BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction to Remote Sensing
1.1 Definition of Remote Sensing
1.2 Historical sketch of Remote Sensing
1.3 Different stages of Remote Sensing data acquisition
2.0 Basic Principles of Remote Sensing
2.1 Electro-magnetic energy
2.1.1 Electro-magnetic spectrum
2.1.2 Wavelength regions and their applications
2.2 Characteristics of solar radiation and basic radiation laws
2.2.1 Stefan-Boltzmann law.
2.2.2 Wien's displacement law
2.2.3 Planck's law
2.3 Characteristics of atmosphere and EM radiation
2.3.1 Composition of atmosphere
2.3.2 Absorption in the atmosphere
2.3.3 Scattering in the atmosphere
2.3.4 Atmospheric windows
2.4 Interaction of EM radiation with earth's surface
2.4.1 Interaction mechanism
2.4.1.1 Reflection
2.4.1.2 Absorption
2.4.1.3 Transmission
2.4.2 Spectral signature
2.4.3 Spectral reflectance characteristics of landscape features
2.4.3.1 Vegetation
2.4.3.2 Soil
2.4.3.3 Water
3.0 Types of Remote sensing image
3.1 Photographic and Digital images
3.1.1 Panchromatic image
3.1.2 Black and White infrared image
3.1.3 Multi-spectral image
3.2 Characteristics of image and interpretation
4.0 Remote Sensing observation platforms
4.1 Air borne platform
4.2 Space borne platform
4.2:1 Polar orbiting satellites
4.2.2 Geo-stationary satellites
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

1.0 Introduction to Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing has transformed the understanding of natural processes. The analysis,
application and interpretation of remotely sensed images have brought significant advances
in a wide range of fields from Climatology, geology, agriculture, and oceanography to urban
planning, environmental monitoring etc. The advent of satellites has allowed the acquisition
of information about the earth and its environment. Sensors on the earth resources and
meteorological satellites provide information on surface vegetation cover, its seasonal
variation, surface morphologic structures, sea surface temperature, wave heights, patterns
and dynamics of clouds etc.

1.1 Definition of Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing is broadly defined as the science and art of collecting information about
objects, area or phenomena from a distance without being in physical contact with them. For
example, in our everyday living, we employ remote sensing to view different objects. Our eyes
can be considered as sensors that respond to the light reflected from various objects. The
"data" our eyes acquire are impulses corresponding to the amount of light reflected from dark
and light areas of the object. These data are analyzed and interpreted in our mental computer
to enable us to recognize the object.
Using various sensors the data is collected remotely and analyzed to obtain information
about objects, areas or phenomena under investigation. The remotely collected data can be of
many forms, like, variations in gravity force distribution (using gravity meter), acoustic wave
distribution (using sonar sensor), electromagnetic energy distribution (using EM energy
sensors) etc.
The term Remote Sensing is commonly restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic
energy (such as lights, heat, micro wave) as means of detecting and measuring target
characteristics. Sensors acquire data as various earth surface features reflect and emit
electro-magnetic energy (EM energy).
Remote Sensing is broadly classified into two categories –
Passive Remote Sensing- It uses Sun as a source.of EM energy and recors as the energy that
is naturally radiated and/or reflected from the objects.
Active Remote Sensing- It uses its own source of EM energy which is directed towards the
object and return energy is measured.

1.2 Historical sketch of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing became possible with the invention of camefa in the nineteenth century.
Astronomy was one of the first fields of science to exploit this technique. Aithough, it wos
during the FirstWorldWar that free-1yving aircraft were used in a remote sensing role, but
the use of remote sensing for environmental assessment really became established after the
Second World War. It not only proved the value of aerial plhotography in land
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

reconnaissance and mapping, but had aiso driven technological advances in air-borne
camera design, film characteristics and photo-grammetric analysis.

However, up to early 1960's, air-borne missions were one-otf, expensive surveys, providing
data for relatively small area at a single instant of time. Moreover, all the photographs were
black and white. Colour photography came into existence ofter the invention of infrared films
in 1950. From about 1960, remote sensing underwent a major development when it extended
to space and sensors began to be placed in space. From 1970's startecd the new era of remote
sensing. The first designated earth resources satellite was launched in July 1972, originaily
named as ERTS-1 (Earth Resources Technology Satellite), which is now referred as Landsat.
It was designed jo acquire data from earth surface on a systematic, repetitive and multi-
spectral basis. The first Radar remote sensing satellite, SEASAT, was launched in 1978.

Prior to mid 1980's, the majority of satellites had been deployed by USA and USSR. France
launched first of SPOT series in 1985 and in 1988 first Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS-
1A) was put into orbit. To this day India has launched remote sensing satellites in space.
Satellites launched by Japan include JERS (Japanese Earth Resources Satellite) cind MOS
(Marine Cbservation Satellite). Radar Satellites have been launched in 1991 and 1995 by
European consortium (ERS) and by Canada in 1995 (RADARSAT)
Since the launch of first earth resources satellite, continuous efforts are being made for
technological improvements and to obtain high quality data by many countries.

1.3 Different stages of Remote Sensing data acquisition

The different stages of remote sensing data acquisition are illustrated in the Fig. 1.

Fig 1: Different stages of remote sensing data acquisition

 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

a. The Energy source: This source provides energy over all wavelengths. All passive RS
systems rely on the Sun as the strongest source of EM energy and measure energy that
is either reflected and/or emitted from earth's surface features. On the other hand,
active RS systems Use their own source of EM. energy.
b. Propagation of energy through atmosphere: The EM energy from the sun pass
through the atmosphere on its way to earth's surface and after reflection from it. To
some extent, atmosphere always modifies the strength and spectral distribution of
energy and the effect varies particularly with wavelength.
c. Energy interaction with earth's surface features: The interaction of EM energy with
earth's surface features generates reflected and/or emitted signals (Spectral response
patterns or Signatures). The spectral response patterns play a central role in detection,
identification and analysis of earth's surface material.
d. Received by the sensor: Sensors are electronic instruments designed to record
radiations and are mounted on board satellites. These are highly sensitive to
wavelengths, yielding data on the absolute brightness from the object as a function of
wavelength. No single sensor is sensitive to all wavelengths and has fixed limits of
spectral sensitivity and also has a limit on how small an object on the earth's surface
can be seen.
e. Transmission of data to earth station and data product generation: Payload data is
transmitted to the ground based earth station along with the telemetry data. Received
data is recorded on high-density data tapes and simultaneously viewed on quick look
displays. After various levels of corrections and processing, various data products are
generated. The data products are mainly classified into two categories - Photographic
product (Analogue) and Digital product.
f. Multi-users: These people should have knowledge of great depth, both of their
respective disciplines and remote sensing data and analysis techniques. The same set of
"data" becomes various forms of "information" for different users with the
understanding of their field and interpretation skills.

2.0 Basic principles of Remote Sensing

In order to produce an image using data obtain by a remote sensing sensor, it is essential to
measure some parameter that can be related to the scene and can be conveyed to the sensor
that may be hundreds of kilometres away from the ground. Remote Sensing employ
electromagnetic energy and to a great extent relies on the interaction of electromagnetic
energy with the matter (object). It refers to the sensing of EM radiation, which is reflected,
scattered or emitted from the object.

2.1 Electromagnetic energy

It refers to the energy that moves with velocity of light (3x10 m/sec) in a harmonic wave
pattern (equally and repetitively spaced in time) has two force fields electric and magnetic.
The electric and magnetic fields are always at right angles to each other and to the direction
in which wave propagates. Fig.2.
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

Fig-2: Electromagnetic energy

EM energy is characterized in terms of their velocity (C), Wavelength (λ) and frequency (f)
which is related by
C=λxf
 Wavelength (λ): It is the distance between two adjacent peaks. The wavelengths sensed
by many remote sensing systems are extremely small and are measured in terms of
micrometers (µm: 10 m) or nanometers (nm:10 m).
 Frequency (f): It is defined as the number of peaks that pass any given point in one
second and is measured in Hertz (Hz).
 Amplitude: It is the maximum value of the electric (or magnetic) fields and is a
measure of the amount of energy that is transported by the wave.

Wave theory-concept explains how EM energy propagates in the form of a wave, but this
energy can only be detected when it interacts with the matter. This interaction suggests that
the energy consist of many discrete units called Photons and whose energy is given by-
Q = h C/λ
Where, h - Planck's constant 6.625 x 10 J sec
"Above equation suggests that shorter the wavelength of radiation, more is the energy
content"

2.1.1 Electromagnetic spectrum:

Although visible light is the most obvious manifestation of EM radiation, other forms also
exist. For example, if an electric iron is switched on and the hand is held near the base plate,
it becomes warm. The transfer of energy to the hard clearly indicates that EM radiation at a
wavelength not within visible range is being produced. In this case, the EM radiation is in
thermal region, which is at longer wavelength than visible.
EM radiation can be produced at a range of wavelength stand can be categorized according
to its position into discrete region, which is generally referred as 'Electromagnetic Spectrum'.
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

Electro-magnetic Spectrum is a continuum sequence of EM energy arranged according to

wavelength or frequency (Fig 3).
The earth's atmosphere absorbs energy in the Gamma ray, X-ray and most of the ultra-violet
region; therefore these regions are not used tor remote sensing. Remote Sensing deals with
energy in visible, infrared, thermal and microwave regions. These regions are further sub-
divided into bands such as blue, green, red (in visible region), near infrared, mid infrared,
thermal, microwave etc.

Fig. 3: Electromagnetic spectrum

It is important to realize that significant amount of remote sensing performed within infrared
wavelength is not related to heat. It is photographic infrared at a slightly longer wavelength
(invisible to human eye) than red. Thermal infrared remote sensing is carried out at longer
wavelengths.

2 1.2 Wavelength regions and their applications

Fig. 3 shows the EM spectrum, which is divided on the basis of wavelength into discrete
regions. The regions and its principal applications are described in the following table.
Energy reflected from earth during daytime may be recorded as a function of wavelength. The
maximum amount of energy is reflected at 0.5 µm, called 'reflected energy peak. Earth also
radiates energy, both, during day and night time with maximum energy radiated at 9.7 µm,
called 'radiant energy peak.

REGIONS WAVELENGTH PRINCIPAL

APPLICATION
Blue 0.45 - 0.52 Coastal morphology &
Sedimentation study, Soil and
Vegetation differentiation,
Coniferous & Deciduous
vegetation discrimination
Green 0.52 - 0.60 Vigor assessment, Rock &
Soil discrimination, Turbidity
& bathymetry studies
Red 0.63 - 0.69 Plant species differentiation
Near infrared 0.76 - 0.90 Vegetation vigor, Biomass,
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Delineation of water features,

Landforms/geomorphicstudies
Mid infrared 1.55 - 1.75 Vegetation moisture content,
soil moisture content, snow &
cloud differentiation
Mid infrared 2.08 – 2.35 Differentiation of geological
materials& soils
Thermal IR 3.0 - 5.0 For hot targets Viz. Fires and
volcanoes
Thermal IR 10.4-12.5 Thermal sensing, Vegetation
discrimination, Volcanic
studies

2.2 Characteristics of solar radiation and basic radiation laws

Passive remote sensing uses Sun as its source of EM radiation. Sun is the strongest source of
radiant energy and can be approximated by a body source of temperature 5750 - 6000° K.
Although, sun produces EM radiation across a range of wavelengths, the amount of energy it
produces is not evenly distributed. Approximately 43% is radiated within visible wavelength
(0.4 to 0.7 µm). 48% of the energy is transmitted at wavelength greater than 0.7 µm, mainly
within infrared range.

All objects above 0°K emits EM radiation at all wavelengths due to conversion of heat energy
into EM energy. Blackbody is a hypothetical ideal radiator that totally absorbs and remits all
energy incidents upon it. Thermal emission of radiation depends upon two parameters
Temperature (T) and emmissivity ( ) of the material.

2.2.1 Stefan-Boltzmann law

All bodies with temp above 0°k emits EM radiation and the energy radiated by an object at a
particular temperature is given by –
M =G
Where, o is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 x 10 W/ /
T - absolute temp. , M (radiant exitance) w/
As M varies with fourth power of 'T, the objects even with close difference in temperature can
be distinguished from RS measurements.

2.2.2 Wien's displacement law:

The wavelength at which a blackbody radiates its maximum energy is inversely proportional
to temperature and if given by-
λmax = A/T
Where, A - Wien's constant 2898 µm. K
As the temperature of a Blackbody increases, the dominant wavelength of emitted radiation
shifts towards shorter wavelength. For example, when an iron rod is heated and as the
temperature increases, the iron rod will initially glow dull red, then its colour changes to
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

orange, then to yellow and eventually to white, which signifies a shift in the maximum energy
output to lower wavelengths.

Using the surface temperature of Sun (6000° K) and earth (300°K) and substituting them into
above equation show that-
 Sun's energy peak is at 0.5 µm and human eye is sensitive to energy of this magnitude
and wavelength. Thus, earth's features can be observed by virtue of reflected solar
energy.
 Whereas, earth radiates its maximum energy qt 9.7 µm,) which cannot be detected with
human eye because it is within thermal infrared region. It can be sensed only by
thermal detectors.

2.2.3 Planck's law:

The total energy radiated in all direction by unit area in unit time in a spectral band (Spectral
radiant existence Ma) for a given body is given by -

Where, C1 is first radiation constant 3.74 x 10 w/m2

C2 is second radiation constant 1.44 x 10 Mk
It enables to assess the proportion of total radiant existence within selected wavelength.

2.3 Characteristics of atmosphere and EM radiation

2.3.1 Composition of atmosphere
The composition of atmosphere is of importance in remote sensing because EM radiation
must pass through atmosphere in order to reach the earth's surface and to the sensor after
reflection and emission from earth surface features. Thus, the characteristics of atmosphere
significantly determine the effective use of EM spectrum for remote sensing.

Nitrogen and oxygen combined make up 99 percent at the atmospheric gases in a ration of
4:1. Most of the ozone is concentrated within the stratosphere between 19 km and 23 km. The
atmosphere also contains other molecular species such as water vapour (H2O) and methane
(C ). The size of molecules varies and typically have dimensions of 10 µm. The
atmosphere also contains dust particles that vary from 0.01 to 10 um and form about 25
percent of the total number of particles in the atmosphere. Sources include windblown dust
from desert areas and volcanic ash. Pollen from vegetation also represents approximately 25
percent of the particle atmospheric component and ranges in size from 10 to 100 um. Smoke
particles may be caused by natural forest fires or produced anthropogenically.

The components of the atmosphere play a two-fold role: Absorption and Scattering.
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

2.3.2 Absorption in the atmosphere

Although EM radiation of all wavelengths emitted by the sun reaches the top of the
atmosphere, only radiation within specific wavelengths can pass through atmosphere to reach
the surface of earth. This is because the gaseous components of the atmosphere act as
selective absorbers. The water vapour, Oxygen, ozone, carbon dioxide and aerosols in the
atmosphere have definite absorption characteristics. Absorption results in the effective loss of
energy. Oxygen absorbs in the ultraviolet region and also has an absorption band centered
on 6.3 µm. Carbon dioxide prevents a number of wavelengths reaching the surface. A broad
absorption band exists between 14 and 17 um and narrow one occurs at 2.7µm and 4.5µm.
Water vapour is an extremely important absorber of EM radiation within infrared part of the
spectrum. Absorption bands also exist at 1.4µm, 2.7µm and 6.3µm.

The combined effects of the absorption characteristics mean that-

 EM radiation at particular wavelengths is totally absorbed and does not reach the
earth's surface.
 EM radiation at particular wavelengths is partially absorbed and only a proportion
that reaches the outer atmosphere passes through it to reach the ground.
 EM radiation at particular wavelengths is unaffected by atmospheric absorption and
virtually all the radiations reaches the earth surface.

2.3.3 Scattering in the atmosphere

Scattering can be defined as unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles present in the
atmosphere. 1f reduces the image contrast and changes the spectral signature of ground
objects. Scattering influences direction, intensity, wavelength and spectral distribution of
radiation. Scattering of EM radiation depends on the relative size of particles with reference
to the interacting wavelength. The scattering mechanism can be selective or non-selective. In
selective scattering, the relative size of the particles and the wavelength of the EM radiation
are important whereas in non-selective scattering the dimensions of the particles and the
wavelengths are not relevant. The atmospheric scattering can be categorized as shown in the
following table.

Rayleigh Mie Non-selective

 When diameter of  When diameter of  When diameter of particle

molecules or particle is
less than wavelength of
radiation and is given by -
∞ 1/
Lesser the wavelength more 
is the scattering.
 Molecules of oxygen and
nitrogen fulfil this role for
visible radiation. Within
the visible range of EM
molecules or particle is
approximately equals the
wavelength of the radiation
and is given by - ∞ 1/
Aerosols viz. dust, smoke
and smallest pollen grains
contribute to Mie scattering
is several times more
(approx. ten times) than
the radiation.
 For visible wavelengths
the main sources of non-
selective scattering are
pollen grains cloud
droplets, ice and snow.
 Scatters all wavelengths of
visible light with equal
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

spectrum, blue light is a efficiency.

much greater degree than  It justifies the reason why
green and red. cloud appears white in the
 Haze appears on the image.
image. It causes a bluish
gray cast on the image,
thus reduces the contrast.

2.3.4 Atmospheric Windows

The amount of scattering or absorption depends on the wavelength and composition of the
atmosphere. In order to minimize the effect of atmosphere, it is essential to choose the regions
with high transmittance.

The wavelengths at which EM radiations are partially or wholly transmitted through the
atmosphere are known as Atmospheric windows (Fig. 4) and are used to acquire Remote
Sensing-data.

Typical atmospheric windows are in the following regions of EM spectrum.

0.3-0.7 µm, 0.8.1.1 µm, 1.2-1.3 µm 1.5-1.8 µm, 2.0-2.5 µm, 3.0-5.5.µm, 8.0-14 µm, 10 mm-1 cm

The sensors on remote sensing satellites must be designed in such a way as to obtain their
data within these well-defined atmospheric windows.
2.4 Interaction of EM radiation with earth's surface
2.4.1 Interaction mechanism
When EM radiation strikes a surface, it may be reflected, scattered, absorbed and/or
transmitted} (Fig. 4). These processes are not mutually exclusive: EM radiations may be
partially reflected and partially absorbed. Which processes actually occur depends on the
wavelength of radiation, angle of incidence, surface roughness, .condition and composition of
surface material. Interaction with matter can change intensity, Direction, Wavelength,
Polarization, and Phase of incident EM radiation. The Science of RS detects and records
these changes.

Fig. 4: Interaction mechanism

 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

Applying the principle of conservation of energy, the energy balance equation for radiation at
a given wavelength (λ) can be expressed as-

EI = ER + EA + ET
(Incident) = Reflected + Absorbed + transmitted

Proportion of each fraction (ER/EA/ET) will vary for different materials depending upon their
composition and condition. Within a given feature type, these proportions will vary at
different wavelengths, thus helping in discrimination of different objects. Reflection,
Scattering, Emission are called surface phenomena because these are determined by the
properties of surface viz. Colour, roughness. Transmission and absorption are called volume
phenomena because these are determined by the internal characteristics of the matter viz.
density and condition.

2.4.1.1 Reflection / Scattering

Reflected radiation is returned from the surface at the same angle as it approached i.e. the
angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflectance. Scattered reflection however leaves the
surface in all directions and is often termed as diffuse reflection. Whether the incident
radiation is reflected or scattered is party a function of roughness variations of surface
compared to the wavelength of incident radiation.

When the surface is smooth, the angle of reflection equals angle of incidence (Snell's law),
and this reflection is called Specular reflection, which produces glint or glare and this type of
surface is called Specular reflector. When the surface is rough, it scatters radiations in all
directions (diffuse reflection) and this type of surface is called Lambertian reflector. Most
natural surfaces that are observed using remote sensing systems are approximately
Lambertian at visible and infrared wavelengths. (Fig. 5)

Whether the surface is rough or smooth depends upon the wavelength of incident radiation.
When Surface height variation < λ/8 - Smooth surface
>λ/8 - Rough surface

Fig. 5: Various reflectors

2.4.1.2 Absorption
A proportion of EM radiation incident on the earth surface is absorbed. This results in
heating of objects, which leads to emission of radiation at longer wavelengths and can be
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

measured by thermal sensors in thermal infrared region. Spectra emission from objects
depends on the surface characteristics and temperature.

2.4.1.3 Transmission
A component of EM radiation may also be transmitted through the surface. For example,
through the surface of water and if the water body is not to deep the transmitted energy may
eventually reach the bottom of the water body and be scattered or absorbed.

2.4.2 Spectral signatures

A fundamental premise in remote sensing is that we can learn about objects and features on
the earth surface by studying the radiation reflected and/or emitted by these features. Using
camera or other remote sensing sensors, the brightness of objects can be observed over a
range of wavelengths. A set of such observations or measurements constitutes a spectral
response pattern, also called Spectral signature of an object.

The reflectance characteristics of earth surface features can be quantified by measuring the
portion of incident energy that is reflected. It is measured as a function of wavelength and is
termed as Spectral reflectance pλ. It is mathematically defined as-

Remote sensing systems often operate at wavelengths, which cannot be detected visually, and
in order to understand the signature obtained by sensors require knowledge of reflectance
and absorption properties of different features. A graph of spectral reflectance of an object as
a function of wavelength is termed as spectral reflectance curve and gives an insight into the
spectral characteristics of an object. Fig.6 shows typical spectral reflectance curve for three
basic earth features viz. healthy vegetation, dry soil and clear water. In general, the
configuration of these curves is an indicator of type and condition of the features.

Fig. 6: Reflectance curves

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2.4.3 Spectral reflectance characteristics of landscape features

2.4.3.1 Vegetation
Spectral reflectance curve for healthy vegetation almost always manifest thee peak-and-valley
configuration (Fig. 6). The reflectance and absorption characteristics of vegetation are
complex because vegetation has seasonal cycle. Within the visible range, green vegetation
has an absorption band in the blue and red region because of presence of pigments
(Chlorophyll, Xanthophyll, Carotenoids). Chlorophyll, strongly absorbs energy in this
wavelength centred at 0.45 and 0.67 µm. Even within green part of the visible spectrum, only
10-15% of incident radiation is reflected and maximum reflection occurs at 0.55 µm. In the
infrared portion of the spectrum at about 0.7µm, the reflection of healthy vegetation increases
dramatically. In the range from 0.7 to 1.3 µm, plant leaf typically reflects 40 to 50 % of the
energy incident upon it. Plant reflectance in NIR region results primarily from the internal
structure of leaves. Leaves undergo multiple transmissions and reflections, which leads to
maximum reflectance.

Beyond 1.3µm, energy incident upon vegetation is essentially absorbed or reflected with little
to no transmittance of energy. Dips in reflectance at 1.4, 1.9 and 2.7µm are because of
presence of water in leaves, which absorbs incident radiation. Wavelengths in these regions
are referred as water absorption bands. Reflectance peaks occurs at 1.6 and 2.2 µm leaf
reflectance in- MIR region is inversely related to total water present in the leaves.

Some Factors affecting the reflection from vegetation-

 Stress
o Vegetation may become stressed by lack of water or parasite infestation, which may
interrupt normal growth and productivity.
o Stress may decrease or cease Chlorophyll production
o Due to the decrease in Chlorophyll, absorption decreases in blue and red band and
reflectance increases in red band.
o NIR reflectance also reduces due to stress.
 Leaf Age
The Chlorophyll disappears and replaced by brown pigments and due to this-
o Reflectance increase in red and in yellow-green. Reflection in NIR is less affected.
o Reflectance in MIR increases because of decrease in water content
 Leaf growth
o During growth, the visible and MIR reflection decrease, NIR increases.
o During senescence, reverse phenomenon occurs.

2.4.3.2 Soil
Soil reflectance curve (Fig. 6) shows considerably less "peak-and-valley" variation in
reflectance. Majority of the incident radiation is either reflected or absorbed and little
transmitted. As the wavelength increases, reflection steadily increases. Some of the factors
affecting soil reflectance are moisture content, soil texture (proportion of sand, silt and clay),
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

surface roughness, presence of iron oxide and organic matter etc. These factors are complex,
variable and interrelated.

With the increase in the moisture content, reflection decreases. As with vegetation, the effect
is greater in water absorption bands a1.4,1.9|and 2.7 µm Clay soils also have hydroxyl
absorption bands at 1.4 and 2.2 µm. Soil moisture is strongly related to soil texture: coarse,
sandy soil have low moisture content and high reflectance; poorly drained fine textured soil
will have low reflectance. In the absence of water, however, the soil will exhibit the reverse
tendency. Coarse texture soil will have less reflectance than fine textured soil,

The presence of iron oxide in soil will also significantly decreases reflectance. Iron Oxide
gives soil rusty red Colour and reflect red (.6 7µm) and absorbs green (.5-.6 µm). Organic
matter present in soil is dark in Colour, its presence decrease the reflectance. There is a
steady decrease of reflectance from55 to 25% as the organic matter content increases from
none to 5%, thereafter the decrease is gradual.

2.4.3.3 Water
Majority of the incident radiation is not reflected, but either absorbed or transmitted. In
visible region, there is little absorption, 5% reflectance and majority transmission. In NIR
and MIR, majority of incident radiation is absorbed and little reflected (Fig. 6). Regarding
the spectral reflectance of water, the most distinctive characteristic is the energy absorption
at NIR wavelength. Locating and delineating water bodies with remote sensing data are done
most easily in NIR wavelength because of this absorption property.

Reflectance characteristics of water vary significantly depending on whether it is in liquid or

solid phase. The reflectance of water in solid phase such as in the form of Ice or snow is very
high at all visible wavelengths whereas the reflectance of liquid water in visible region is very
low. The spectral response also varies according to wavelength, surface roughness, depth of
water body, material within water etc. Pure clear water has a relatively high reflectance in
shorter wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.6 µm and virtually no reflectance at wavelengths
greater than 0.7 µm.

Thus, clear water appears black on an infrared image. Water containing a heavy load of
sediment for example turbid water, tends to increase the reflectance at longer wavelengths of
visible region. Likewise, reflectance of water changes with chlorophyll concentration, which
tends to increase reflectance in green wavelength.

Surface roughness of water body also relatively increases the reflectance. Shallow water
bodies also produce little higher reflectance because of reflection from the bottom of the
water body.
3.0 Types of Remote Sensing Images
It is not possible to devise a single image classification system, which will be optimum one in
all circumstances. Two methods by which remote sensing data are primarily produced are:
Photographic (analogue) and Digital.
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3.1 Photographic and Digital images

In photographic remote sensing the scene is recorded by a camera onto a photographic film,
which get exposed to the light reflected from the surface. The film is coated with compounds
that are sensitive to the light, which produces a chemical change in their nature. The degree
of change is proportional to the amount of light that reaches the film. After chemical
processing of the film, film negative is produced which in turn can be printed to obtain
photograph.

In case of digital, the variations in the reflectance from surface features are recorded
electronically using sensors in different parts of the EM spectrum and data is transmitted to
the ground station. The data then can be processed on computers to form a digital image.
Digital image is a regular grid array of squares where each square (pixel) is assigned a
number, which is related to the reflectance or emittance of the surface features recorded by
the sensor.

Following are the different type of images that can be produced using the remote sensing
data-
3.1.1 Panchromatic image:
If records variations in the EM radiation within visible range of spectrum (0.4-0.7 µm) in
black and white and shades of grey. While many features like roads, bridges, rails, canals,
buildings etc. can be easily identified on panchromatic images, many other objects are not so
distinguishable like differentiating different crops.

3.1.2 Black and White infrared image:

Unlike panchromatic image, sensitivity of this extends into near infrared (0.76 to 0.88 um).
Since scattering effect is less in infrared region than in visible, these images appear sharper
than panchromatic images. Infrared images are ideal for delineating land-water interfaces
because infrared does not penetrate water and has a black signature whereas land, especially
if it is vegetated, appear brighter.

3.1.3 Multi-spectral image:

It contains images of the same area at different wavelengths like blue, green, red, near
infrared, thermal etc of the spectrum. Various features of the surface can often be
differentiated at a particular wavelength. For example, roads have a high reflectivity in blue
part of the spectrum and are not so prominent in green or red band. Deciduous trees have
brighter signature in infrared band than in other bands.
Multispectral images allow examination of single band images, natural Colour composites
and false Colour composites. The reflectance measured in blue, green and red band are
assigned blue, green and red Colour and their superimposition produces natural Colour
composite. Assigning the green band to blue, red band to green and infrared to red produces
False Colour composite. Vegetation will appear red on the false Colour composite because of
very high reflectance in infrared, deep water bodies, because of their low reflectance in
green, red and infrared will appear black.
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

3.2 Characteristics of image and interpretation

The fundamental characteristics of image are brightness and tone, contrast ratio,
detectability, recognizability, signature and texture etc.
Brightness and Tone: Remote sensing systems detect the intensity of EM radiation that an
object reflects, emits or scatters at a particular wavelength.
These variations are often displayed as variations in the brightness in the image. Brightness
is the magnitude of response produced. Each distinguishable shade from black to white is a
separate tone.
Contrast ratio: It is the ratio between the brightest and the darkest part of the image It is the
vital factor in determining the ability to resolve and detect objects. It is difficult to
differentiate features in low contrast images.
Detectability: It is the ability of an imaging system to record presence or absence of an
object.
Signature: It is the expression of an object on an image that enables the object to be
recognized.
Texture: It is the frequency of change and arrangement of tones on an image.
Interpretation keys: It is a characteristic or combination of characteristics that enable un
object to be identified on an image. Typical keys are shape, size, tone, Colour, texture,
shadow and association.

4.0 Remote sensing observation platforms

Air borne and space borne platforms has been in use in remote sensing of earth resources.
The ground based remote sensing systems for earth resources studies are mainly used for
collecting the ground truth or for laboratory simulation studies.

4.1 Airborne Platforms:

Airborne remote sensing was the well-known remote sensing method used in initial years of
development of remote sensing (in 1960's and 70's). Aircraft were mostly used as RS
Platforms for obtaining photographs. Aircraft carrying the RS equipment should have
maximum stability, free from vibration and fly with uniform speed. In India three types of
Aircraft are currently used for RS Operation's Dakota, AVRO and Beach-craft superking Air
200. The RS equipments available in India are multi-spectral scanner, ocean Colour
radiometer, aerial cameras for photography in B/W, Colour 8& near infrared etc. Since
altitude of aircrafts can be altered as per choice, images of different scales can be obtained
and ground resolution could be tailored as per the applications. But, the aircraft operations
are very expensive and moreover, for periodical monitoring of constantly changing
phenomena like crop growth, vegetation cover etc., and airborne platforms cannot provide
cost and time effective solutions.

4. 2 Space borne platforms:

Space borne remote sensing offers several advantages over airborne platform; it provides a
synoptic view (observations of large area in single image), systematic and repetitive
coverage. Platforms in space are very less affected by atmospheric drag; hence the orbits can
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

be well defined. Entire earth or any designated portion of it can be covered at specified
intervals synoptically, which is immensely useful for management of natural resources.

Satellite is a platform that carries the sensor and other payloads required in RS operation.
Satellites are placed into orbits tailored to match the capabilities of sensors they carry and
the objectives of each satellite mission.

Satellite orbit forms an ellipse with the centre of earth at one foci, characterized by an apogee
(point farthest from the earth), perigee (point closest to the earth), ascending node (point
where satellite crosses the equator moving south to north), descending node (point where
satellite crosses the equator moving north to south) and the inclination (angle that the
satellite track forms with respect to equator at the descending node).

The space borne platforms are broadly divided into two classes
 Low altitude near polar orbiting satellite
 High altitude Geo-stationary satellites

4.2.1 Polar orbiting satellites (mostly Remote Sensing Satellites)

Satellites in the near polar orbit revolve around earth in a sun-synchronous orbit (altitude
700 to 900 Km) defined by its fixed inclination angle from the earth's N-S axis. Sun
synchronous orbit means that the orbital plane rotates to maintain precise pace with sun's
westward progress as the earth rotates around sun. Since the position in reference to sun is
fixed, satellite crosses the equator precisely at same local solar time. A satellite in sun-
synchronous orbit has an inclination that carries the satellite track westwards at a rate that
compensates for the change in local sun time as satellite moves from north to south.
Therefore, the satellite observes each scene at the same local sun time so as to obtain satellite
images under uniform illumination conditions.

4.2.2 Geo stationary satellites (mostly communication meteorological satellites)

The satellites in. such orbits are stationary in reference to the earth and their altitude is
36000 kms. Satellite period (time to complete one orbit) at an altitude of 36000 km is same as
that of earth (if position is equatorial plane), so that it remains stationary with reference to
earth. It means that their velocity in equal to the velocity with which earth rotates about its
axis. Such satellites always cover the fixed area over earth surface and are ideal tor
meteorological and communication applications.

5.0 Remote Sensing Systems and Sensors

Remote sensing sensors are designed to record radiations in one or more parts of the EM
spectrum. Sensors are electronic instruments that receive EM radiation and generate an
electric signal that correspond to the energy variations of different earth surface features.
Strength of the signal depends upon-
 Energy flux: The amount of energy reflected or radiated from terrain is the energy flux.
Lower on darker day and higher on brighter days.
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

 Altitude: For a given resolution cell, amount of energy reaching-to detector is inversely
proportional to square of the distance.
 Spectral bandwidth: Broader wavelength will give more energy to detector.
 Instantaneous Filed of View: A small IFOV needed for high resolution restricts the
signal strength.
 Dwell time: The time required by detector IFOV to sweep across a ground resolution
cell. A long dwell time will have more energy and hence stronger signal

5.1 Characteristics of sensors

5.1.1 Scanning mechanism
A scanning system employs detectors with a narrow field of view, which sweeps across the
terrain to produce an image. When photons of EM energy radiated or reflected from earth
surface feature encounter the detector, an electrical signal is produced that varies in
proportion to the number of photons. There are four common scanning modes (Fig. 8):
whiskbroom scanning, Along-track or pushbroom scanning, Circular scanning and Cross-
track scanning.

Fig. 7: Different scanning mechanism

5.1.1.1 Whiskbroom scanning

In whiskbroom scanning (Fig. 7-a), a mirror of fixed size rotates along an axis and the energy
received from the ground is focused on to a spectrometer or grating for dispersion into
different spectral bands. After dispersion the reflected radiation is focused on an array of
photovoltaic cells and energy sensed in different spectral bands is than calibrated.
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

5.1.1.2 Along-track or Pushbroom scanning

(Fig.7-b), These sensors do not use opto-mechanical device and have no moving parts. The
energy coming from ground directly falls on the array of charge-coupled devices (CCD),
which calibrate the received energy and change it to digital counts his method allows sensing
of energy for larger time and hence results in better signal.

5.1.1.3 Circular scanning

(Fig 7-c), The scan motor and mirror are mounted with a vertical axis of rotation that sweeps
a circular path on the terrain. Only forward motion of the sweep is recorded to produce
images. Circular scanners are used for reconnaissance purposes in helicopters and low flying
aircrafts. The axis of rotation is tilted to point forward and acquire images of the terrain well
in advance of the aircraft position.

5.1.1.4 Cross-track scanning

(Fig 7-d), It employs a faceted mirror that is rotated by an electric motor, with a horizontal
axis of rotation aligned parallel with the flight direction. The mirror sweeps across the
terrain in a pattern of parallel scan lines oriented normal to the flight direction. Energy
reflected from the ground is focused on to the detectors.

5.1.2 Resolution
In general, in remote sensing a given area of the earth's surface is observed by the sensor and
number of measurements are made. Each measurement corresponds to an element area on
the surface over a number of spectral bands. Measurements are also made at fixed and
regular interval of time.

Four different types of resolutions are considered in satellites remote sensing.

5.1.2.1 Spatial resolution
It is measure of area or the smallest dimensions on the earth surface over which un
independent measurement can be made. A qualitative measure of spatial resolution is the
amount of detail that can be observed on an image. In many of the remote sensors, a small
element area is observed at a time by means of suitable electronic sensors, which
incorporates lenses in order to focus the incoming radiation on to the detectors and such a
field of view of the sensor is called instantaneous field of view (IFOV). There are various
factors like IFOV, dwell time (the time for which sensor looks on the element area), sampling
frequency, which contribute significantly to the overall spatial resolution of the sensor.

5.1.2.2 Spectral resolution

The EM energy reaching a remote sensor from the earth surface encompasses the complete
EM spectrum. The spectral resolution characterizes the ability of a sensor to resolve EM
energy received in a given spectral bc1ndwidth. A system, which measures a large number of
bands, which encompasses narrow range of EM spectrum is said to have a high spectral
resolution. More number of narrow bands spectral gives rise to greater ability to discriminate
various earth surface features.
 BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING

5.1.2.3 Radiometric resolution

The radiometric resolution is a measure of how many grey levels are measured between pure
black and pure white in a spectral band. It characterizes the ability to distinguish the finer
variations of the reflected or emitted radiation from the different objects in a given spectral
band. The radiometric resolution is measured in "bits'. An 8-bit system (2 =256) records 256
grey levels, in which black is recorded by a digital number of zero and pure white by digital
number of 255.

5.1.2.4 Temporal resolution

The temporal resolution is a measure of how often data are obtained for the same area. It is
defined as the revisit time over a given area by a remote sensor at regular intervals.

5.2 Referencing Scheme

Referencing scheme (Fig 8) is a means of conveniently identifying the geographic location of
a point or area on the earth. The scheme is designated by Path and Rows and is based on the
nominal orbital characteristics.
 Path: An orbit is the course of motion taken by satellite in space and the descending
ground trace of the orbit is called Path.
 Row: Along the path, the continuous stream of data is segmented into a number of
scenes of convenient size. While framing the scene, equator is taken as reference line
for segmentation. The lines joining the corresponding scene centers of different paths
are parallel to equator and are called Rows.

The referencing scheme eliminates the use of latitude and longitudes and facilitates
convenient and unique identification of geographic areas. Using the scheme, user can arrive
at the number of scenes that covers the area of interest.

Fig. 8: Referencing Scheme