Introduction to English linguistics and grammar

1) Introduction: linguistics, language & English

Linguistics
Prescriptive ⇔ descriptive grammar
● prescriptive: about which rules you should follow
○ what is acceptable and what not?
○ what should language look like?
● descriptive: describing and studying the language using objective criteria
○ how is language used?
○ what’s happening in a language?

What is linguistics?
● linguistics is the scientific study of language including:
○ its structure (grammar), its acquisition and its development over time
● objective observation systematically with data
● it handles questions like:
○ what are the limits of learning a new language?
○ what’s the importance of dialect after centuries?
○ how did grammar change over time?

Why study linguistics?

● it’s a relatively young science with many questions still unanswered
○ e.g. how do children learn their first language so quickly?
● it can lead to a number of different career options
○ e.g. speech therapy, translation, publishing…
● it can equip you with skills useful in an even broader ranges of careers
○ e.g. communication skills, critical thinking...

Levels of linguistic analysis and linguistic disciplines

- phonetics → pronunciation (sounds)

- phonology → phonemes, prosody (patterns of stress and intonation)

- morphology → morphemes, words

- syntax → phrases, clauses, sentences

- discourse analysis → texts

- semantics & pragmatics → meaning, reference, interpretation

Theoretical ⇔ applied
 ● theoretical linguistics: studies phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics...
○ more abstract field of linguistics
● applied linguistics: studies bilingualism, translation, pragmatics, stylistics...
○ field of linguistics that has many subdisciplines

Language
Dictionary definitions
● wide range of definitions and wide range of approaches
● = the words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them used and
understood by a community
● = the ability to establish significant communication by using verbal expressions and
words in human intercourse
● Chomsky: features in human language are very unique
○ ⇒ we rely on a limited set of rules in order to express an unlimited amount of
expressions
○ it distinguishes human languages from any known system of animal
communication
○ language is a creative activity

Natural ⇔ artificial languages

● natural languages: languages that arose historically as a byproduct by society
○ e.g. English, American Sign Language…
● artificial languages: languages that are consciously invented for a purpose
○ e.g. programme languages, Esperanto, Python…

Basic features of natural language

1. Exclusively human
● language = unique to human species
○ there is a gene that allows us to speak languages (FOX2P)
● other species can communicate but they lack the ability to learn and use language
○ language ⇔ communication

2. Primarily sonic & vocal

● language is primarily sound-based (speech)
● speech involves vocal-auditory channel
○ sound waves produced by vocal organs
○ ⇒ tongue, lips, teeth…
● every language started as a spoken language → writing system is derived from that
○ writing is a secondary of language
○ writing is a learned skill and many languages are not written
○ sign languages are exceptions

3. Functional & meaningful

● primary function of language: to express meaning and convey messages
○ ⇒ communication
 ● there are different types of communication
● non-communicative functions of language exist too

Different functions of language

- informational function ● referential, factual

● communicate factual information
○ ⇒ encode info and communicate about facts
● “it is sunny outside”, “my name is Jason”

- social function ● to convey social information

○ ⇒ familiarity, respect, politeness
● “shut up” ⇔ “could you stop speaking”
○ expresses politeness
○ position of power
● phatic communication
○ factually no important information
○ it’s not important what you say, but that you say
something → small talk
○ e.g. conversation in a lift

- identifying function ● to convey information about the identity, personality and

background of the speaker
○ the way you speak tells more about you as a person
○ identifying where the speaker comes from
○ e.g. pronunciation

- emotive function ● express emotions, feelings, sensations, pain...

- aesthetic function ● to arouse aesthetic sensations by discovering the sonic,

rhythmic and melodic potential of speech
○ rhymes or alliteration to make the form of language
more aesthetically pleasing
○ e.g. literature, poetry, marketing…

- cognitive function ● to structure ideas/thoughts and facilitate mental operations

○ making things more clear

4. Open-ended & flexible

● language can express an infinite number of new and different meanings by means of
a finite set of speech signs (Noam Chomsky)
○ ⇔ animal communication: their systems are limited in number of forms and meanings
they can express
● express meanings that are not real → creativity in languages
○ not only talk about facts but also imagination
○ “colourless green ideas sleep furiously”
● recursion: you can keep adding things in language
○ this is uniquely human
○ “the girl laughed” → “the tall girl laughed”

5. Symbolic, conventional, arbitrary

● speech sounds are symbols or signs which stand for something
 ○ letters combined make a word with a meaning
● convention: the sound of this word stands for that meaning
● arbitrary: the word “butterfly” is a random word chosen to represent that insect
○ in other languages they use other words for the same insect
○ this is arbitrary and conventionalised

- linguistic sign/symbol ● signifiant/signifier/referend

- concept/meaning ● signifié/signified/referent

6. Structured, rule-based, complex, hierarchical

● components of language must be structured (horizontally and vertically) in specific
ways to be meaningful
● horizontal (linear) structure: effects meaning of words
○ visible in words, morphemes or syntax
○ they are different words → you can’t use them randomly
● vertical structure
○ hierarchical: smallest units (phonemes) to largest units (texts)
○ clauses: combinations of words centered around a verb sentence

English

What is English?
● different answers depending on the perspective (5)
● 1) a system with its own lexical items, morphology, grammar, phonology…
○ ⇒ focus on the structure
○ these categories have characteristics that are typical for English
● 2) a product of its historical development
○ ⇒ focus on historical perspective
○ Modern English ⇔ Middle English
○ often religious texts in older English
● 3) one of ± 6,500 languages
○ ⇒ focus on tempology perspective
○ classification based on common/shared features resulting from common
origins and historical evolution of languages
 ○ English is derived from other languages
● 4) a Germanic language
○ ⇒ focus on which group of language
○ similar to German and Dutch
○ English vocabulary is a mix of Romanic and Germanic
● 5) a global language
○ English = most widely spoken language as second language
○ lingua franca: common language for communication in science, media…
○ first language ⇔ second language ⇔ foreign language
● English is not a uniform/monolithic entity but a hybrid of different speech varieties
○ regional dialects: British English ⇔ American English ⇔ Cockney...
○ social dialects: Standard English ⇔ working class English…
○ ethnic dialects: Jewish English ⇔ Afro-American English…
○ registers: formal ⇔ informal ⇔ legal ⇔ academic
● English contains many styles, genres, dialects and accents

common core: everything that English varieties have

in common

Standard contemporary British English → focus of this course

● standard English: we focus on grammar that has conventions
○ important: we don’t make value judgements
● contemporary English: we use modern language
● British English: we use British varieties
○ e.g. petrol ⇔ gas

Important note 1
● British English is not just an accent - it’s a variety of English with its own grammar
rules, vocabulary, etc
● standard pronunciation of English is called Received Pronunciation (RP)

Important note 2
● reason we choose British English: not because it’s better than other varieties
○ ⇒ we need to select one language variety we can apply the tools of linguistics
analysis to
● advantages RP: relatively familiar, well-documented, social prestige
2) Phonetics and phonology: the sounds of English

Phonetics
Studying phonetics
● = scientific study of speech sound (phones)
● important for teaching and learning English as a foreign language
○ ⇒ most basic component of language

Speech sounds (phones)

● sound: auditory sensation as a result of vibration of air molecules
○ ⇒ air vibrates at a specific frequency
● speech sounds: sounds produced by human vocals for the purpose of speech

Branches of phonetics

- articulatory phonetics ● study of how speech sounds are produced

○ ⇒ focus of this course

- acoustic phonetics ● how speech is transmitted through air

- auditory phonetics ● how speech is perceived

Describing the sounds of English

● traditional Roman alphabet with 26 letters
● traditional alphabet is inadequate for phonetics
○ one letter can represent different sounds
○ solution: phonetic alphabets
● English has a complex orthography (like French/Danish)
○ ⇔ shallow orthography: you pronounce the words like they are written (e.g. Spanish)

Mismatches
● mismatches between traditional spelling and actual pronunciation
○ one sound has more than 1 spelling
○ e.g. people, key, niece, sea, machine represent the /i:/
● more or fewer letters in a word than sounds
○ e.g. cough = 5 letters and 3 sounds
○ e.g. fox = 3 letters and 4 sounds
● 1 spelling has more than 1 pronunciation
○ e.g. cough, though, bought…
● 1 spelling has more than 1 stress
○ e.g. the farm was used to produce produce

Phonetic alphabets
● strict match between sound and spelling
● 1 phonetic symbol = 1 sound
● IPA alphabet: 44 sounds + 4 diacritics
 ○ diacritics: symbols that you add to sound to indicate how long or open/closed
the sound is

The human vocal tract

● initiation process: first sound process
○ pushing air out of the longs that pass through the larynx
● step 2: phonation process
○ creating sound waves
○ air passes vocal folds (stemplooien)
○ 2 flaps start vibrating that can stretch, close or narrow
○ lower voice → lower vibration
● step 3: oral-nasal process
○ air goes through pharynx
○ goes through nasal or oral cavity
● velum: the door of the back of the throat
○ velum can be raised → lips are closed
○ velum can he lowered → air can exit through nose
● final step: articulation process
○ modifying sounds waves by using articulators
○ articulators: teeth, alveolum, tongue…
● active ⇔ passive articulators
○ active articulators: things with a muscle that can move like mouth and tongue
○ passive articulators: things that don’t move like teeth

Classification of speech sounds

● consonants ⇔ vowels
○ consonants: there is obstruction in the air flow
○ vowels: there is no obstruction in the fair flow + are always voiced

How do you describe/distinguish consonants?

● there are 3 criteria to give a unique characterization of the consonants sound
○ 1) voicing: do the vocal cords vibrate or not?
○ 2) manner of articulation: how do you pronounce the consonants?
○ 3) place of articulation: where do you pronounce the consonants?
Consonants

Places of articulation

1. bilabial ● contact between upper and lower lips /wmbp/

● the lips are sealed for a moment

2. labio-dental ● lower lips touching upper teeth /fv/

3. (inter)dental ● tongue tip between teeth or close to upper /θð/

teeth

4. alveolar ● tongue blade close to alveolar ridge /lnstdz/

○ = rough spot just behind teeth

5. palato-alveolar ● tongue blase close to alveolar ridge + /rʃʒ/

simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue
towards the hard palate

6. palatal ● front of the tongue close to the hard palate /j/

7. velar ● back of the tongue raised against velum /kgŋ/

8. glottal ● using the glottis to make audible friction /h/

○ ⇒ air burst

Manners of articulation

1. total closure → no sound can escape through oral cavity

Plosives/stops
● airstream is completely blocked
● pressure in oral cavity and then releasing it
○ ⇒ there is a little burst when you pronounce it
● very short and sudden burst
● /pbtdkg/
 Nasals
● mouth is blocked
● air escapes through the nose
○ /nmŋ/

Affricates
● transition from complete closure to friction
● it’s 1 articulation that involves 2 stages → different from plosives
and fricatives
● by releasing the sounds the tong is lowered gradually
allowing to hear some friction
● / tʃ dʒ /

2. partial closure → some kind of air escapes through oral cavity

Lateral
● airstream is allowed to go through other parts of the cavity
● contact alveolar ridge and blade of tongue
● air leaves via the sides of the tongue
○ ⇒ no friction
● /l/

3. narrowing → airstream has to go through narrow place

Fricatives
● contact as the air goes through the oral cavity
● just enough narrowing for friction to take place
● /fvszhʃʒθð/

Approximants
● light contact with little or no friction
● it sounds like a vowel because there is almost no
obstruction
● /wjr/

→ Examen

Alternative consonant labels

1. liquids ● curling up the tongue
○ ⇒ air flows around obstruction caused by tongue
● often mixed up by young children
○ ⇒ liquids are among the sounds acquired last
● lateral /l/ → also alveolar liquid
● retroflex /r/ → also post-alveolar liquid

2. semi-vowels/semi-consonants/glides ● palatal approximant /j/

● bilabial approximant /w/
○ these are also semi-consonant/semi-vowel
● behave like vowels
○ no real audible friction
● behave like consonants
○ place in syllables and words

3. sibilants ● fricatives that involves a narrow groove in the tongue that

creates a hissing sound
○ / s z ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ /
● ‘sisklanken’

Vowels
Criteria for defining vowels
● 1. tongue position: necessary for distinguish RP vowels
○ ⇒ height + part
● 2. length: not necessary for distinguish RP vowels
● 3. lip position: not necessary for distinguish RP vowels
● 4. nasality: not necessary for distinguish RP vowels

Tongue position - cardinal vowel diagram

● represents the abstract shape of oral cavity
● tongue position is contrastive: the tongue makes the difference
○ the other criteria are not
● 1. tongue height: degree op raising
● 2. part of the tongue raised and where raising takes place in mouth
● central vowel /ə/ → tongue in neutral position

Monophthongs: quality of the sound

remains the same from start to finish

1. vertical: tongue height

2. horizontal: part of tongue

→ Examen
 Classification by part of tongue raised

- front vowels / i: ɪ e æ /

- central vowels / ɜ: ə ʌ /

- back vowels / ɑ: ɒ ɔ: u: ʊ /

Diphthongs in RP
● = one sound with 2 points of articulation
● a sounds starts in 1 position in oral cavity and then moves in other position
● centering: start somewhere and move to center
○ ⇒ towards /ə/
● closing: end in a vowel that is more closed
○ ⇒ towards /ɪ/ or /ʊ/
Triphthongs in RP
● = one sound that has 3 points of articulation
● = combination diphthong + schwa (/ə/)
○ fire → /faɪə/
○ player → /pleɪə/
○ lower → /ləʊə/
● starts in one position in oral cavity and then moves in 2 other positions

Vowel length
duration of the articulation

- long ● diphthongs
● / ɑ: ɔ: u: i: ɜ: /

- short ● / ə ʌ ɪ e æ ʊ ɒ/
→ length is non-contrastive in RP
→ diacritics are used to indicate the length of a vowel

Lip position

- rounded ● / u: ɒ ɔ: ʊ /

- unrounded ● / i: ɪ e æ / → spread
● / ɑ: ə ʌ ɜ: / → central
→ lip position is non-contrastive in RP: no vowel is different only in terms of lip
position

Nasality

- oral vowels ● all RP vowels

- nasal vowels ● not in RP but exists in French

→ nasality is non-contrastive in RP

Summary: classification of RP vowels

- degree of tongue raising ● high/mid-high/mid-low/low

- part of tongue ● front/central/back

- tongue movement ● monophthong ⇔ diphthong

- length ● short ⇔ long

- lip position ● rounded ⇔ unrounded

- nasality ● oral ⇔ nasal

Example of an exam question

(lip position and nasalty are less

important on the exam)

Why study phonetics further?

● studying a child’s development in their production and perception of speech sounds
○ ⇒ Child Language Acquisition
● to understand pronunciation errors made by non-native speakers
○ ⇒ Second Language Acquisition
● to understand and treat speech and hearing disorders
○ ⇒ clinical phonetics
● to be able to prove whether or not a voice recording is the suspect’s voice
○ ⇒ Forensic Phonetics

Vocal fry
● = low creaking vibration often seen by (educated) women
● glotal manipulation of voice
● linguists consider these phenomenon objectively without passing judgement
○ ⇒ descriptive approach

Phonology

Phonology
● = study of the system of relevant sounds of a language → phonemes
● = study of the variation in pronunciation of phonemes → allophones
● = study of how phonemes are combined form larger units of speech → phonotactics

Phonology ⇔ phonetics
● phonology: abstract representation of sounds
● phonetics: realisation of sounds
● they have 1 thing in common: they both talk about sounds

Phonemes
Definition
● phonemes are contrastive sounds that cause a difference in meaning
 ● example [pet] ⇔ [bet]: the phonetic contrast between [p] and [b] causes a difference in
meaning → therefore /p/ and /b/ are phonemes of English

Minimal pairs
● = proof that phonemes exist
● = a pair of words which sound the same except for one unit of sound
○ [pæt] ⇔ [bæt]: /p/ and /b/ are phonemes of RP
○ [pæt] ⇔ [kæt]: /k/ is a phoneme of RP
● 44 contrastive sounds (phonemes) in RP

Phonemes ⇔ pronunciation variants

● retroflex /r/ ⇔ other variants of how to pronounce the /r/
○ this doesn’t cause a difference in meaning, only in sound
○ this can be different in other languages
● allophones = variation in pronunciation of morphemes

Variability in the pronunciation of phonemes

● 1) anatomical variation between individual speakers
○ ⇒ dimension and shape of oral cavity varies
● 2) regional and social variation between groups of speakers
○ e.g. Scottish ⇔ RP
● 3) allophonic variation between individual sounds in the speech of the individual
speaker

Writing system
● / … / → phonemic transcription
○ abstract representation, represents the sound in general
● [ … ] → phonetic transcription
○ exact realisation of the specific sound

Types of allophones
1. Unmarked articulation = symbol of the letter without diacritics
● this happens when /t/ is the second element of the word
○ same applies to /p/ and /k/
● occurs in pronunciation of words such as [stɒp]

2. Aspirated articulation = production of a sound with a forceful puff of air

 ● occurs obligatorily at the beginning of a stressed syllable
○ ‘h’ in superscript
○ same applies to /p/ and /k/
● occurs in pronunciation of words such as [tᴴɒp]

3. Non-released articulation = production of sound that isn’t very audible

● optional in word-final position
● the tongue is getting ready to the letter but the airflow stops
○ ⇒ articulation is very subtle: you can’t really hear it

3. 4.

4. Nasal articulation before syllabic [n]

● ‘n’ in superscript
● tongue blocks oral cavity and velum is opened allowing air to go through nasal cavity
● assimilation: [n] influences [t]

5. Dental articulation before interdentals (th-sounds)

● ‘hyphen’ in superscript
● tongue goes between the teeth before the interdental sound is produced
● happens in words like eighth = [eɪt̪ θ]

6. Voiced articulation in intervocalic position

● intervocalic position = between 2 vocals
● [t] starts to sound like [d]
● happens a lot in American English

7. Lateral articulation before /l/

● sequence of 2 alveolar sounds
● instead of completely releasing the /t/ it retains
contact with top of alveolar ridge but only through the
sides of the tongue
Allographic variation
● = different ways of writing the same grapheme (letter) but
these allographs are the same abstract graphemes
● = represent the same letter but they are written differently

Complementary distribution
● complementary = if it occurs this way in this position it will be
articulated differently in another position
● /p/ becomes [pᴴ] at the beginning of a word
● /p/ becomes [p̚ ] at the end of a word
● /p/ remains [p] elsewhere
● distribution is not random but predictable from the context
● the place in which these different pronunciations occur are unique

Free or random distribution

● = when the allophonic variants are not predictable from the context
● e.g. individual’s speech in different context or in the realization of the same phoneme
by different speakers

Phonetics ⇔ phonology

- phonetics ● = study of the concrete physical realisation of speech sounds

○ ⇒ the acoustic speech sounds (phones)
● deals with production, transmission and reception of sound waves

[pæᴴt̚ ]

- phonology ● = study of the abstract cognitive representation of speech sounds

in the mind of speakers (phonemes)
● how speech sounds and phonetic features are organised in
language to create contrast

[pæt]

Phonotactics
Syllables
● = minimal combinations of phonemes
● = smallest possible cluster of phonemes in a language
● = a unit of language between phonemes and words
● syllables don’t have necessarily a meaning
● most words consist of minimally 1 vowel + 1 or more consonants
○ 1 vowel: [eə] → air
○ 1 vowel + consonants: [fi:l] → feel
●
● polysyllabic = consisting of more than 1 syllable
 Syllable structure

- onset ● = initial element (always a consonant)

- rhyme ● = everything that follows after onset

- nucleus ● = central element of a syllable

○ core of syllable
○ only aspect that is required
○ most case it’s a vowel but can be a consonant

- coda ● = final consonant in a syllable

→ coda and onset are not always necessary

Syllable boundaries
● cutting a word in smaller syllables
○ fanatic → /fə-næ-tɪk/
○ overtake → /əʊ-və-teɪk/
○ iron → /aɪ-ən/

Syllable types
● open syllable = syllables with no coda
○ /ai/ /si:/ /əʊ/
● closed syllable = syllables with coda
○ /keɪm/ /bred/
● monosyllabic words = words with only 1 syllable
● polysyllabic words = words with more than 2 syllable
○ ⇒ disyllabic, trisyllabic…

Phonotactics
● = defines the permissible combinations of phonemes
○ ⇒ rules that help you what’s possible in syllables and what not
● studies the permissible number and kinds of phonemes that can be clustered

Permissible number of phonemes

 - at the nucleus: vowels ● rule: only one vowel (monophthong or diphthong)
○ /spɪn/, /fu:l/, faʊl/
● exception 1: one diphthong + /ə/
○ /faɪə/, /taʊə/
● exception 2: words of foreign origin
○ /nju:klɪaɪ/, /həwaɪi:/

- at the coda ● rule: up to 4 consonants

○ /sɪt/ ⇔ /twelfθs/

- at the onset ● rule: up to 3 consonants

○ /self/ ⇔ /strəʊk/

Permissible sequence of phonemes

● always /s/ + voiceless stop + /l r j/

Prosodic properties of English

● = something that operates on a higher level of syllables
● include intonation, stress, tone and rhythm = supra-segmentals
○ e.g. “you won the lottery” ⇔ “you won the lottery?!”
○ e.g. an increase ⇔ to increase

Basic prosodic properties

- loudness ● intensity of the sound = volume

○ lower soundwave means softer volume
● degree of vocal cord vibration → amplitude of soundwave
● intensity of sound is expressed in dB
● soft ⇔ loud

→ loudness is non-contrastive in English

- length ● how long is the sound pronounced

● duration of articulation in msec
● short ⇔ long
○ /bæd/ ⇔ /bæ:d/
 → length is contrastive in some languages

- pitch ● frequency of vocal cords vibration expressed in Hz

● low ⇔ high

→ pitch is contrastive in Manadarin

Complex prosodic properties

- stress ● complex: combines loudness, length and pitch

● relative force with a sound element is produced
● used to highlight a segment against a wider background
● sentence stress and word stress

→ sentence stress is non-contrastive in English

→ word stress is contrastive in English

- intonation ● = contrastive use of pitch and stress variations in an utterance

● operates over the entire sentence
● 3 basic intonation patterns (contours)

1. Level intonation: intonation kept mostly at the same level

● Peter lives in London.
● used to mark a statement → level contour
2. Rising intonation: intonation goes up at the end of the sentence
● Peters lives in London?
● used to mark a question → rising contour
3. Falling intonation: intonation goes down at the end of the sentence
● used to mark a statement → falling contour

→ intonation is contrastive in English

Rhythm is non-contrastive in English

Tone is non-contrastive in English

Sentence stress ⇔ word stress

● sentence stress: to contrast/emphasize a word or group of words against the rest of
the utterance
○ John left today ⇔ John left today ⇔ John left today
○ stress only marks a nuance
● word stress: marks differences in word meaning or function
○ /’ɪnkri:s/ ⇔ /ɪn’kri:s/
○ stress determines the meaning of the word
● schwa (ə) are always unstressed

Free word stress ⇔ fixed word stress

● free word stress: there is no rule to easily predict which syllable carries the stress
○ this is the case for English
● fixed word stress: there is a rule to easily predict the stress
 ○ this is the case for Italian and Welsh
● French has no word stress

Phonological processes in connected/fluent speech

Connected speech
● linguistic context in which sounds occur is important
● pronunciation of citation form may differ from pronunciation in fluent connected
speech as a result of assimilation, elision, gradation, liaison

1. Assimilation
● adjacent sounds (naburige klanken) influence one another so that they become more alike →
they assimilate
○ it makes pronouncing words easier and more fluent
● anticipatory assimilation: a sound influences another sound that comes before it
● progressive assimilation: a sound influences another sound that comes after it
● coalescence: 2 sounds fuse together and become 1 new sound

2. Elision
● = omission of phonemes in fluent speech
● the number of phonemes becomes lower compared to citation forms
○ ⇒ phoneme reduction
● elision of consonants happen in consonant clusters at morph boundaries
○ /nekst deɪ/ → /neksdeɪ/
○ /dəʊnt nəʊ/ → /dəʊnəʊ/
● elision of vowels happen in unstressed or weak syllables (usually /ə/)
 ○ /pəli:s/ → /pli:s/
○ /laɪbrərɪ/ → /laɪbrɪ/

3. Gradation
● many words have 2 different pronunciation forms
● strong form: in stressed positions
● weak from: in unstressed positions
○ ⇒ usually adapts the schwa

3 processes of graduation

1. long vowel → short vowel the = [ði:] → [ð]

2. peripheral vowel → central vowel we are happy = [ɑ:] → [ə]

3. elision of consonants/vowels because I’m happy: ‘because’ → [kəz]

4. Liaison
● = insertion of a sound between 2 words or syllables to help them run together more
smoothly
● liaison in French: ‘mon’ + ‘école’ → mon-école (connection)
● liaison in English: linking /r/ and intrusive /r/

Rhoticity (r-colouring)

1. rhotic accents ● r-colouring

● pronounce /r/ whenever it appears in the spelling
○ Irish English, American English, Scottish English, South-
West English…
● very transparent

2. non-rhotic accents ● no r-colouring

● do not pronounce /r/ in word-final or pre-consonantal position
● they pronounce /r/ only when it appears before a vowel
○ Australian English, New-Zealand English, UK

RP = non-rhotic accent

linking /r/ ● /r/ is found in the spelling

● /r/ is used to make a bridge between a word that ends with /r/
and that follows another word that starts with a vowel
 ○ ⇒ non-rhotic accents

intrusive /r/ ● /r/ is not found in the spelling

● = insertion of an ‘alien’ /r/ between the final and initial vowel
sounds of 2 adjacent words
● used to make a bridge between a word that ends with a vowel
and that follows another word that also starts with a vowel

Linking /r/

Intrusive /r/

Combined effects
● colloquial (informal) pronunciation and spelling forms
○ going to (gonna) = [gɒnə]
○ got you (gotcha) = [gɒtʃə]
○ let me (lemme) = [lemɪ]