PRESSURE – is the normal force exerted by the fluid per

unit area of the surface.

𝑭
✓ P = , (Pa, psi)
𝑨

where: F- normal force (lbf, kgf, N)

A- area normal to the force (in², ft², m²)
ENGLISH UNIT S.I. UNIT
𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝑵
𝟐 (psi) (Pa, Pascal)
𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟐
Patm = atmospheric pressure (barometric)
1atm = 14.7 psi (lbf/in²)
= 101.325 kPa (kN/m²)
= 1.0332 kgf/cm²
= 760 mmHg = 760 torr
= 29.92 inHg
= 1.01325 bar
= 10.33 mH20 (meter of water)
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AND GAGE PRESSURE
✓Pabs = Patm ± Pg
where: Pabs – absolute pressure
Patm – atmospheric or
barometric pressure
Pg – gage pressure

Note: For gage pressure value:

use (-) if it’s indicated that
the pressure is in vacuum, if not
stated use (+) otherwise
 𝑭
✓P=
𝑨

𝒎𝒈 • WE CHANGED THE VALUE OF FORCE TO MASS

𝒌 TIMES GRAVITY, WHILE WE SUBSTITUTED
= 𝑽 AREA FROM THE FORMULA FOR VOLUME
WHICH IS AREA TIMES HEIGHT.
𝒉

• WE PUT HEIGHT ON THE NUMERATOR AND

𝑚𝑔ℎ
= THE PROPORTIONALITY CONSTANT IN THE
𝑉𝑘 DENOMINATOR.

• WE KNEW THAT “mg/Vk” IS EQUAL TO THE

P =𝛾ℎ FORMULA OF GAMMA OR THE SPECIFIC
WEIGHT.
PROBLEM:

A pressure gage register 40 psig in a region where the

barometer is 14.5 psia. Find the absolute pressure in
psia and kPa.
SOLUTION:

A pressure gage register 40 psig in a region where the

barometer is 14.5 psia. Find the absolute pressure in
psia and kPa.

ANSWER: 54.5 psia & 375.66 kPa

Heat - is the total energy of molecular motion
in a substance
Temperature - is a measure of the average
energy of molecular motion in a substance.
WATER °C °F

BOILING 100 212

tc tf

ICE 0 32
 Linear interpolation:
100 −0 212 −32
= CROSS MULTIPLY
𝑡𝑐 −0 𝑡𝑓 −32

100 − 0 𝑡𝑓 − 32 = 212 − 32 (𝑡𝑐 − 0) SOLVE THE OPERATIONS

LET’S ARRANGE THE TERMS IN

100)(𝑡𝑓 − 32 = (180)(𝑡𝑐) TERMS OF “tc”

100(𝑡𝑓 − 32)
= 𝑡𝑐 SIMPLIFY
180
Fundamental formulas:

𝟓
𝒕𝒄 = (𝒕𝒇 − 𝟑𝟐) NOW IN TERMS OF “tf”
𝟗
𝟗
𝒕𝒇 = 𝒕𝒄 + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURES:
KELVIN (K) = tc + 273 RANKINE (˚R) = tf + 460
The change in temperature in degree Celsius is just the same
with the change in temperature in Kelvin.
∆𝑡𝑐 = ∆𝑇𝐾
All is true with degree Fahrenheit and degree Rankine.
∆𝑡𝑓 = ∆𝑇°𝑅

IN CONVERTING CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE FROM ONE UNIT TO ANOTHER WE USE

THE FOLLOWING RELATIONS:

∆𝑡𝑓 = 1.8 ∆𝑡𝑐

∆𝑇°𝑅 = 1.8 ∆𝑇𝐾

-mass is indestructible
-mass in = mass out

𝑚ሶ 1 𝜌1 𝑚ሶ 2 𝜌2
𝐴1 SYSTEM 𝐴2

vത1 vത 2
Where: mሶ – mass flow rate
𝜌 − density
vത − velocity
A – area
Recall: The formula for volume flow rate is Area x Velocity Vሶ = A vത
 𝑚ሶ 1 𝜌1 𝑚ሶ 2 𝜌2
𝐴1 SYSTEM 𝐴2

vത1 vത 2

𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2 • REPLACE MASS WITH THE

DENSITY FORMULA
•
𝜌1 Vሶ 1 = 𝜌2 Vሶ 2
SUBSTITUTE FORMULA OF
VOLUME

•
𝜌1 𝐴1 vത1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 vത 2 USING THEIR RELATION
WE CAN ALSO CHANGE
DENSITY INTO SPECIFIC
𝐴1 vത1 𝐴1 vത1 VOLUME
=
𝑣1 𝑣2
1. Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia (29.92 in. Hg),
make these conversions: (a) 80 psig to psia and to atm (b) 20
in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abs and psia

GIVEN: Patm = 14.7 psia

REQUIRED: (a) & (b)
SOLUTION:
✓ 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ± 𝑃𝑔
80psig is in gage, we need to convert it into psi absolute.
(a) 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 + 80𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔 = 94.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
To convert the answer to atm, we will use the following
conversions we learned above.
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 94.7psia × = 6.44 𝑎𝑡𝑚
14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
 We can use 29.92 inHg for the Patm so that we won’t
convert other units, then gage pressure will be negative since it’s
in vacuum as stated.
(b) 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 29.92𝑖𝑛𝐻𝑔 − 20𝑖𝑛𝐻𝑔 = 9.92 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑔
Now convert the absolute pressure we got into psia
unit.
14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 9.92inHg × = 4.87𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
29.92𝑖𝑛𝐻𝑔
2. A Fahrenheit and a Celsius thermometer are both immersed in
a fluid. (a) If the two numerical readings are identical, what is the
fluid temperature expressed in K and in deg R? (b) What is the
fluid temperature if the Fahrenheit reading is numerically twice
that of Celsius reading?
GIVEN: (a) it says that tf is equal to tc so, t˚f = t˚c
(b) tf is twice tc so, t˚f = 2 (t˚c)
REQUIRED: (a) & (b)
SOLUTION:
5
✓ t˚c = 9
(t˚f − 32)
(a) t˚f = t˚c substitute it to the above equation
5
t˚f = (t˚f − 32)
9 t˚f = t˚c
9t˚f= 5t˚f −160 t˚f = −40℉ t˚c = −40℃
 5
✓ t˚c = 9
(t˚f − 32)
(b) t˚f = 2 (t˚c)
substitute the value of t˚f to the above equation
5
t˚c = (2t˚c
− 32)
9
9t˚c= 10t˚c −160
t˚c = 160 ℃, but t˚f = 2 (t˚c)
t˚f = 2(160) = 320 ℉
convert the answers into ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
VALUES
𝑇𝐾 = t˚c +273 = 160 +273 = 433K
𝑇°𝑅 = t˚f +460 = 320 +460 = 780°R
3. A fluid moves in a steady flow manner between two sections
in a flow line. At section 1: A1=10 ft2, vത1 = 100 fpm, 𝑣1 =4ft3/𝑙𝑏𝑚 .
At section 2: A2 = 2 ft2, 𝜌2 = 0.20 lb/ft3. Calculate (a) the mass
flow rate in 𝑙𝑏𝑚 /hr and (b) the speed at section 2 in fps.
GIVEN:
A1=10 ft2 A2 = 2 ft2
vത1 = 100 fpm 𝜌2 = 0.20 lb/ft3
𝑣1 =4ft3/𝑙𝑏𝑚

REQUIRED: (a) 𝑚ሶ (b) vത 2

SOLUTION:
A1vത1 (10 ft2)(100 ft/min) 𝑙𝑏𝑚 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑚ሶ 1 = = = 250 × = 1500
𝑣1 4ft3/𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
A1=10 ft2 A2 = 2 ft2
vത1 = 100 fpm 𝜌2 = 0.20 lb/ft3
𝑣1 =4ft3/𝑙𝑏𝑚

𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2 WE KNOW THAT MASS1 IS THE

𝑚ሶ 2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 vത 2 JUST SAME MASS AS MASS 2

𝑙𝑏
𝑚ሶ 2 1500 𝑚
vത 2 = = ℎ𝑟
𝜌2 𝐴2 (0.20 𝑙𝑏𝑚 )(2 ft2)
ft3
𝑓𝑡 1ℎ𝑟 CONVERT HOUR INTO
vത 2 = 37500 ×
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐 SECONDS

𝑓𝑡
vത 2 = 10.42
𝑠𝑒𝑐