Unity

The Moral Actions

Feelings and Moral Decision-Making
Introduction
When people decide at the height of their emotion, decisions made are most likely to
be subjective or biased. If one is mad, hurt, depressed or going through a painful experience,
his or her decisions may not be the most appropriateones as they are cloudedwith strong
emotional nuances and lack objectivity. When one is at the height ofone's rage, he or she does
not even consider making a decision but acts upon it immediately without considering the
consequencesof the action. People end up having more complicatedproblemshaving not
considered first where their actions may lead to.

The topic deals with emotion and moral decision-making. Should one disregard one's
emotion or emotions when taking a stance? Should an individual be pathetic so that decisions
arrived at are wise and objective? Let us consider below some ideas concerning this intriguing
topic on emotion and moral decision-making situations.

Learning Outcomes
1. Attribute the role of emotions in moral actions;
2. Differentiate actions based on reason and feelings; and
3. Analyze their feelings in personal moral experiences.

Activating Prior Learning

In a group, capture an experiencewhen you made a decisionat the height of your
emotion. What were the consequencesof your decision?Was there regret after you have
decided? (Share it in class) 15 minutes.

Presentation of Contents
The rationalistic point of view that emotion has no place in moral decision needs to be
examined.No person has the capacity to be unaffectedor separate himself or herself
elf Learning Module in ETHICS
completelyfrom one's feelings or emotions. Psychologically,it is a condition that is not
possible because individuals experience the situations of their life in all its dimensions —as a
rational being, as a feeling being, as a social being, as a religious being and more. And as such
these dimensions can never be compartmentalizedor segregated from each other and
experience one and put aside the others. One dimension may dominate the others but they can
never be completely erased or neglected during a particular experience. Where there is a need
to make moral decisions, it is Impossible to purge the individual of one's feelings or emotions
that may derail him or her from making the most appropriate one. After all, human beings are
not robots.

Bulaong Jr. Et al (2018) suggests citing the ideas of Aristotle that moral virtue is far
beyond the pure and simple act of intellectually determining the right thing to do. Mora/ virtue
is the character of the person through which a moral agent is able to have control over one's
emotionsor feelings. Aristotle does not suggest the eliminationof feelings but the cultivation
ofone's character at the basis of learning how to be able to control them.

It would seem that the Filipino agrees to this idea, when he or she says: "Huwag kang
padadala sa bugso ng iyong damdamin."Or, "Huwag mong paiiralin ang iyong emosyon."
These suggest that Filipinos have a way in order to tame one's emotions or feelings. It must be
a corollary experience that somehow there is a way to be able to manage one's emotions.

All these tell us that the human being is intellectualas much as emotional. Being a
human being is to have both the rational and emotion aspects and people will always be.
Aristotle proposes that decisions or moral virtues are an+øred at by the mature moral agent
because of habitually managing one's emotions in the rightful manner.

Hence, the responsible moral agent acceptsthat feelings cannot be put aside as they
will always be there. But what is necessary so that they will not detract anyone from making
an informed moral decision is learning how to cultivate them so that one's emotional life does
not remain in the, pre-conventional level in which self-interest is the motivation of decision
making, It should be noted that the cultivation of one's character is a process of continuous
habit of doing what is right. It is not therefore, a result of an overnight and single attempt but
really of a prolonged endeavor to train one's reaction to situations to arrive to what is called
character. Managing one's emotions and feelings would require every individual this process
until the individual has attained a mature moral character.

Summary
can easily prompt individualsto make decisions based on their prevailing
state. Emotions have value in moral decision-making but how to control
it would be essential in order to make the rightful decisions by habitually doing what is right.
By practicing something it evolves as the moral agent's character or natural manner in dealing
with situations. Knowledge is one aspect and managing one's emotions through character is
the other ingredient honored by responsible moral agents

47 elf Learning Module in ETHICS

 Assessment
True or False. Write Agree if the statement is correct and Disagree if the statement
is false.

l. Emotions and feelings are good bases for moral judgment because
they reflect the extent of the situation.
2. Emotions are easily placed under control because people can live
without it as long as they have a clear idea about their goals and
purposes.
3. According to Aristotle, "emotions can be tamed by developing appropriate
character".
4. Individuals are as much rational as emotional beings.
5. Men are better than women in assessingsince they are less emotional.
6. Stoics are better judges because theyremain unaffected by emotions.
7. Reason must always be on top of emotions when making tough
decisions or resolving conflicts.
8. Feelings and emotions cannot be trusted because they distort or
exaggerate situations.
9. The best individuals are those who know how to acknowledge and
appreciate their emotions and feelings.
10. Emotions must be set aside when makingmoral judgments for the
moral agent not to become subjective.

Reflection
Were there instances in my life where my decisionsheavily relied on my emotions?
Whatwere the consequences of my decisions?
 The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model
Introduction
Making decision may not be easy. People change their decisions now and then. They
vacillate in their stance unsure about the right thing to do. This is usually the case when facts
issues
and ideas about cenain issues are unclear. Furthermore, people's decision about certain
their
gets more confused because of their knowledge about the people to be affected by
quite
decisions.Whether right or wrong, they seem to favor more those close to them and are
to
harshand unforgiving to those they have less knowledge about. Decisions do not seem
biased
dependon the issue but rather on the people involved. In fact, decisions are all the more
the
and subjectivewhen the persons who are supposedto decide are themselves involved in
certam
issue.They are more concerned about saving their skin even if the responsibility for
involved
errorsare theirs and definitely have less or no considerationat all to other parties but
interests
even if they are right. People obstinately insist only on their rights, privileges and
are not fair toward others' legitimate demands and interests.
people are
How can people arrive at a more objective and right decisions?Even when
decisions made are
up to what is legitimate and acceptable decision for everyone, it looks like
escapes and remains
not alwaysthe way everybody wants them to be, Somethingalways
objective, fair and rightful
unattended.The topic might help people in their quest for a more
solutionsto issues affecting their lives.

Learning Outcomes
l. Perform the 7-step Moral Reasoning Model;
using the 7-step moral reasoning model; and
2. Judge their personal moral actions
model.
3. Check real life cases using the 7-step

Acdvadng Prior Learning

Debate on the premise:
committing a crime is lowered at 15 years of age.
Resolve that the age of

Presentation of Contents
and right moral decision? The following steps are
How does one arrive at an acceptable
decision which is called the Seven (7) Step Moral
Riggestedas guides in making moral
ReasoningModel.

elfLearning Module in ETHICS

 l. State the problem. Gather the facts
Before any decision, it is
have in their
possession all the necessary facts important that decisions makers are based
on facts and not on opinions and data concerning an issue. Decisions the issues
neither clarify
that need to be resolved. When on hearsay. Facts and data resolution to a
facts are incompletea definite
problem may not be reached.
The acceptability also of a solution to a problem or
issue will depend on the completeness
of facts and evidences.
2. Check the facts. Determine the ethical
issue(Is it moralif e)
In the second step, it is necessary
to determine the ethical issue. In other words,
what is the problem about? It is a point
of clarifying and distinguishing whether a
situation demands moral valuation or not. Some issues do not really qualify to be
considered a moral or ethical issue. When I have to decide about the time I should
eat my breakfast or, when I have to decide whetherI have to study for tomorrow's
examination in my Physics class do not necessarilyrequire deliberate moral
decision. But when contemplatingto secretly sell a familyproperty without the
knowledge of the other members is an exampleof a situation in which a moral
valuation is called for. Here, I have to ask myself whether my intention to sell the
family property is ethical or unethical.Is it the right thing to do even if I have
important needs to address?

3. What principles have a bearing on the case? Identify relevant factors.

In the case mentioned above about secretlyselling a family property, I should

consider the principles that would be violated by my decision. It is dishonest to sell
a common property without the knowledgeof my co-owners.I am violating the
principle that I should be honest at all times. Furthermore, my intention violates the
principles about private properties owned by others. My intention violates at least
two principles. In the example, there are principlesthat have a bearing on the
intention to secretly sell a communalpropertyand these principlestell us about
some irregularities ethically speaking.

4. List down the alternatives. Developa list of options.

involve several alternatives.Again, in the
Finding a solution to a moral issue may
property secretly may not be the only
example above about selling the family
alternatives may be possible like asking the other
solution to a financial crisis. Other
own share in the property. Or, maybe, if I have an
co-owners to buy themselves my
considerable amount of money is involved, it is possible
existing problem in which
generosity of my siblings, They may not be the only
that I can have recourse to the possible. Should my
be siblings and other
alternatives found, others may stillsituation;they might be able
to offer better
members of the family know my listing down possible alternatives to resolve
By
alternatives other than those I know.

elf Learning Module in ETHICS

 a problem, I have
created
more feasible alternative. several or a few possibilities from which I can choose a

5. Compare the alternatives

with principles.Test the
options.
It would be interesting
to compare the different
examination of the different alternatives; this involves the
disadvantages. It would also alternatives analyzing their advantages and
require finding which of the alternatives would violate
less the identified principles
with bearing on the issue. An alternative solution that
does not violate any principle
would normally be the recommendedone.
6. Assess the consequences. Make
a choice
Having identified the different alternatives,
the next step to be undertaken
would be the evaluation of the possible
consequencesof the different alternatives.
Which among the choices would bring about the
most benefits?
In the assessment of the consequences, it is suggested that the moral agent
consider at least the minimum requirement in making a moral decision, referred to
as reason and impartiality. Hence, the task is to consider not only the benefits that
could be derived by the moral agent himself or herself but also those that would
benefit all individuals to be affected by the moral decision. Again, it is important
that the moral agent does not only look at his or her interests but also giving fair
consideration to the interest of all the people affected by the decision.

7, Make a decision (Reviewsteps 1-6)

The last and final step involved would be to make a decision. A responsible and
conscientious moral agent knows that a morally acceptable decision is well
discerned and has considered all possible consequences and the interest of
everybody to be affected by it.

Note: For more readings on this topic, & Step Method for Ethical Decision Making,
contact Center for the study of Ethics in the Professions.Illinois Institute of Technology
right. Seven Step Method for Ethical Decision
CSEP @IIT .EDU.312.567. 3017.Copy
Making,Michael Davis, 2013.

Summary
way ofdealing with situations like problems or this
A disorganized and unsystematicnowhere. To be able to systematically address a situation,
case an ethical issue would lead us to
frameworkor modelor at least a guide.
The 7-step
thereis a need to work with a certain a moral decision. Going through the different
in making
reasoning model is precisely a guide

elf Learning Module in ETHICS

 may be a laborious one, but it
helps moral
agents not to
neglect and disregard important
The temptation is always
to make
instantsolution is at hand. This manner shortcuts since it saves time
ofcourse ofsolving and energy and voila an
ifwe hit the most appropriate alternative a problem would be
Bydeployingour efforts to the wrong from the many. most welcome
However, it is not always the case.
thatwould lead us back to the point altemative we consume more
of departure and time and energy because
arebackto zero. It is usually the case rethink the entire process
of the heuristic and thus, we
method People may be lucky method. It is best known as the trial and
but we can never
be sure about this
method in looking for
In solving moral issues, one
should not attempt to
ratheropt for lasting solutions to problems find easy solutions but
brainstormingand getting together. A even if it will require more one should
deliberation,
effortis better than the one found by solution moreover that is the fruit of a collaborative
a single individual because
commitmentin the implementation of the more people will give their
likethat;by considering every element solution. The 7-step moral reasoning model is just
in findinga solution,people do
permanent,lasting and morally right alternatives. arrive at a more

! Assessment
Situational Analysis. Following the Seven Step Method for
Ethical Decision
Making,
resolve the given situations below.

1. Situation A

Mr. X works as the Treasurer of their agency. he was for a long time jobless
until he approached politician relative and asked favor so that he eould be
recommended for work. Things had been favorable and since he graduateda
course which is accounting related, he was accommodated at the accounting
department.After many years of service, he was offered the position as treasurer
Of the agency. Mr. X was very thankful for the promotion.Everythingwas alright
until one day, the same boss who accommodated him to the omce and
Promoted him to the highest positionin the offce asked himto double or
triple the amounts in the balance sheet and to put the excess amount in the
Personal account of his boss. Mr. X is a very religious and honest man. He is
quite disturbed about what his boss is asking him to do. He is aware that this
in the court although he
is wrong and he found out, he will face a serious case
informed about it already.
was given an assurance that the auditorhas been
Mt X remained ina state of disbelief.Must he expose the dilemma to the public
what to do. Applyingthe seven
Or remain silent about it. He doesn't know resolve his
steps to moral reasoning, advice Mr. X how he should dilemma.

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 2. Situation B.
Mrs. X works abroad.
It started when her
difficult for her to support her two husbanddied and it became
by working abroad. The children stayed daughters.Shedecidedthen to take chances
with their grandmother,her own mother
untilthe tragic day when one of her
daughterswhowas on her way to school
met an accident. Fortunately, her daughter
survived but one arm had to be
amputated.

Mrs. X came home as soon as she could. She has

now second thoughts of
goingback abroad. However, she thought that it would not be easy for her and
herdaughters if she has no means of supporting them especiallythat they are
about to start their tertiary education.She feels so sorry about what
happened to her daughter. She blamed herselfforthe misfortune,thinkingthat if
she were around, the accident couldhave not happened« What will she do?
Go back to her work abroad or stay with her familywith no meansto send
them to school.

If you were Mrs. X, apply the seven steps to moral reasoningto arrive
at a sound decision.

Reflection
Have you experienced this once? How many
Thinkofthe saying: "Haste makes waste."
with moral decisions, why do you think it is better to consider as
times?In relation to dealing
muchelementsas possible?
 Ethical Frameworks and Principles in Moral Disposition

Introduction
In the succeeding discussions, only the four mental frameworks are discussed - Virtue
Ethics,the Natural Law, the Utilitarian Theory and Kant's Theory. The reason for this is that
beforethe preparation and conceptualizationof the suggested curriculum in Ethics by the
Commissionon Higher Education CHED, a survey of the different frameworks commonly
used by Filipinos has been undertaken. The survey revealed that these are most commonly
used frameworks.

People are unaware, they are utilizing these frameworks in the way they deal with their
situationin life, but the manner in which they decide and act upon those decisions are reflective
ofthe models mentioned above. By studymg them, people will be able to maximize the benefits
theycan get from the models with which they are working with. Furthermore, learning them
will help them realize the advantages and disadvantages of the models in use. Another benefit
is that the study of the different models can bring about the limitations and weaknesses of the
models.Such awareness can make people more critical and avoid the pitfalls inherent in each
ofthe models.
 Virtue Ethics
Introduction
wrhat makes virtue ethics different
from the other ethical frameworksis that it is
anchoredon the character of the individual By this, it
should be understood that the application
orthe practice of the model is not based on the
knowledge of the framework per se but on the
characterof the individual. Someone does or reacts
in a particular manner because it is his or
hercharacter reacting in that manner. The person who
has the habit of practicing kindness is
mostlikelyto display the virtue when it is called for. It is unlikelythat he or she will react
violentlyeven if his or her situation may necessitateit. Being
kind has becomepart of the
characterof the person. Kindness or virtues for that matter are then
products of a long process
offorming a habit of practicing what is ethical or what is upright and continuously correcting
oneselfin the process. By saying this, the natural implication is that virtues are not acquired
overnightor instantaneously. No book will be as effective in teaching virtues as helping a child
practicethem constantly. The framework reminds us about the importance of educating or
formingcharacter as early as possible and more specifically among children so that by the time
theyreach the age of reason, they must have imbibedin them the virtue necessaryto live
ethically,doing what promotes the good and acceptable to the rational mind.

Learning Outcomes
l. Explain the role of Virtue Ethics in moral experience;
2. Articulatethe virtue ethics; and
3. Criticize virtue ethics.

ActivatingPrior Learning
in the
group share your idea about the following: Imagine you are trapped
In a small There is not much food
With you are other adults and women and children. for
middleof a forest.
apportion the food left for everybody to survive while waiting
left. How are you going to
the rescuers? (Share it!) 15 minutes.

Presentation of Contents
Moral Excellence
Arete (Virtue) as
good values are virtues and the bad ones are vices.
bad. The enhance the quality of life, it is power
Values ean be good or positive changes and
excellence or human
Sincevirtue has the ability to bring state. This power is a means to attain
or an activity well or
In itself It is power as disposition according to reason and to perform the good values.
developing
excellence,'the ability to function 2018). It can be achievedby
al,
excellently"(Bulaong Jr. et
elf Learning Module in ETHICS
Hence,the role ofhuman reason is vital
in the
discernment in which
manner power has to be
Individualsdo not become
virtuous overnight.
by the moral character of a The power to attain excellence is
person as a result
mannerof doing things excellently is ofpracticing the virtue. If virtue or the
practice,
virtue must be something which achievable only by trainingoneself or by constant
makethe habit of practicing them in their individuals must strive for. They must constantly
day-to-day existence, constantly doing what is good
andcorrectingoneself if one falls short in
its practice. In the same
betheresult of a single act. The act of vein of idea, virtue cannot
honesty is considered
twicebutwhen it has become part of one's virtue if it is done not once, not
character.
Virtueas the Golden Mean (Nicomachean Ethics)

It is not clear whether it is Aristotelian

or written by Aristotle himself but it is clearly
dedicatedto his son Nichomea. The concept of
virtue is explained by the golden mean (mesotes
ormeasurement). It is a means by which the human
person is acting in measured way being
rational.The question therefore to be asked is "where can I
find excellence?". The answer is
foundin the mean or moderation. Example, the lack of love is hatred
or indifference.And
excessivelove is obsession as illustrated below:

Lack The Mean Excess

Hate/indifference Love Obsession

The mean is in the middle. It signifies how strong you are to withstand tension between
thelack of and excess of love. It is the test to the moral character of an individual. Aristotle is
concernedabout achieving the appropriate action which is neither deficient nor excessive.
Virtueis found in the middle or intermediary between extremes. It is the applicationof the
rightamountof passion or feelings and the exerciseof one's abilityto do a particularact. It
followsthat in themselves, feelings and passions are neither good nor bad. It is in the manner
Ofapplyingthem that the wrongness or rightnessof the act is manifested.It is alright for
instanceto be angry when it is reasonable but it is not right to be angry beyond what is required
bythe situation that triggered it.

here is the question of how to judge the mesotes

Another question that must be settled
Orthemiddle.Does it depend on the individual?

or mesotes does not depend on the person because it

According to Aristotle, the mean the person will be accused of relativism or
is differentfrom one person to another. Otherwise,
on the situation. It requires a serious consideration
SUbjectivism. Rather, the mesotes depends that will determine where mesotes is found
andexamination or the situation. It is the situation
or whatis the mesotes for a particular situation. Again, reason will be importantin order
to
appropriately judging as well where mesotes
anr0Priately assess any given situation, thereby
is to be
found.
 unit 7:
Communicationfor
Academic Purposes
Anotheridea that needs
special
of Duty Ethics. Where duty considerationabout
counterpart
what is right in of obligation ethics is the power virtue ethics is that it is the
and duties. to live virtuously in
Duty ethics is based on what
process. Morality in
accordance
is right and virtue ethics is procedural
what is wrong and
which is based on laws and
ethics is different. What
you
more than doing what is right. set is human excellence.
is doing not Virtue implies that you do
itis enough to be right (following rules) only following rules and therefore,
religion is asymmetrical; it is but looking for
Bitanga, excellence. As cited by Professor
always giving
thewayin which you treat someone in a more to the other. In the
relationship characterized same manner,
oftheimportanceof the other, you by respect and recognition
always think in terms
theotherperson and not simply in accordance of the maximumthat you can offer
to what is dutiful.
Also, moderation is not the same
as the
doesnot apply to all situations. For example, mean. Moderationin the sense of the middle
in the use ofshabu,
notapplicable.We cannot say that moderately moderation or the middle is
using the drug is the best way. It is simply
applicablesince using it in any manner is not
unacceptable. Virtue as the power to stay within
meancallsfor reason. Aristotle's discussion the
ultimately leads us to the definition ofmoral virtue
whichis the "state of character concerned with choice,
lying in a mean and determined by a
principle."
rational

Conclusion

Moral virtue is first, the condition arrived at by a person who has a character identified
outof the habitual exercise of particular actions. One's character is the result of continuous
preferencefor the good.

Second, in moral virtue, the action done is chosen because it is the middle. The middle
doesnot fall short or is excessive of the proper proportion by which feelings or passion should
beexpressed.Aristotle adds that the middle or mesotes does not totally depend on what the
personperceives as the middle because it would imply that he adheres to relativism. But the
middledependson the situation and the circumstance of the individual. It is the situation that
the proper way of dispensing feelings and passions.
identifies

Third, the proper identification of the middle is through the practicalwisdom or

rationalfaculty. The virtuous person has learned from experience and has therefore learned to
knowthe proper way of carrying out feelings, passions and actions. It means further that habit
ISnot simply the result of repetitive and mechanical action but is also the product of the
constant
applicationof reason on one's actions.
and passions have a middle point. When a
It must be said ftrther that not all feelings
meanis sought, it is the context that can identify the good act in a situation. As a conclusion,
of virtue is no longer ethical, one has
forAristotle,being superfluous with regard to expression to Filipino having the
gonebeyond the middle. This has some practical consequences

57 elf Learning Module in ETHICS

 of using superlative expression
inclination such as "sobra,"
acts that they usually consider as
certain "s
virtuous. Aristotle's
perspective on virtue can clarify

Below is a list of virtues. The list

will be helpful
youhavegiven to them. It will encourage them for you students, to
to assess how much
and stronger stance. give it a try or strengthen
commitment them for better

Honesty - Humility
Punctuality - Patience
Benevolence - Temperance
Courage - Prudence
Discipline - Righteousness
Courage - Wisdom
Chastity - Integrity
Resilience - Fortitude
Faith - Love
Charity - Obedience
Commitment - Religiosity
Knowledge - Prayerfulness
Piety - Mindfulness
Patriotism - Impartiality

Summary
Areteor virtue being the mean of all moral actionsreally requirescharacter.It is a
job to maintain oneself in the middle as there are always situations that can tempt
difficult
Individualsto depart from the middle. People may easily slide to either of the extremes of lack
orexcess.Virtue ethics is a framework or model in ethics to remind us about the importance
Offormingthe character Of the individual that can help one to remain in the middle or attain
is not something that
excellence.Also, virtue ethics will make people aware that character
of trying to do what is the
Individuals learn theoretically but is the result of a long process when one falls short
in the
nghtfulmanner and in that process continually correcting oneself
practiceof certain
virtues.
 Assessment

Identify the lack or excess of the following mesotes.

Lack Mesotes
Excess
Punctuali
Inte ri
Commitment
Knowled e
Humili
Disci line
Chari
Love
Reli iosi
Obedience
Ri hteousness

Reflection

Whatare the usual tendencies or moments that I either lack or excess of something? In
Way
or waysmust I overcome these weaknesses?
 The Natural Law Ethics Theory
(DivineLaw)
Introduction
Timbreza(2007) claims, that "there exists a natural
moral law which is manifested by
turallight of human reason, demanding the preservation
the na
of the natural order and
its violation." Furthermore, St. Thomas Aquinas, as cited by Timbreza (2007)
forbidding
that the source of moral Iaw is reason itself. Reason directs individualstoward the
explains
oodas the goal of our action. In the same context, Aquinas concludes that the good is
within the human nature and in its operation. Reason recognizes the basic
f"Do good, avoid evil." The idea is synthesized in what he calls "SYNDERESISor
principle o
of each individual to desire what is good."
thecapacity
Thenatural law ethics suggests that it is inherent in the human individualthe capacity
what is good and what is evil, Individuals are given this capacity through the light
torecognize
right reason which he
ofhumanreason and as St. Thomas Aquinas suggests," it is the voice of
of conscience."
alsocalls"the voice

Learning Outcomes
natural law;
l. Articulatethe basis of the
Discusswhat is meant by, "To desire what is good;" and basis.
2. or conscience have been their
which reason
3. Identify experiences in

AcüvaüngPrior Learning
decisions made in which
You identify your experiences and
Share it! (15 minute) reason or one's conscience.
would be
thesolebasis for doing them

Presentation of Contents theology. This idea is also

law theory and
rooted in Christian very basis is God's intentionto put
The natural law is deeply of natural law at its known to man. This moral law is
origin
in the divine law. The
rooted law which was made
in the world through the moral
Order
thenatural
law.

Module in ETHICS
elf Learning
 Illustration:

Divine Law
1
Laws of Nature 1

Example.
Lawof gravity, etc. Expressed in
Churchlaw (Ex. Canon law) (Fair and
square) human law
- Expressed as

pointsof Consideration:

l. The natural law is a body of

unchanging moral
principles regarded as a basis for all
2. An observable law relating
to natural phenomena.
says that there is a set of rules The natural
inherent in human behaviour law is a theory that
and human reasoning
3. The natural law is divine law revealed.

forUnderstanding the Natural Law

Guide
How do we understand natural law? To understand it, we
have to look into two
the purpose and the essence.
elements:

First,to be able to understand the natural law, one must look at the purpose, "Para saan
ito?'Youare created for what? Example, something is wrong because it is not used for its
naturalpurposeand vice-versa. Like the male organ is for the female organ and they are used
for reproduction.In the same manner referring to marriage, it is meant to be consummated and
ratified
(solemnized). There is no marriage when one is missing. Honoringthe purpose of
thingsis fundamental. Immediately something is out of track when the purpose of a thing is
notrespected.For instance, being a student, your main purpose is coming to school to study.
Having put aside this main purpose will jeopardize results. A student may fail in the subjects
ifnotgivenappropriate attention. Those students who excel are those who had constantly given
thenselvesto their main task which is studying. Or, a driver who continuouslydoes texting
whiledrivingmay meet a vehicular accident and may not reach the destination.Thus, the
its purpose is respected
ofone's action according to naturaJ law depends on whether
rightness
forwhichit is being performed. An action is wrong when it does not express the purpose for
whichit is
meant for.

law seems to be a part of you. Reason tells

HOWdo you determine your purpose? The example, it says that it is natural
thatYouare doing the right thing or its opposite. In an
You
Youdon't have sex with a dog. Nobody told you about that.

01 elfLearning Module in ETHICS

 Tounderstand the natural law, one ought to
a know the essence
(Anoba ito?) I am person (my essence), then, ofa "thing." What is this
nature, guides you should
thethingis or its one to deal with not kill me. Knowing what
it appropriately
and not otherwise.The

appropriately.Again, the question is how does

gnize the value of a thing one know the essence
and Natural Law ofthings? Reason
it. tells us that it is in the nature
will
ofhunl

Criticismson the Natural Law

1. Rachels (2003) claims that the idea that
everything in nature has a purpose is
stunningly anthropocentric since everything,
as it were, is arranged for the sake
of people whose well-being is the point of the
whole arrangement. By saying
this, Rachels seems to imply, without saying it directly,
that it is too neat to
believe. He said: "Humans are a remarkably vain species."

2, Citing David Hume, Rachels argues that in the discussion of the laws of nature,
there is a confusion of "is" and "ought." He tries to point out that they are
different notions and that there can be no conclusion that can be derived or that
follows from the other. That is, if for instance, man was made beneficent,it
does not follow that he ought to be.

3. Relative to the question of moral knowledge,Rachels suggeststhat because

human are following the laws of reason and since God, the author of the natural
has no
order has made us rational beings, it means that the religiousbeliever
equal access to
special access to moral truth. The holy and the profane have
moral knowledge.

Summary
us an internal guide that we can follow so that decisions are
The natural law provides
and good. The model views human nature as basically good
basedonthat which is desirable peoplethey
and serves the interests of the commongood. Most
anddesireswhat is beneficial conscience, the natural light of
human reason
following their
expressthis desire to do good by place, when relating
human situation at home, in the work
orthevoiceof reason. The daily
to do what is good or what is moral. To follow
withOthersor alone is guided by that principle is moral or ethical which implies that
when
ofreason
thedictatesofthe conscience or the voice and may act unethically.
acts inappropriately
someone acts comrary to it a person
upon what their consciencetells them and
have acted their conscience.
Peoplefeel good when they of guilt when they have acted against beneficial and
remorse and deep sense what is
experience
that what each one is up to is themselves
People
can one another on the basis dignity and respect they accord
What the same
lead them to treat others with
ETHICS
elfLearning Module in
 Assessment

True or False. Detemine if the statementsbelow are True or False. Write

Jftsweron the space provided before the number.
1. Natural law is deciding on the goodness or wrongnessof an act based
on reasonor the best to do.
2. The best people who can tell what is the best decisionaccordingto natural
law are the religious.
3. What is natural is what is morally right.
¯¯¯¯¯4. Same sex marriage is alright accordingto the natural law.
¯¯¯¯ 5. Avoiding evil is doing what is good.
-¯¯¯¯¯6. Children below the age of reason cannot perform moral acts.
7. Contraception is unnatural.; therefore, it is wrong according to the natural
law.
8. The Sacred Word or the Bible is the Ultimate source of the natural
law.
9. Killing any form is unjustifiable accordingto natural law.
10. is unnatural is a sin.

Reflecdon
when doing
DOyou always follow the voice of reason or the voice of conscience you made
in your life that
How did you feel having done it? Were there resolutions
onthedictatesof your conscience?
 Kant's Ethics or
Ethical Theory

Introduction
The Kantian ethics is a deontological model
of morality based
moral agent. "Deontos" in Greek means on the intentionor duty
fthe duty or obligation. The model emphasizes
Of the responsible moral that
theintention agent to always do
his or her duty to do what is good.
Kant's ethics is also called deontologism.
thisreason,
Followingthe same line of thought, the motivewhichis the performanceofone's duty
becomes the essence of morality. It means that
todowhat is good, the rightness or wrongness
actis determined by the motive to do what is good regardlessofthe consequencesof the
also refers to the motive of doing what one ought to do which ofcourse
act.Motiveor intention
do what is good (Timberza p. 44).
isthedutyto
with the utilitarian
The Kantian model of morality is often put in juxtaposition
of the intentionof the motive
perspectiveof morality in which the consequence regardless weaknesses
the rightness or wrongness of the act. The Kantian model has its own
determines
andlimitationswhich are discussed below.

Learning Outcomes
ofKantianism;
imperative as a central element
categorical weaknesses.
2. Substantiate why a in terms of its strength and
theory
31 Criticize Kantianism

Learning ( Share it!) why would

Activating Prior you consider as real duties.
identify those which
During election period, absolute duties?
they
Are
youconsiderthese as duties?

the intentionor the

(ethics). Kant emphasizes
person. Hence, acts are
good rational consequence
theory of the duty of every regardless of the ofevery
Kant s ethics the the or
to do the good,more than the endmotive which is the duty When
Will
Ich is the
out of duty intention or
makes an act moral. to
laeoyle done the one that one's inclination
for Kant is is the based on moral
oftheact. element
sense of duty doing it or it is that makes an act duty
mlviduL Hence•, m the pleasure for obligation or dutyought to do. Hence,
one
someone does something out
one's
It is the sense that which
act. good is
it does not reflect a moral to do what is
or the Iten•tion
 whatone is obliged to do. Duty is also
known as
d010%y bas good will in which again, the good obligation. The
is
"Do unto others what will is our presumption is that
den rule; you want duty.
others do unto The golden rule; therefore,
die you."
Theimportant question that should be
asked now is
if one acts how
from the sense of can one know one's duty in a
universalizability of
the act. This
duty, one must judge
his or her
means, act according
to the maxim
act is verified if it
tive,meaning the doing of the act is done has the characteristic
without mental categorical
reservation at all.
Thegood involves the principle of
universalizability. Kant
of this principle. argues that there are four
formulation
1, Formula of the law of nature. Act as if you
can at the
same time will that it should
becomea universal law. The act implies
that it is an acceptableact that can be
willed and be acted upon by every rational
moral agent. It reflects the idea of
modelling. The intention to do good to another and the act of doing it is
upon by the moral agent. It is not intended first acted
for others to do it. Further, what you do
is acceptable to others. It has the sense of strictness
because the basis is good Will.
2. Formula of the end in itself. It means "act in such a way that
you alwaystreat
humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other,
always as an
end, never simply use the other as a means" (Prof. Bitanga). An intention and the
act itself is good when it has respected the dignity of the person to whom the act is
intended and not using the same person of selfish ends. It is the humanitarian aspect
ofthe Kantian theory.

3. The formula of autonomy. Act that your will can be regarded at the same time as
if you are making a universal law. It is as if you want your action to be legislated.
You look at it as if an action can become a law. In doing an act of goodness,the
goodness itself is self-evident. It does not require another evidence or proof of
goodness.

4. Formula of the Kingdom of Ends. It is expressed by maxim, "Act as if you were

setting yourself as a standard. Never treat a person as a means but always as an end.
Never exploit anyone for any purpose" (Prof. Bitanga, 2018). An act is expressive
Ofthis principle when it is motivated by absolute recognitionof the sanctity and
dignityof person for whom the act is done. An act done to gain the recognitionof
to this formula of the
Others,no matter how good it appears to be does not belong
kingdom of ends.

Distin
etion between a Perfect Duty and an Imperfect Duty
Example, no killing,
.erfect Duty. It is the duty which we are obliged to do all the time.
Othersphysically, no lies, etc.
elf Learning Module in ETHICS
 Imperfect Duty. Imperfect
duties are those
t be expected to do always. Example, be we should do
as often as possible but
cgr100
charitable, loving,
etc. (Timbreza, 2007).
SomeKantian Ethical Principles
l. In the medical context for Kant,
it is alwayswron
to sa s that medical
People should patients.
2 be treated as ends and
not as means.
3. •That-we have also a duty to treat
ourselves as ends and to pres our dignity
and wotth as human beings,
4. That an action is right insofar as it satisfies
e cat goricalimperative.
5. The distinction between perfect and imperfec
s
should be recognized.

Criticismsof the Kantian Ethics

l. Kant's principles have no clear way of resolvingcases of conflictingduties.
Example, it is one's duty to always tell the truth. What if tellingthe truth to a
patient about the real health status will shortenhis or her life.
2. Categorical imperatives fail to establish duties in cases involvingmaximsthat
cannot be willed to become a universal law for subjectivereason.
rational
3. The problem related to the notion that we have a duty to treat others as
a
beings or persons. In bioethics, it is the questionof whetherto consider
2007).
seriously deformed fetus a rational being or not (Timbreza,

Summary
rightncss or wrongness ofthc act is dctcrmincdby
Kantiancthics cmphasizcs that thc consequencesof the act. On some light, it is
themotiveor intention regardless of thepossible only when one does somethingthat one
Understoodthat morally right actions are , " when does one do what he or she ought
or
to ask
to do. And therefore, it is important according to one's sense ofduty or obligation.
Ought
to do?" It happens when one acts
Obliged
that before doing anythingone should
sense ofmorality demands act. Ifthe act lacksthe requirement
Clearly,the Kantian doing the one
examine the motive or intention for moral righteousness.Therefore,
seriously
it, the act does not reflect imperative value of an act or its
ofthesenseof duty for doing
sense of the categorical the act does not reflect moralvalue.
shouldalways consider the this requirement,
not meet
Ifthe act does
 Assessment

True or False. (10 points). Determine whether or not the following statements
true or false. Write Aye for truthful statements and Nayc for your answer on the
before the number.
spaceprovided
1. The perfect duty is the duty that is well accomplished.
To oblige someone to performan act is what is known as categorical
imperative.
3. According to Kant's ethics, preference is the basis of the wrongness or
rightness of an act.
4. If you will that an act should be followed by all rational people, it has
the characteristic of universalizability of the act.
5. To be charitable is a perfect duty.
6. Miss X is acting on Kant's ethics by studying hard because he believes
that it will result to high grades.
7. Motives can be judged by the consequences of an act.
8. Having finished the constructionof the rod, the governor has executed
his or her categorical duty for the province.
9. Intentions are reflected in the consequences of an act.
10.A heroic act is a categorical duty,

Reflection
considerations?Did I make the
Whendeciding to perform an act, what were my of the act? Have I
onlyon the basis of my personal interests and the consequences
decision
it?
reflectingon my intentions or motives for doing
COnsidered
 Utilitarianism

Introduction
Ethiciansclassify ethical theories as either teleological
"teleos" mean "end" or or deontologicalethics. In
,'t (Timbreza,2007).Whenmoralvaluation
Greek emphasizes the
edonthis, it end result, goal or consequence
ISbasof its rightness or wrongness. The utilitarian ethics of an act as the determining
or utilitarianism is considered the
most imponantof the consequentialist th eories. As a consequentialistmodel, utilitarianism
determinesmoral valuation according to the consequence of the act. An act is considered right
ifit@sultsto something that is positive and good to people involved and bad or wrong if the
consequence of the act has brought about sadness. In the discussion below, what is "good" or
,psitive"refers to the happiness an act brings to people as a result of the benefit brought about
act.
bythe

Utilitarianism, in opposition to Kant's ethics, is purely based on the consequence of the

actandneveron its intention or motive. What is consideredmorallyright is that which can
somegood or happiness to its beneficiaries but never on the basis of the motive or the
bring
whyof the action. The rightness or wrongness in the utilitarian sense is further clarified and
below.
discussed

Learning Outcomes
l. Articulatethe utilitarian Ethics;
2. ApplyUtilitarianism ethics in moral experiences; and
3. Criticizethe Utilitarian Ethics.

ActivatingPrior Learning
of dole-out in terms of its consequence
Share it! (15 minutes) Evaluate the popularity
andas a method of helping people.

Presentation of Contents
that utilitarianismis the most importantconsequentialist
Timbreza(2007) claims Bentham and James Mill in thel 8th
This moral theory was first introduced by Jeremy
theory•
(1806 —1873. It argues that what makes
enturyLater, it was popularized by John Stuart Mill
good consequences, then it is moral; if
rightis its consequence. If an act has resulted in
thenit is
immoral.
 John Stuart Mill formulated
the Principle
of Utility. 1
princi claims to be the only
tend to roduce unhappiness." To ar-as-they-téiidto moral
promotehappiness,bad as
they determine w et
equences or result er an
featuresofthe action itself, for of the act rather
instance, its than by means of
right wrong, nor does the goodness intention Actions are neither intrinsically
or badness of
intentionor past action ofthe doer. an action depend
Consequences, effects, upon the motive or
inmindthe principle, we shouldconsider the possible results
are most important. Bearing
they are acted upon. we ought to effects ofeach action
choose the action or moral decision
that produces the most
benefits at
concemed about the possible cloud
of
individualismand
Millsuggested an alternative formulation Benthamand
of the utilitarian
"principle
of the greatest happiness" —An principle
popularly known as the
action is good insofar as it
happiness
for the greatest number of people; producesthe greatest
bad insofar as it produces more harm
forthegreatest number of individuals. than benefit

By introducing the "calculus of pain and

pleasure," Bentham suggests that the principle
ofthegreatest happiness is still made more specific
in some aspects. This "calculus of pain
andpleasure includes the following aspects —"intensity,
duration, certainty, propinquity,
fecundity,
purity and extent." So to speak, the more intense the
pleasure is, the better, the longer
itlasts,the better.

Criticisms
on Utilitarian Ethics

Timbreza (2007) notes several difficulties of utilitarianism as pointed out below.

l. The principle of utility can sacrifice the few for the sake of the many. This implies
that some individuals are considered more important than others. Their happiness
ISmore important than the happiness of the impoverishedor ordinary individuals.
It is apparent that the utilitarian principle lacks the principle of justice.

2• The utilitarian principle comes from its own consideration that before an action is
done, there has to be thorough investigation on the different possible consequences
Ofthe action. It would be impossible to be able to identify all the possible legitimate
consequencesof any act.
or
3' Lastly, the utilitarian principle does not give considerationto the intention
from which moral decision
motives of the doer of the act. Or, it ignores the motive
who is acting out from an evil
are made or based. This would imply that a person individual.
is a good
motive but nonetheless produces some good benefits
 Summary
utilitarianism has serious difficulties
but
concern Whether the action benefits enjoys certain popularity. People
and warrants act with the
especiallywhen needs and concerns better conditions for the majority
are characterized
advantage ofthe clarity as a moral theory by certain urgency. Utilitarianismhas
and can be measured
wrongnessis determined by the consequence more easily as its rightness
ofthe act. Ifan act
if it doesn't, then it is not brings good consequences,
thenit is good, good.
However, Utilitariamsm fails to ask
the intention or motive
performance has not affected or behind the act and whether
theactin its disadvantaged some.

! Assessment
True or False. (10 points). Determine whetherthe
statement is correct or
Write your answer on the space provided before each item.
false.
I. Utilitarianismis a moral theory anchored on the consequence
of an act.
2. Every act of kindness is a utilitarian act.
3. According to Utilitarianism," The end justifies the means".
4. The goodness of an act can only be determined by its result.
5. A good intention is good bccausc consequcnccs emanating from it is
good.

6. It makes sense killing a terrorist, because it stops having more victims.

7. The displacement of the natives near the Chico river is justifiable

because the construction of the dam will benefit more people and
generate more jobs.
good resultof an act.
No best intention can be better than the
good provided these acts
Acts with evil intentions are considered
can benefit people.
punishment is based on the principle of utilitarianism.
Capital

Reflection
experience?
Why or why not? Can you cite an
What Youalways favor utilitarianism? the consequenceor both?
act, the intention,
IsYourUltimaterbasisof a moral or ethical