Lesson 1 - Introduction to Facilitating Learning

LESSON I. LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION

Psychology, a branch of science that studies human behavior, plays a very important role in understanding the teaching
and learning process. Many innovations in the learning process have been made possible because of the contributions of
psychology. It helps educators and teachers to understand the nature of diversity of learners.

Teachers are now more confident and competent to teach because of a deep understanding of their learners. They can
facilitate learning according to the learners' needs. History has been witnessed as to how concepts, information, and
studies in psychology have helped immensely in understanding the nature of the human being. They are bases for
innovations and reforms in teaching. Teaching strategies are made more appropriate for every learner.

Part of human nature is learning, which has been made interesting because of the application of knowledge obtained from
psychology. Studies are continuously undertaken to enhance knowledge about the teaching and learning process.

In this lesson, you are expected to:

 explain learner-centered psychological principles;

 discuss implications of the learner-centered psychological principles to teachers and educators;
 analyze specific classroom situations where the learner-centered psychological principles are used; and
 suggest teaching strategies that could further enhance the learner-centered psychological principles.

Lesson 1: Learning Principles Associated to Cognitive, Metacognitive, Motivational, and Affective Factors

In the carly 1990s, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a group, a Task Force on Psychology in
Education, to conduct further studies in both psychology and education. The purpose of this group was to conduct studies
that could further enhance the current understanding of educators on the nature of the learners about the teaching and
learning process. The end goal was to improve the existing school practices so that learning becomes more meaningful to
all kinds of learners.

The 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles are categorized as follows:

(1) cognitive and metacognitive factors;

(2) motivational and affective;

(3) developmental and social; and

(4) individual difference factors.

All these principles influence the teaching and learning process (APA, 1997).

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 COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

Cognitive factors refer to the mental processes the learners undergo as they process an information. The way learners think
about their thinking as they engage in mental tasks is the concern of the metacognitive factors.

1. The learning of complicated subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing
meaning from information and experience.

Teachers play a significant role in guiding their learners to become active, goal-directed, and self-regulating, and to
assume personal responsibility for their learning. The learning activities and opportunities provided by the teacher are very
important situations where learners cam 'integrate knowledge and concepts to their experiences. Whenever teachers plan
their lessons and topics, they always need to consider how they can bring reality in the classroom. Learners need to have a
clear and concrete understanding of knowledge and concepts presented so that they would also know in what particular
situations they have to apply them. Learning through experience is the most effective way of teaching. An intentional
learning environment is one that fosters activity and feedback and creates a culture that promotes metacognition, that is,
one in which the learner becomes aware of his or her learning process and can use tools to enhance this learning process
(Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989).

2. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.

Learners need to be goal-directed. Teachers have to guide learners in terms of determining their personal goals. They need
to set their goals, not dictated by others, to ensure their Willingness to achieve them. Meaningful learning takes place
when what is presented to learners is very much related to their needs and interests. When learers have good understanding
of the concepis discussed in school, they can reach long-term goals most likely. Indeed, it is challenging to motivate
learners to succeed.

3. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

In planning a new lesson to be presented, teachers would usually find it more effective when they connect the learners'
existing knowledge to new information. The integration of prior experiences to a new concept to be learned is a way of
making connections between what is new and what is already known. That new knowledge is created from old knowledge
is the very heart of constructivism. Teachers should initiate more opportunities for learners to share ideas, experiences,
observations, and readings as the need arises. Sharing prior knowledge can be done in creative strategies like conèept
mapping, group activities, and other collaborative techniques where learners are also able to learn from each other's
experiences.

4. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals.

Strategic thinking is a person's ability to use knowledge in different ways to solve problems, address concerns and issues,
decrease difficulties in certain situations, and make sound decisions and judgments in varied conditions. Strategic thinkers
do not easily give up even in difficult situations. They are more challenged to find ways to solve a problem no matter how
many times they already failed. They are not afraid to commit mistakes because they perceive them as meaningful learning
experiences to continuously discover other ways of arriving at solutions. Teachers are supposed to give them as many
opportunities to learn, experiment, solve, and explore new ideas and concepts. Thus, to motivate and encourage the
learners to be more creative and innovative in their ideas, opinions, and responses are musts for teachers.

5. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

One of the most challenging roles of the teachers is to develop among their learners' higher order thinking skills (HOTS).
It means that their learners can do evaluation, synthesis, analysis, and interpretation of varied concepts, information, and
knowledge. As previously mentioned, learners develop their thinking skills when they are provided with opportunities and
learning experiences to process varied events and situations, specifically if given real problems. This context means that
aside from mastering information, discovery, problem-solving, creation, and evaluation should also be integrated into their
learning experiences. Assessment tools in school should be authentic. Students can make inferences, sound judgments, and
relevant conclusions, and use their learned knowledge to varied situations, HOTS are very much needed in this fast-
changing world.

6. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional practices.
Learning does not only take place inside the classroom.

Much of what learners learn in the classroom with their teachers can only have meaning once they see them concretely in
their everyday life. Examples given in the classroom should be a reflection of their actual life experiences. The digital
tools and instructional practices must be carefully selected to facilitate a motivating, stimulating, and encouraging learning
environment geared toward effective acquisition of knowledge, concepts, and skills among learners. Motivational and
Affective Factors How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the concerns of the
motivational factors. Meanwhile, the affective factors relate to the attitude, feelings, and emotions that learners put into the
learning task.

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MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the concerns of the motivational factors.
Meanwhile, the affective factors relate to the attitude, feelings, and emotions that learners put into the learning task.

1. What and how much are learned are influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn is influenced by
the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

Motivation plays a very important role in learning. It pertains to an individual's inner drive to do something, accomplish
something, pursue a goal, learn, and master a skill, or just discover without necessarily being forced or pushed by anyone.
The level of one's motivation would also determine the extent of his or her ability to accomplish desired tasks. The way
teachers motivate their learners is then crucial to make them actively engaged in the learning process. In lesson planning,
the motivation part of the lesson sets the positive mindset of the learners. No matter how new, challenging, and technical a
topic is, if the level of their motivation is high, they would always find the interest to participate and get themselves
engaged. Meanwhile, if there were no efforts to motivate learners, then, there would also be no engagement to learning.
Teachers and parents' encouragements, praises, and rewards can boost the learners confidence. They can also establish
positive emotional states and good habits of thinking in individuals. Learners will always feel that mistakes and errors are
normal parts of learning. Teachers should also use learning materials and strategies that would eradicate learners' anxiety,
panic, and even insecurities.

2. The learner's creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to the motivation to learn.

There are two kinds of motivation _intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation is manifested when an individual engages in an activity or task that is personally gratifying. It is
personally rewarding, and there is no expectation for any external or tangible reward.

Extrinsic motivation, meanwhile, is its direct opposite. A person engages in a task or activity to earn external rewards or
to avoid punishments in some situations.

Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing
for personal choice and control. As teachers and mentors, the most important way to motivate the students to learn is to
present the value of that knowledge or concept to their life.
 Learning is not only about getting good grades or complying with requirements, but it is more of knowing why they need
to learn such and to what specific instances in their lives that they would be able to use them. When what is being taught to
the students is presented creatively, it stimulates their HOTS, enhances their curiosity, and heightens their interest to learn
more about it.

Teaching strategies that allow personal choice and control, collaboration, and creation for learners contribute to a more
heightened intrinsic motivation for learning.

3. Acquisition of sophisticated knowledge and skills requires extensive learner's effort and guided practice.

The learners' motivation to learn is also partnered by their extended efforts. Teachers facilitate learning opportunities and
experiences that encourage learners to exert time and effort and at the same time commitment and enthusiasm toward a
task they have to do and a concept they have to learn. It is through the teachers' encouragement that they will have to do
tasks with quality and not just for compliance's sake. Teachers can praise works that have been done well. They can also
acknowledge every little achievement of a person, Teachers can use the students' errors or mistakes as opportunities for
mentoring. All these raise a person's motivation to learn. Positive emotions established in the classroom as well as with
others make learning interesting for everybody in general. The learning environment can also foster positive emotions
when there is no competition between of learning. and among learners, and numeric grades are just secondary
considerations as pieces of evidence of learning.

Lesson 2 to 5 - Factors the Influence Learning, Individual

Differences, Metacognition, Metacognitive Regulation and
Control, Principles of Metacognition and Metacognitive
Teaching Strategies

LESSON 2. LEARNING PRINCIPLES ON DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Development and social factors as well as individual differences are considered critical factors in the capacity of learners
to engage in learning. These principles include the following:

1. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.

Learning is most effective when differential development, within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
domains is taken into account. Knowledge on the physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains of the learners is an
excellent springboard for planning learning activities, materials, and assessment. Often, some learners are not learning
well because there is a mismatch between the learning activity and the learners' developmental stage.

Teachers are persons and professionals who should be knowledgeable of the various developmental milestones of learners.
They should not be working alone along instructional planning. They should always collaborate with the school
administrators, guidance counselors, learners’ parents, guardians, and even family. Specifically, teachers should always
look into the readiness of the learners through keen observations, diagnostic tools, authentic assessments, and the like. All
of these will help to create optimal learning contexts and environment.

2. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.

Collaboration is a 21st century skill. All learners should learn the skill of working with others in an instructional setting.
This ability will prepare them for the real world where they are expected to interact effectively to a community of diverse
people. Collaborative skills encompass social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication.

Learning activities in the classroom should offer opportunities for such collaborative skills. Group works, group dynamics,
as well as group tasks are examples of situations where such can be developed.
When learners work with their peers and classmates, they learn to appreciate and respect diversity. They practice their
listening skills and at the same time consider each other's perspectives and contributions on the task to be completed.
When adequately facilitated by the teacher, this ability contributes to a positive and healthy learning such as respect for
each other's opinions, give-and-take relationships, and taking responsibility for assigned tasks to develop the interpersonal
relationships of the learners.

3. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity.

Diversity is a natural part of life. The learning environment is the best example where diversity is manifested between and
among learners. Each learner has his or her learning style, intelligence, potential, skills, talents, learning preferences, as
well as cognitive abilities which are the effects of both experience and heredity.

Theories on multiple intelligences, learning styles, and differentiated instructions are all to be considered when planning
the delivery of lessons. Teachers assist and support their learners in identifying their most elective learning style, dominant
intelligence, skills, and potentials, and help them identify the ways and means on now they can use them to maximize
learning. Current trends in teaching encourage teachers to apply concepts on multicultural teaching, differentiated
instruction (DI), and the Universal Design for Learning (UDL). All these principles support the premise that teachers
should be creative, innovative, and supportive of the individual differences of their learners. These trends in teaching offer
various ideas, options, and ways by which diversity can best be used for meaningful teaching and learning.

4. Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are
taken into account.

Multicultural teaching encourages teachers to consider their learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds.
Language can be a barrier in learning when learners cannot express themselves properly and when the learning material is
not also related to their social context. Examples given may be too vague or abstract because their most specific
application cannot be found outside of the school. Cases and situations should be contextualized and localized. When
learners find that their lessons are also concretely seen in their places and are closely related to their environment, the
more they can appreciate learning.

Culture makes one person distinct from other people. Students manifest differences in language, values, belief systems,
and way of life. An inclusive classroom is one that welcomes and respects these differences which are incorporated into
their learning activities. They are also used as actual examples of concepts presented during discussions. Students do not
feel discriminated upon and ridiculed because of their uniqueness as an individual. When each learner feels valued,
accepted, and appreciated for what he or she is, this affirmation contributes to a positive learning environment.

5. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as the learning
progress- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment-are integral parts of the learning
process.

Assessment and evaluation are essential parts of the teaching and learning process. The results of assessments conducted
are used to gauge the learners' strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and areas of difficulties. Teachers can also determine
what kind of support and scaffold the learners need. This process also includes knowing which instructional material
would best assist a learner for better school performance.

Assessment should be an ongoing process. Whether it was formative or summative, results should be used as a means of
improving the teachers' strategies and techniques in teaching. Low results may not always be attributed to students'
negligence and difficulties but may also be because the teacher's strategy was not effective during the delivery of the
lesson. Assessment therefore is for both the teacher and learner.

IMPORTANT CONCEPT

Teaching is a complex process. It can be observed that there are teachers who enter their classrooms without much
preparation on how they could make learning more interesting and engaging in varied kinds of learners. It is the very
reason why institutions preparing pre-service teachers at present have continuously introduced innovations on their teacher
education programs to prepare them for this complex task. The teachers are immersed as much as possible to actual
classroom situations so that at an early stage of their training, they can already see the realities in the teaching and learning
process.

Teachers learn from their experiences as teachers because they meet different kinds of learners every day. The learners'
developmental stages are highly considered. Teachers prepare them for more difficult tasks but in a meaningful and
interesting way. Learners are individually different from each other. Some are fast learners; some are quite slow, too.
Teachers should then derive ways and means on how both groups can be assisted.

A classroom is a place where diversity is appreciated and respected. It is never a place where learners are discriminated
upon or ridiculed because of their unique way of life, social background, beliefs, value systems, and traditions.

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LESSON 3. METACOGNITION: THINKING ABOUT THINKING

Facilitating learning is aimed at assisting learners in acquiring expected competencies. In addition, the facilitation of
learning addresses the expected competencies to help them understand their learning and thinking. Research findings have
shown that metacognitive thinking operates as a vital skill to other skills like problem-solving, creative thinking, and
critical thinking. The good news is that metacognition can be taught.

In this lesson, you will discover the nature of metacognition, its components, and how metacognitive processes work in the
classroom.

Definition of Metacognition

The term metacognition is attributed to Flavell. He described it as "knowledge concerning one's cognitive processes and
products or anything related to them, e.g., the learning-relevant properties of information and data."

Furthermore, he referred to it as "the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes
concerning the cognitive objects or data on which they bear, usually in the service of some concrete goal or objective"
(Flavell, 1976). Simply stated, metacognition is *Knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena" (Flavell, 1979).
The meaning metamorphosed into "thinking about thinking," "knowing about knowing," and "cognition about cognition."

Components of Metacognition

The elements of metacognition are metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation (Flavell 2004). These two
elements are interrelated; the presence of the first one enhances the second element.

Metacognitive knowledge (also called knowledge of cognition) refers to "what individuals know about their cognition or
cognition in general" (Schraw, 2002). It involves three kinds of metacognitive awareness, mamely: declarative knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge.

DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE

Declarative knowledge or personal knowledge is the learner's knowledge about things. It also refers to the learner's
understanding of own abilities, and the knowledge about oneself as a learner and of the factors that moderate one's
performance. This type of knowledge is not always accurate as the learner's evaluation of his or her capabilities may be
unreliable.

Example: Manila is the capital of the Philippines

 Oases is the plural form of oasis are examples.

PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE

Procedural knowledge or task knowledge involves the knowledge of how to do things and how skills or competencies are
executed. The assessment on the learner's task knowledge includes what knowledge is needed (content) and the space
available to communicate what is known (length). A learner given a problem-solving task, for instance, knows that
prerequisite information and prior skills are necessary to be recalled and readily executed at the given time to solve the
problem. Such knowledge gives confidence in working with the problem.

CONDITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

Conditional knowledge or strategy knowledge refers to the ability to know when and why various cognitive acts should be
applied. It involves using strategies to learn information (knowing how to know) as well as adapting them to novel
contexts (knowing when a strategy is appropriate). This knowledge is evident in a learner who seeks the help of a school
nurse to make a report on the communicable diseases prevalent in the community as well as this learner's knowledge that
the best way to gather the information is to interview a nurse and to go over the health records of the Municipal Health
Office of the town.

METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE

Metacognitive knowledge is the result of an individual's metacognitive experiences. Flavell (1979) explained them as
experiences that "an individual has through which knowledge is attained, or through regulation occurs." A learner who
obtained low scores in knowledge and skills test becomes aware that he or she has low declarative and procedural
knowledge. In contrast, a learner who has always scored highest in both the content and skills tests has strong confidence
in his adequacy of knowledge in the subject.

Similarly, metacognitive knowledge depends so much on the learner's metamemory, the knowledge of what memory is,
how it works, and how to remember things. Through instruction and individual effort, metamemory develops over time.
For instance, learners who have been taught how to organize information and use rehearsal strategies have richer
metamemory. They can retrieve declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge when required by the task.

IMPORTANT CONCEPT

Metacognitive thinking among learners provides avenues for them to learn more. Two aspects of metacognitive instruction
is content knowledge (concepts, facts, procedures) and strategic knowledge (heuristic, metacognitive, learning). It is
essential that to think through a process, learners must have the content knowledge to think about something. One also
needs to have a heuristic (shortcut) or algorithm (formula) to follow in developing the skill (Medina et al., 2017).
Instruction should have a content component and direct instruction on how to work through a process.

Another consideration is the potential of cooperative learning in teaching metacognition. Engaging learners in
collaborative discussion of the learning task enables them to enhance their learning. During the discussion, learners think
about their way of thinking and their reflection after the lesson demonstrates a metacognitive way of thinking. The learners
identify the main components of the learning strategy and realize how the strategy helps them to learn (Eldar et al., 2012).
Collaborative teaching strategies are, therefore, useful tools to enhance learners' reflective thinking.

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LESSON 4. METACOGNITIVE REGULATION AND CONTROL

Metacognitive Regulation and Control Metacognitive regulation is the second element of metacognition. Whereas
metacognitive knowledge refers to the learners' knowledge or beliefs about the factors that affect cognitive
skills, metacognitive regulation pertains to their ability to keep track of (monitor) and assess their knowledge or learning.
It includes their ability to find out what, when, and how to use a particular skill for a given task. In this manner, they can
control their learning. Self-regulation is essential in metacognition.
To illustrate metacognitive regulation, consider a student in a Speech class; he or she knows when a word is
mispronounced as it sounds unpleasant, thus, he or she consults an electronic dictionary to listen to how the word should
be pronounced. Following the model, the pronunciation is improved. Metacognitive regulation involves three processes:
setting goals and planning, monitoring and controlling learning, and evaluating own regulation.

PLANNING

Planning involves the selection of appropriate strategies and the allocation of resources that affect performance (Schraw,
2002). Together with setting goals, planning is considered a central part of students" ability to control their learning
processes and to learn outcomes through deliberate self- regulatory decisions and actions.

Goals are dichotomized as mastery goals and performance goals (Paulson & Bauer, 2011). Mastery goals are related to
process, learning, and development. In contrast, performance goals are usually associated with product orientations and
demonstrating competence or social comparisons to the peer group. For example, a student who desires to get high grade
(performance goal) in a Science class portfolio determines how best to make all entries in the portfolio exemplary in all
criteria as described in the scoring rubric (mastery goal).

At this point of metacognitive regulation, the learner's questions include the following: What am I asked to learn or do
here? What do I already know about this lesson or task? What should be my pacing to complete this task? What should I
focus on when learning or solving this task?

MONITORING

Monitoring refers to one's ongoing awareness of comprehension and task performance (Schraw. 2002). Referred to as
metacognitive monitoring and controlling learning, it also involves the monitoring of a person's thinking processes and the
current state of knowledge. Given a task, it involves the awareness of the person that the prerequisite knowledge and
process to manage the task is sufficient to succeed in it. It also involves the ability to consider the accuracy of the
knowledge and procedure to solve the task. If ever inadequacy is felt, the person can control the processes undertaken to
still succeed in the resolution of the task.

A student who answers a word problem in Mathematics is aware of the steps to follow to solve the task. In the process, the
person monitors from metamemory if procedural knowledge is adequate and could be executed. Along the way, the person
monitors his or her thinking and then revises the process if found ineffective in solving the problem.

At this stage, some questions asked by the learners include the following: Do I have adequate knowledge to solve the
problem? Are my prior knowledge and skills appropriate for this task? Are my strategies appropriate for this task? What
can I do to get additional information for this task?

EVALUATING

Evaluating refers to appraising the products and efficiency of one's learning (Schraw, 2002). It involves the person's ability
to evaluate how well the strategies are used to lead to the solution of the problem or completion of the task. It tells whether
or not the procedure resulted to the correct answer or a different answer.

In the previous Mathematics word problem-solving task situation, the person comes to a realization that the equation
formulated to solve what is asked in the problem was indeed correct based on the cross- checking process done. If the
answer is wrong, the learner surmises what went wrong along the way.

Sample questions asked by the learner in this phase of metacognition regulation are the following: What new learning was
achieved? What universal understanding should I remember? Was the correct answer obtained? Were the goals set
achieved? What could I have done to make my work better? What should I do the next time I encounter a similar
situation?

IMPORTANT CONCEPT
Teaching learners to plan, monitor, and evaluate their thinking is possible. For teachers to help the learners develop
metacognitive thinking, they need to profile the ways of thinking and studying their learners. Metacognitive learners are
either novice or proficient. For instance, a reading comprehension research observed that novice or poor readers skip the
title and paragraph headings, refrain from setting goals and select reading strategies accordingly, read linearly without
noticing lack of comprehension, and terminate reading without evaluation or reflection. In contrast, proficient readers start
with orienting reading to grasp the theme or gist of the text, read the title and paragraph headings, skim through the text,
and purposefully read the concluding paragraph, while activating prior knowledge of the subject matter. They set reading
goals and plans, and monitor their comprehension, both on the level of individual words and on the level of paragraphs or
the entire text (Veenman, 2012).

After knowing the metacognitive thinking of learners, teachers can provide interventions that are appropriate to their
needs. Giving scaffolds to learners, while they perform a task, helps them refine their way of thinking and studying. In the
process, they recognize their strengths and weaknesses. The next time they engage in metacognitive thinking, they could
plan, monitor, and evaluate their own thinking better.

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LESSON 5. METACOGNITIVE INSTRUCTION

Principles of Metacognitive Instruction

Developing metacognitive thinking among students needs the creativity of the teacher. Using metacognitive strategies
facilitates how learners learn. As studies have proven, metacognitive teaching practices enhance the learners' capabilities
to transfer their competencies in learning new tasks in new contexts (Palinscar & Brown, 1984; Schoenfeld, 1991).

Moreover, metacognitive teaching practices make learners aware of their strengths and weaknesses as they learn. Knowing
their strengths give them the confidence to pursue a task. Knowing their weaknesses lead them to strategize on how to
overcome their limited knowledge and how to source out the needed information for the task.

To effectively develop metacognitive skills among learners, Veenman et al. (2012) recommend three fundamental
principles.

1. Metacognitive instruction should be embedded in the context of the task at hand in order to allow for connecting task-
specific condition knowledge (the IF-side) to the procedural knowledge of "How" the skill is applied in the context of the
task (the THEN-side of production rules).

2. Learners should be informed about the benefit of applying metacognitive skills in order to make them exert the initial
extra effort.

3. Instruction and training should be stretched over time, thus allowing for the formation of production rules and ensuring
the smooth and maintained application of metacognitive skills.

Cognizant of these principles, teachers can plan their lessons well to ensure that as the learners undergo classroom
activities, they metacognize their learning. Leading learners to think metacognitively gradually leads them to become self-
regulated learners.

METACOGNITIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES

Varied metacognitive strategies to teach learners to undergo metacognitive thinking have been proven effective. These
include the following:

GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS are visual illustrations displaying the relationship between facts, information, ideas or
concept. Through the visual displays, learners are guide in their thinking as they fill in the needed information. One good
example is the KWHLAQ Chart, a variant of the KWL Chart. It is useful during the planning, monitoring, and evaluating
phases of metacognition.

What do I What What new

What do I HOW do I What have I
WANT to ACTION will QUESTIONS
KNOW? find out? LEARNED?
know? I take? do I have?

THINK ALOUD helps learners to think aloud about their thinking as they undertake a task. The learner report their
thoughts while they do it. With the help of a more knowledgeable learner, the errors thinking and the inadequacy of
declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge can be pointed out, giving the learner increased self-awareness during
learning.

JOURNALIZING can be used together with think aloud. In a journal, learners write what was in their mind when they
selected an answer and the reasons for their choice. Later, they write about their realizations where they were wrong and
what should have been considered in answering. Finally, they resolve on what to do the next time a similar
situation/problem arises.

ERROR ANALYSIS is a "systematic approach for using feedback metacognitively to improve one's future performance"
(Hopeman, 2002). Asking the learners where they are correct and wrong provides avenues for them to evaluate their
thinking. It results in a learner's metacognitive knowledge of own mistakes and making use of them to improve future
performance.

WRAPPER is an activity that fosters learners' metacognition before, during, and after a class. In a reading class, before
the selection is read, the teacher asks about the theme of the selection based on the story title. While reading the selection,
learners are asked if their assumptions were true. After reading, the learners are asked what made them comprehend or not
comprehend the story.

PEER MENTORING is a proven metacognitive strategy as many learners learn best when studying' with peers who are
more informed and skilled than them. Novice learners, by observing their more skilled peers, can learn from the
metacognitive strategies of their peer mentors. The use of cooperative learning strategies is helpful toward this goal.

IMPORTANT CONCEPT

Teaching metacognitive thinking strategies to learners is a must if teachers want them to be self- regulated learners.
Several studies have shown the benefits of metacognitive instruction. Goh (2008) cites her study (Liu & Goh, 2006) that
proved metacognitive knowledge can be increased through classroom instruction. The work of Goh and Hu (2013)
demonstrated a causal relationship between metacognitive instruction and a statistically significant improvement in
listening performance. In another study, students' use of metacognitive skills in problem solving--with five main processes
that encompass an emerging substantive theory, namely: understanding the problem through sense- making; organizing
and constructing useful information from the problem; planning solution strategies by identifying, conjecturing, and
selecting strategies; executing the plan; checking the process and strategies undertaken, and reflecting and extending the
problem has facilitated the development of Filipino students problem-solving heuristics (Tan & Limjap, 2018).

Lesson 6 - Cognitive Learning Theories

“Every time we teach children something, we keep them from inventing it themselves. On the other hand, that which we
allow them to discover for themselves will remain with them visible for the rest of their lives (Jean Piaget).

The term cognitive learning derives its meaning from the word cognition. In an electronic dictionary, it is defined as "the
mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses." Thus,
learners are viewed to learn by using their brains. In the process, they are actively engaged in mental activities involving
perception, thinking, and relying on their memory as they process new experiences. Through the connections of these old
and new experiences, the acquisition of knowledge and understanding results exist.

In the succeeding lessons, you are expected to learn various cognitive learning theories and understand the implication of
each theory to the teaching and learning process.

LESSON 6.1 . PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget argued that children's cognitive development is influenced by
biological maturation and their interaction with the environment. Children undergo a similar order or stages of
development. Owing to varied circumstances the children are exposed to, the rate at which children go through the stages
differ. Some children may even miss the later stages of cognitive development.

How Learning Occurs

To explain how cognitive development happens, Piaget introduced the concepts of schema, assimilation,
and accommodation.

He defined schemas as "a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly
interconnected and governed by a core meaning" (Piaget, 1952). It is the person's way of organizing knowledge. Viewed
like the central processing unit of a computer, schemata (plural form) are like individual files representing an aspect of the
world like objects, actions, and concepts. Schemata guide the person's way of responding to a new experience.

Piaget used the term adaptation to refer to the ability to adjust to a piece of new information or experience, making it
possible for the person to cope with the change. If the person can adapt to every experience, learning happens.

Consider the story of Jayden, a boy who is no more than 2 years old, who formed the concept of “dog" as he played very
often with Starbucks, a Shih Tzu, the family dog. When introduced to a poodle, he called the same as "dog." One day, he
saw the neighbor's cat and shouted "dog” to get the attention of his mother. Jayden's schema for dogs includes having a
small furry body, with four legs, a waggling tail, and barking ability. Calling the poodle "dog" is a case
of assimilation, the process of taking new information into the existing schema. When the mother explained that dogs bark
but cats meow, Jayden accommodated the new experience, thus, his schema for "cats" was created,

Accommodation involves changing or altering existing schemas owing to the new information provided or learned.

The balance between assimilation and accommodation is achieved through a mechanism, which Piaget
called equilibration. This ability is believed to be a factor in children’s ability to move from one to another in cognitive
development. If a person is unable to take a balance of these two processes, disequilibrium occurs.

Stages of Cognitive Development

To Piaget, cognitive development among children has four phases. Children generally move through these different stages
of mental development. Each stage describes how children acquire knowledge and the nature of intelligence,
The milestones in terms of cognitive abilities children manifest in the different stages are summarized as follows:

Stage Milestones
· Begins about the time the child starts talking, to about seven years old.

· Develops language and begins to use symbols to represent objects.

Preoperational
· Has difficulty with past and future - thinks in the present.
(2-7 years)
· Can think through operations logically in one direction.

· Has problems understanding the point of view of another person.

· Begins about first grade, to early adolescence, around 11 years old.

· Can think logically about concrete (hands-on) problems.

Concrete
Operational (7- · Understands conservation and organizes things into categories and in series.
11 years)
· Can reverse thinking to mentally "undo" actions.

· Understands the past, present, and future.

· Can think hypothetically and deductively.

Formal · Thinking becomes more scientific.

Operational (12
years and up) · Solves abstract problems logically.

· Can consider multiple perspectives and develops concerns about social issues, personal ide
Adapted from Woolfolk (2016)

Sensorimotor Stage. Children at this stage think through what they see, hear, move, touch, and taste. Two major
accomplishments happen at this stage. One is object permanence, the belief that an object still exists even if not within
the sight of the child. Even when the mother leaves for work, the child is aware that the mother comes home in the
afternoon. The other major achievement children demonstrate in this stage is goal-directed actions. Initially, children do
not think about what they do as these actions are instinctive and involuntary (e.g., getting food and family attention).
Later, Piaget believed that as children grow, they begin to think about what they need to accomplish, how to do it, then act
on it.

Preoperational Stage. At this stage, children have not yet mastered mental operations because they use action schemes
connected to physical manipulations, not logical reasoning. By operations, it means actions a person carries out by
thinking them through instead of performing them (Woolfolk, 2016). The case of kindergarten learners using sticks to
count illustrate this preoperational ability. Another ability demonstrated at this stage is children's ability to form and use
symbols to represent a physical action or reality; this is a semiotic function. A child's ability to identify from a book the
picture of a bird illustrates this skill.

Concrete Operational Stage. Concrete operations are described by Piaget as the ability to engage in "hands-on
thinking" characterized by organized and rational thinking. A major ability at this stage is reversible thinking, thinking
backward, from the end to the beginning (Woolfolk, 2016). Reversibility involves conservation and
decentration. Conservation is the belief that, whatever the arrangement or appearance of the object, as long as there is
nothing added or decreased, the number or amount of the object would remain the same. A related skill
is decentration, the children's ability to focus on more than one dimension of an object at a time, Children at this stage
would understand that the smaller but wider glass contains the same amount of fruit juice with the content of the tall but
narrower glass. These children not only focus on the height of the glass but also considers its width. The width of the
narrow glass compensates the shortness of its height. Classification is another skill at this stage. It involves the ability to
group similar objects in terms o color, shape, use, etc. For example, children would group balls, wheels, marbles as round
objects; that 4 12,36 are numbers divisible by 4. A related skill is seriation, the ability to arrange objects according to
size, like small to smallest, far to farthest, etc. That a bull is big, the carabao is bigger, and the elephant is the biggest best
illustrates this ability.

Formal Operational Stage. At this stage, adolescents can engage in mental processes involving abstract thinking and
coordination of some variables (Woolfolk, 2016). All the earlier mental abilities have been mastered. The adolescents can
now think like a scientist, as they can give hypotheses and conjectures about the problem, set up experiments to test them,
and control extraneous variables to arrive at a valid and reliable explanation. They are capable of giving deductions as
they systematically evaluate their observations as well as their answers. This ability is called hypothetico-deductive
reasoning. Another feature at this stage is adolescent egocentrism, the assumption that although others have different
perceptions and beliefs, every individual shares other's thoughts, feelings, and concerns. This is opposite to
their egocentric characteristic in the earlier stages, wherein children think that what they and others think are similar.

Teaching Implications of Piaget' Cognitive Development Theory

The influence of Piaget on classroom instruction is summarized in his words, "What is desired is that the teacher cease
being a lecturer satisfied with transmitting ready-made solutions; his role should rather be that of a mentor stimulating
initiative and research." It behooves the teacher to be creative in imparting knowledge and skills to the students to engage
them in à more active learning environment so they can construct meaning and concepts. In addition to instruction, the
classroom environment, curriculum, and instructional materials should complement each other.

Berk (2013) provided a summary of teaching implications derived from Piaget' theory of cognitive development. These
considerations include the following:

1. A focus on the process of children's thinking, not just its products. Instead of simply checking for a correct
answer, teachers should emphasize the students' understanding and the process they used to get the answer
2. Recognition of the crucial role of children's self-initiative, active involvement in learning activities. In a
Piagetian classroom, children are encouraged to discover themselves through spontaneous interaction with the
environment, rather than the presentation of ready-made knowledge.
3. A de-emphasis on practices aimed at making children adult-like in their thinking. It refers to what Piaget
referred to as the "American question," which is "How can we speed up development?" He believes that trying to
speed up and accelerate children's process through the stages could be worse than no teaching at all.
4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget's theory asserts that children go through
all the same developmental stages. However, they do so at different rates. Because of this variation, teachers
must exert a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups of children rather than for
the whole class.

In addition, Webb (1980) recommended some considerations for teachers to ponder upon in their teaching practices. These
include the following:

o Consider the stage characteristics of the student's thought processes in planning learning activities.
o Use a wide variety of experiences rather than drill on specific tasks to maximize cognitive development.
o Do not assume that reaching adolescence or adulthood guarantees the ability to perform formal operations.
o Remember that each person structures each learning situation in terms of his schemata; therefore, no two persons
will derive the same meaning or benefit from a given experience.
 o Individualize learning experiences so that each student is working at a level that is high enough to be challenging
and realistic enough to prevent excessive frustration.
o Provide experience necessary for the development of concepts before the use of these concepts in language.
o Consider learning an active restructuring of thought rather than an increase in content.
o Make full use of wrong answers by helping the student analyze his or her thinking to retain the correct elements
and revise the miscomprehensions.
o Evaluate each student in terms of improving his or her performance.
o Avoid overuse of materials that are so highly structured that creative thought is discouraged.
o Use social interaction in learning experiences to promote increase in both interest and comprehension.

LESSON 6.2 . VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The sociocultural theory of cognitive development was formulated by Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist.
Its major argument is that social interaction, mediated through language, a key factor in the child's development. From the
child's interaction with others, concepts and social behavior are formed (social level), and he or she later thinks internally.

The theory underscores his belief that children's thinking is affected by their knowledge of the social community, which
Vygotsky considered as learned from either technical or psychological cultural tools (Vygotsky) 1978).

By cultural tools, it means real tools (like measuring instruments, calculators, etc.) and symbol systems (like numbers,
language, etc.) that allow people to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge (Woolfolk, 2016).

The Role of Social Interaction

Vygotsky emphasized the significance of social interaction in one's thinking. Children learn from the more
knowledgeable others (MKOs), which include parents, teachers, adults, and more advanced peers. An MKO is anyone
who has a higher skill level than the learner in terms of the specific task to perform. For instance, a child who is guided by
verbal clues by the mother learns how to tear off the plastic covering of the cookies. In another case, children playing
"Chinese garter" abide by the rules that they agree with. This is called a co-constructed process as the children negotiated
to create an acceptable rule on how to play the game.

The Role of Language

Vygotsky's theory emphasizes that language plays a central role in the theory of human cognitive development.
Language plays multiple roles, including culturally shaping the overt behavior of individuals as well as influencing their
covert behavior, such as thinking (Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000).

Through language, human cognitive development and higher mental functions are initiated from social communications.
As people engage in social activities, they are involved in mental and communicative functions (Vygotsky, 1986).

The three stages of speech development were identified by Vygotsky (Johnson, 2014). These are as follows:

Social or External Speech

 Thinking not related to speech

 Thinking in the form of images, emotions
Egocentric Speech
  Thinking out loud
 Talking to oneself *
Inner Speech

 Speech internalized
 Speech guides thinking, behavior

Stages of speech development

1. Social or external speech. At this stage (birth to approximately age 3), thinking is not related to speech at all.
Instead, thinking is primarily in the form of images, emotions, and impressions. Speech only occurs on the
external or social level to express a desire or to convey simple emotions such as shouting or crying. For instance,
a child would tell "Dede" or milk if hungry. At this stage, speech is merely a tool to make things happen in the
external world.

2. Egocentric speech. At this stage (approximately ages 3-7), children think out loud or talk to themselves as they
are doing something. For instance, as Paul plays with his toy car and it does not run, he tells himself "Sira na" or
"It's destroyed." Called egocentric speech, it is used to guide behavior and help to solve problems. It is an
important part of the transition to inner speech and more sophisticated thinking.

3. Inner speech. Inner speech is soundless speech or thought. Here, speech becomes internalized and is used to
guide thinking and behavior. It eventually leads to higher levels and more complex types of thinking.

Zone of Proximal Development

One major feature of Vygotsky's theory is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) as illustrated by Wheeler (2013). He
argued that at any time, children find difficulties in performing tasks or problems posed to them as they are not yet
matured enough to handle them. With the guidance of the MKOs, like their parents or elder siblings, they could perform
the task. Scaffolding, the provision of cues, clues, modeling, and demonstrations of the MKO, can assist the children in
successfully performing the task. The goal of the ZPD is to help the child move from the level of current independent
performance (the competence demonstrated to do a task alone) to the level of potential performance (the competence
achieved with the guidance of others).

For instance, a difficult word is used in a sentence. Asked about its meaning, the children could not provide the meaning
on their own. When the teacher reminds them that the context or the neighboring words or phrases could reveal the
meaning, they begin giving synonyms or related words to the difficult word. The teacher's reminder scaffolded the
children to arrive at the correct answer.

Teaching Implications of Vygotsky's Theory

The theory of sociocultural learning has greatly influenced practices in facilitating learning. Vygotsky’s theory promotes
learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. His theory requires that the teacher and student are
collaborators in the learning process, with the teacher as facilitator or guide in learner's construction of knowledge
and development of skills. The process makes learning a reciprocal experience for both the teacher and learners.

Citing research findings (e.g., John-Steiner & Mann, 2003; Webb, 2008; Slavin, 2014), Slavin (2018) proposed the
following teaching practices for consideration by the facilitator of learning. In the use of ZPD, teachers can organize
classroom activities in the following ways:
 1. Instruction can be planned to provide practice within the ZPD for individual children or groups of children. For
example, hints and prompts that helped children during a preassessment could form the basis of instructional
activities.
2. Scaffolding provides hints and prompts at different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the task, but
the role of the learner is simplified "through the graduated intervention
3. Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels who can help each other
to learn.

Moreover, Karpoy and Haywood (1998) recognized that for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the teacher
must plan activities that encompass not only what children are capable of doing on their own but what they can learn with
the help of others.

LESSON 6.3 . INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Nature of Information Processing

Developed by American psychologist George A. Miller, the information processing theory (IPT) of cognitive development
pertains to the study and analysis of what occurs in a person's mind as he or she receives a bit of information (Miller,
1956).

Other theorists enhanced Miller's theory, although the different theories that followed share common assumptions
(Schunk, 2012). First, information processing occurs in stages that intervene between receiving a stimulus and producing
a response. The form of information, or how it is represented mentally, differs depending on the stage. The stages are
qualitatively different from one another. Second, information processing is analogous to computer processing. The mind
receives and represents/encodes the stimulus from the environment, processes the information, stores it, locates/retrieves
it, and gives a response to it. Learning is a change/revision in the knowledge that has been stored by the memory.
Analyzing the way persons learn something new is important as there is a fixed pattern of events that take place in learning
something new (Miller, 1956). In explaining the concept of chunking, Miller argued that a person could only store five to
nine meaningful units in the short-term memory.

Basic Components of the IPT Model

The information processing theory model has three major components, namely: sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is the state in which he stimuli sensed (heard, seen, touched, smelled, and tasted are temporarily held in
mere seconds for the information to be processed further. As a person is presented a lot of stimuli at a given time, the
sensory memory serves as a filter on what to focus on. When viewing a basketball game, you can see one person focused
on the one in possession of the ball, while another one’s attention is centered on the guard’s action. Selective attention is
the individual’s ability to choose and process information while disregarding the other stimuli or information. Schunk
(2012) cited several factors that influence attention:

1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information.

2. The similarity between competing tasks or source of information.
3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as influenced by prior knowledge.
4. The ability to control and sustain attention.
As the information held in the sensory memory is for about three seconds only, unattended stimuli are forgotten. The
information the person gave attention to is transferred to the short-term memory.

Short-term Memory

Short-term memory serves as a temporary memory while the information is given further processing before it is
transferred to long-term memory. Information in this stage is 15-20 seconds only and can hold from 5 to 9 bits of
information only at a given time.

Before the information is transferred to long-term memory, there are two strategies involved: rehearsal and encoding or
elaboration.

Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of the information to sustain its maintenance in the short- term memory: The
use of ABC songs and number songs serve as rehearsal strategies among children.

Meanwhile, elaborative rehearsal is the process of relating the new information to what is already known and stored in
the long-term memory to make the new information more significant. One scheme is organization, the process of
classifying and grouping bits of information into organized chunks. For instance, memorizing the mobile number involves
grouping the 11 numbers into sets of numbers, like XXXX - YYY -ZZZZ. Arranging information into hierarchies is
another scheme. For instance, flora and fauna are grouped into phyla/divisions, classes, orders, families, genera, and
species.

The use of mnemonic devices is also helpful. Mnemonic devices elaborate information in different ways. For instance,
learners are taught the acronym "ROYGBIV" to recall that red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet are the
rainbow colors. To differentiate stalactite and stalagmite found in caves, learners are taught that the "g" in stalagmite tells
that the calcium carbonate deposit is located on the floor (ground), whereas the letter "c' in stalactite gives away its
location (ceiling).

Imagery is a strategy that involves the memory taking what is to be learned and creating meaningful visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic images of the information (Schunk, 2012). For instance, it is easy to locate Apayao in the Philippine map
because it looks like the bust of a former president of the country. An example of kinesthetic imagery is associating that
the left hand on the waist illustrates a less than value; the right hand on the waist indicates a greater than value.

Information that is not rehearsed and maintained in the short-term memory is forgotten. It also involves the relationship
between the new information and what is already known. unlimited space. Varied contents of information are stored,
namely:

Long-term memory

The long-term memory is the storehouse of information transferred from short-term memory. It has unlimited space.
Varied contents of information are stored, namely”

1. Semantic memory is the memory for ideas, words, facts, and concepts that are not part of the person's own
experiences. Individuals with good semantic memory include those who know the capital of countries in the
world, many words and their meanings, the order of planets, and other facts
2. Episodic memory includes the memory of events that happened in a person's life, connected to a specific time
and place. An example is a student who can explain the details of his or her most embarrassing moment (who
were involved, when, where, why, and how it happened).
3. Procedural memory accounts for the knowledge about how to do things. A student teacher who recalls the step-
by-step process of presenting the lesson to the class has procedural memory.
 4. Imagery refers to mental images of what is known. For instance, beginning readers use configuration clues,
shape, and appearance of words to help in word recognition: Associating a familiar image to the name of a newly
introduced person, like giraffe, guides one to recall the name of Gigi, a long-necked beautiful lady.

Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory

Retrieving information from long-term memory involves locating the information and transferring it to the short-term
memory to be used for a purpose. Studies (e.g., Bransford & Johnson, 1972) have shown that a person remembers a lot
less of the information stored in long-term memory. The quality of how the information was stored influences its access
and retrieval.

Retrieval of information from the long-term memory entails bringing to mind the previously acquired information to
understand some new input or to make a response. Schunk (2012) mentioned two ways of information retrieval. One is
recalling, which is either free recall or cued recall. In free recall, the person has to rely on the information previously
learned purely by memory. In contrast, the cued recall involves the provision of cues and clues to the person to help in the
recall of the information. It is observed that whatever hints the person used to encode the information, the same would
likewise facilitate its retrieval. Elementary learners can recall the letter in the alphabet if its image is accompanied by a
picture of an object whose name begins with that letter.

Recognition is another way to retrieve information. It involves providing the learners with stimuli as choices to make a
decision or judgment. In a multiple-choice test item, the difficulty of retrieving the correct answer is reduced because the
examines have options to choose from. Guided by their long-term memory, they would eliminate those options that are not
plausible, to eventually arrive at the correct answer.

Based on the primacy and recency effect principle, the information presented close to the start of the experience, and those
that are close to the end are most remembered by learners.

Forgetting

Forgetting is the loss of information, either in the sensory memory, short-term memory, or long-term
memory. Interference is the process that occurs when remembering certain information hampered by the presence of
other information (Woolfolk, 2016). At the sensory memory, there are other stimuli that bombard the person. As one
stimulus is just the focus at a time, others are forgotten. In the short-term memory, as rehearsal and maintenance activities
are made, incoming new information interferes. The same phenomenon happens in long-term memory. When new
information interferes with recalling the previous information, it is called retroactive interference. If the old information
interferes with recalling the new information, it is referred to as proactive interference.

In addition to interference, time decay is another factor for the loss of stored information from long- term memory.
Unused information decays and is forgotten. However, some theorists argue that stored information in the long-term
memory is never lost. To illustrate, a learner who had a traumatic experience in learning a Mathematics skill may
deliberately want to forget the previous learning concepts. After several years, when those skills are required to learn
another subject, those concepts surface again if there is conscious effort to review them.

This situation is also related to the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. It involves the failure to retrieve the information, but
the person is sure the information is known. The person feels that retrieval is imminent, but there is difficulty to directly
identify it at the moment.

Teaching Implications of the Information Processing Theory (IPT)

Following the concepts and principles associated with the IPT, Woolfolk (2016), Slavin (2018), an Schunk (2012)
recommend the following to be used in helping learners to understand and recall what they have learned:

1. Make sure you have the students’ attention. Develop a signal that tells students to stop what they are doing and
focus on you. Make sure That students respond to the signal. Practice using the signal.
2. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone.
3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic.
4. Regain the attention of individual students by walking closer to them, using their names, or asking them a
question.
5. Help students to separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important information.
Summarize instructional objectives to indicate what students should be learning. Relate the material you are
presenting to the objectives as you teach.
6. When you make an important point, pause, repeat, ask a student to-paraphrase, note the information on the board
in colored chalk, or tell students to highlight the point in their notes or readings. The use of mnemonic devices
could assist learners' retention of the information learned.
7. Help students to make connections between new information and what they already know. Review prerequisites
to help students bring to mind the information they will need to understand new material.
8. Provide for repetition and review of information. Using graphic organizers for rehearsals can help.
9. Present material in a clear and organized way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear. Advance organizers
can help.
10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. For instance, in teaching new words, help students to associate the new
word to a related word they already understand.