma, beta
particles, or low-energy solar neutrinos. The recoil
against the nucleus, nuclear recoils (NR), will be
produced by the collision of neutrons.
Figure 7. Distributions of prompt versus delayed
signal for electronic (blue) and nuclear recoils
(red).
The particle candidate of the primary physics
channel, the dark matter searches, WIMP would
produce a single scatter nuclear recoil. In order to
separate these two signatures ER and NR the feature
that electronic and nuclear recoils exhibit different
signal shapes, both for S1 and S2, is used for separation
of these two signatures. Figure 4 gives the distributions
of prompt and delayed signal, for the nuclear recoil
and electronic recoil event.
6. CONCLUSION
DARWIN is the future astroparticle observatory for
rare event searches, with the primary goal of designing
and constructing the ultimate dark matter detector
using LXe TPC. Two key factors are needed to get
below the existing sensitivity limits for many rare event
searches and WIMP dark matter searches in the first
place: background reduction and enhanced detector
sensitivity. In these types of detectors, sensitivity
implies a larger detector size and increased exposure,
where the nominal design of DARWIN foresees
exposure of 200 tone-years. An increase of the signal-
to-background ratio for rare event searches relies to a
great extent on severe background mitigation. For that
purpose, the detectors are placed in underground
laboratories, which will mitigate the influence of
cosmogenic backgrounds. In order to further reduce
6
1–4
the ambient background, the detector will be
surrounded by a water shield instrumented with the
neutron veto. However, the most persistent
background in WIMP searches is coming from the
radon and its progenies, due to its pervasive presence.
Radon is constantly emanated from the detector
material into the detector target, liquid xenon. To
surmount the problem, multiple lines of mitigation of
radon and its progenies are being developed in parallel.
The primary ones are concerned with detector material
production and screening in order to select very radio-
pure materials. Surface impurities are reduced by
treatment methods which are developed specifically for
each material type. Purification of the detector target is
applied before and during the science runs. Further, in
order to prevent radon emanation from the detector
materials, the technique of detector material coating is
applied. In order to improve detector self-shielding
several novel detector designs are also proposed.
In addition to the physical removal of background, the
techniques of offline analysis, signal, and background
separation, and the optimization of the fiducial volume
are applied.
The reduction of all possible backgrounds to the
required levels and increased detector exposure will
make DARWIN an ultimate dark matter detector that
will be able to reach cross-sections down to neutrino
floor.
Acknowledgments: The work presented in this
paper is performed as the collaborative effort of the
DARWIN collaboration. The authors would like to
thank the Ministry of Science and Technology of the
Republic of Serbia.
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