Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97

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Postharvest Biology and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/postharvbio

Determination of bruise susceptibility of pears (Ankara variety) to

impact load by means of FEM-based explicit dynamics simulation
H. Kursat Celik*
Dept. of Agricultural Machinery & Tech.’ Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Received 20 October 2016 This study focuses on determining bruise susceptibility and the realistic representation of time-
Received in revised form 28 January 2017 dependent nonlinear deformation behaviour of pears (Ankara variety) under various impact cases. A
Accepted 29 January 2017 reverse engineering approach, physical material tests and finite element method (FEM)-based explicit
Available online 6 March 2017 dynamics simulations were utilised to investigate impact deformation characteristics of the fruit. Three
impact heights (0.25, 0.5 and 1 m), three impact surfaces (steel, wood and rubber-based materials) and
Keywords: three impact orientations of the fruit (vertical, horizontal and at a 45
angle) were considered in the
Bruise susceptibility impact simulation scenarios. Useful numerical data and deformation visuals were obtained from the
Deformation simulation
simulation results. These results revealed that maximum bruise susceptibility magnitude on the fruit was
Finite element method
experienced for the case of impact on the wood-based platform (impact height: 1 m; impact orientation:
Explicit dynamics
Pears 0
) and minimum bruise susceptibility magnitude was calculated for the case of impact on the rubber-
based impact platform (impact height: 1 m; impact orientation: 45
). In addition to this, numerical
results related to fruit bruising were analysed through response surface analysis approach and prediction
models were successfully described with a reasonable coefficient of determination (R2) values.
Verification checks of the prediction models also indicated that the relative differences between the
results of simulation and the empirical model were in agreement (max. 7.03%). These models can
describe the bruise susceptibility magnitudes of the fruit for various impact cases on specific impact
platforms. This study contributes to further research on the usage of numerical-methods-based
nonlinear explicit dynamics simulation techniques in complicated deformation and bruising
investigations and industrial applications related to agricultural and food products.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Industrial relevance
This work aims to represent and simulate time-dependent
impact deformation of pears. Time-dependent impact deformation
is a very difficult phenomenon to describe through physical
experiments and/or mathematical expressions. As a further step
beyond other researchers, a novel, realistic time-dependent
nonlinear deformation simulation study based on experimental
data has been introduced. Empirical models with specific
perspectives have also been developed to estimate bruise
susceptibility magnitudes of the fruit under a very wide range
of impact events. Useful deformation visuals and numerical
findings related to impact bruising of the fruit have been exhibited
and these findings have been presented in a form which may be
* Correspondence to: Department of Agricultural Machinery & Tech.’ Engineer-
ing, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, 07070 Antalya, Turkey.
E-mail address: hkcelik@akdeniz.edu.tr (H. K. Celik).
used as input parameters in design studies of agricultural and food
product processing machinery systems used in related industries.
1. Introduction
The major aim in designing optimal agricultural equipment or
food product processing systems used in the production phases of
harvesting and post-harvesting is to provide the ability to harvest,
transport, grade, process and pack the products with no bruises.
Bruises are the most common type of mechanical damage seen on
agricultural products, particularly on fruit such as pears which are
highly sensitive to mechanical damage (Berardinelli et al., 2005;
Eissa et al., 2012). Most mechanical damage of fruit is caused by
mechanical impact cases that occur in many agricultural processes
such as harvest, transportation and post-harvest operations and
the fruit industry suffers considerable economic losses due to this
type of mechanical damage (García et al., 1995; Van Zeebroeck
et al., 2003, 2007; Berardinelli et al., 2005; Prusky, 2011; Abedi and
Ahmadi, 2013a; Komarnicki et al., 2016). Therefore, impact

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2017.01.015
0925-5214/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
84 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97
phenomena and bruise damage measurement deserve special
attention (Sarig, 1991). In this regard, prediction of the level of
damage, stress distribution and/or deformation behaviour of the
fruit under impact cases has become a very important issue in
order to develop optimal machinery systems for related fruit
production and processing industries. At the initial design phases
of these types of systems, some related features (as design
parameters), such as engineering properties, deformation behav-
iour and bruise susceptibility of the products under pre-defined
loading cases, should be clearly described; however, this may
become very complicated.
Opara and Pathare (2014) have published an enlightening
review work on bruise damage measurement and analysis of fresh
horticultural produce. They underline that among the research and
industry there are currently no agreed criteria by which to assess
the amount or susceptibility to bruising of the products; bruise
volume, however, is the most commonly reported measure of the
amount of bruise damage. Additionally, different objective indices
exist for quantifying the potential of bruise damage occurring on
the products under mechanical loading, but bruise susceptibility
expressed as the amount of damage per unit of absorbed impact/
compression energy is the most widely reported. In addition to
image-processing-based non-destructive bruise detection meth-
ods, some analytical calculation methods based on physical
experiments, such as pendulum and/or physical drop tests, are
available today to determine bruise level or bruise susceptibility of
fruit under impact (Van Zeebroeck et al., 2003; Van Linden et al.,
2006; Opara et al., 2007; Eissa et al., 2012; Lu and Tang, 2012; Polat
et al., 2012; Abedi and Ahmadi, 2013b; Opara and Pathare, 2014;
Komarnicki et al., 2016). These methods, however, may not be
efficient modes of describing proper deformation behaviour or
internal stress progression, which may be considered the main
cause of the cell structure failure of the products during impact.
Consequently, their applications may be considered as limited for
dynamic impact damage cases.
In fact, a bruise is a type of subcutaneous tissue failure without
rupture of the skin of fruit-like products (Mohsenin, 1986). In this
regard, the major reason for the bruises – plastic deformation
which is seen behind the material elastic deformation limit (yield
point) due to the internal stress progression during mechanical
loading – may be considered a material failure. Here, it should also
be highlighted that measuring or/and describing internal stresses
which are associated with mechanical impact forces, is a very
difficult phenomenon due to the biological cell structure of fruit
and the rapid deformation progression during cases of dynamic
and nonlinear impact. In light of this, numerical methods can be
utilised as an efficient alternative solution for prediction of the
stress distribution that occurs during impact. Numerical methods
have been used in various engineering disciplines since the 1950s.
These methods have furthermore been indicated as part of an
effective, unique solution to the practical, complex problems
experienced in agricultural engineering (such as impact cases of
agricultural products) (Sitkei, 1986).
Nowadays, one of the most common numerical methods in use
is the finite element method (FEM) which is utilised for obtaining
approximate solutions to partial differential equations; the
method has been applied successfully in many areas of engineering
sciences to study, model, and predict the behaviour of structures
(Khoei, 2015). The theoretical aspects of computer integration of
the method were resolved in the 1960s and 1970s, and have
resulted in a large body of scientific papers in various engineering
fields (Munjiza et al., 2015). The method has also been found useful
in the research field of agricultural engineering in the context of
the deformation of agricultural products, and many studies have
been conducted to estimate complex stress field of organic
materials under various boundary conditions (Cardenas and
Stroshine, 1991; Chen and De Baerdemaeker, 1993a,b; Chen
et al., 1996; Lu and Abbott, 1997; Hernández and Bellés, 2007;


Celik et al., 2008, 2011; Fabbri et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2011; Petru
et al., 2012; Ihueze et al., 2013; Tinoco et al., 2014; Guessasma and
Nouri, 2015; Fabbri and Cevoli, 2016). Here, it should be
highlighted that most of these studies have been conducted under
considerations of static or quasi-static loading cases, small strain
deformation and linear contact with linear elastic material model
assumptions through implicit solvers. Consideration of the
nonlinearity in part contact and plasticity in material models
(particularly in drop or impact cases) in these type of studies is
absent or very limited. Arguably, the small-strain and small-
displacement-based FEM solution is not of much use in today's
modern scientific, engineering and technological applications
(Munjiza et al., 2015). The relationship between the loads and
deformation may become nonlinear and at that point a nonlinear
analysis should be undertaken in order to gain realistic results that
reflect true-to-life behaviour.
In this context, the explicit solution approach has been pointed
out as being valuable in solving loading cases such as impact/crash
and drop test events. The explicit dynamics system is designed to
simulate nonlinear structural mechanics applications. In compli-
cated applications, explicit methods are more applicable and the
explicit approach provides an alternative problem-solving proce-
dure (Wakabayashi et al., 2008; SolidWorks Doc. 2010; Lee, 2012;
Wu and Gu, 2012; ANSYS Doc. 2016). Therefore, here, it would not
be wrong to say that deformation due to cases of impact of the fruit
may be considered as nonlinear structural mechanics applications
covered by the explicit dynamics system mentioned above. Today's
technology allows us to work nonlinearity and time-dependent
impact loading cases by means of numerical-methods-based
simulation codes efficiently. However, these types of nonlinearity
(geometry, contact and/or material nonlinearity) including explicit
dynamics simulations have not yet become mainstream practices
in the research related to the deformation of agricultural products
due to impact. This has provided the main motivation for the
current simulations presented here, in addition to the experimen-
tal work to reveal some engineering properties of a specific
agricultural product (the Ankara variety of pears).
The determination of some engineering properties and bruise
damage levels of pears under various loading conditions, including
impact cases, has been studied by various researchers. Some of
these researchers have investigated bruise damage levels and/or
bruise susceptibility of pears through physical experiments such as
pendulum/impact and axial compression tests. The common
approach is to calculate the bruise volume by measuring physical
bruise dimensions (bruise depth and bruise surface area). Here, the
main drawback of physical experiments based analytical solutions
is that they are not very accurate for describing complex bruise
volumes with irregular geometry and nonsmooth boundaries.
(García et al., 1995; Blahovec et al., 2002, 2004; Blahovec and
Paprštein, 2005; Yurtlu and Erdog an, 2005; Ozturk et al., 2009;
Eissa et al., 2012; Komarnicki et al., 2016).
Other researchers have considered numerical method based
simulation techniques in addition to physical experiments in their
studies. Dewulf et al. (1999) and Song et al. (2006) have
investigated the dynamic behaviour and vibration characteristics
of a pear and their correlation with material characteristics by
using FEM based modal analysis simulations. They assumed
dynamic loading conditions and linear elastic material properties
in their FEM simulations. Fenyvesi et al. (2013) have conducted a
stress analysis study of fruit samples (apple and pear). FEM based
simulations have been utilised to determine the stress state of the
fruit’ flesh, skin, core and seed components under static loading
condition by assuming linear elastic material properties. In the
area of impact phenomena, Yousefi et al. (2016) have studied drop
 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97
test of pear fruit by utilising physical experiments and nonlinear
FEM based transient dynamics simulations. The bruised area of
pear fruit was determined by experimental dropping tests and was
then predicted by FEM simulations. Although geometric and
contact nonlinearities were investigated with a dynamic transient
approach, linear elastic material properties were assumed. This
may set a limitation to predict complex surface plastic deformation
failure.
This present study focuses on a specific variety of pears
(Ankara). Structural deformation/stress progression of time-
dependent pear bruising has been investigated and the complex
three-dimensional bruise volume was described using a nonlinear
FEM-based explicit dynamics simulation approach. Instead of
common linear elastic material properties, elastic–plastic nonlin-
ear material properties that were experimentally determined were
used to describe bruising efficiently. The study has also revealed
bruising/plastic deformation progression step by step at the inner
structure of the fruit at impact. These points distinguish this study
from previous studies which addressed impact deformation
phenomena of pears.
On the other hand, in these types of rheological analyses of
agricultural products, a specific difficulty may arise because of the
products’ irregular shapes. Product geometry is one of the
important features that has an effect on deformation character-
istics. Hence, physical and engineering analyses of the products
with irregular shapes may become more complicated. Overcoming
these difficulties related to irregular product geometry has been
considered by simplifying the product geometry from the irregular
features to a fully perfect rectangular, elliptical, cylindrical or
spherical geometric shapes in the engineering analysis and/or


mathematical calculations (Liu et al., 1999; Petru et al., 2012;
Ihueze et al., 2013; Ipate et al., 2013; Jaliliantabar and Najafi, 2014;
Bonisoli et al., 2015). Here, it should also be considered that
geometry simplifications may lead to inaccurate deformation
behaviour results. With respect to this point, utilising reverse
engineering (RE) technology may help researchers in rheological
analyses of organic materials to describe realistic digital models
with complex organic material surface forms; however, the
number of these types of studies are also very limited (Lewis
et al., 2007; Celik et al., 2011).
The major aim of this study, focused on the issue of bruise
susceptibility, is to describe and understand the deformation
behaviour and stress progression of pears (Ankara variety) under
dynamic impact cases by means of a nonlinear FEM-based explicit
dynamics simulation. For this purpose a novel computer aided
calculation way to calculate the complex three-dimensional bruise
volume has been proposed. A reverse engineering approach,
physical tests, finite element method (FEM)-based explicit
dynamics simulations and response surface analysis have been
utilised to investigate the impact cases’ deformation events for the
fruit. Empirical models for bruise susceptibility have also been
described. Related procedures and discussions are detailed in the
following sections.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Experimental procedure
As a highly sensitive fruit to mechanical damage, a pear (Ankara
variety) was considered in this study to investigate its deformation
in the case of impact scenarios. This pear variety also has higher
irregular surface forms (relatively) than other fruits, such as
varieties of apples. In addition to this, the pear's solid-like structure
presents a good example for the application of reverse engineering
and nonlinear deformation simulation works described in this
paper. The pear specimens which had previously been kept in a
85
cold storage unit, were randomly picked from the shelves of a
supermarket. Experimental procedures were set up in order to
determine the fruit's physical deformation behaviour/character-
istics and specific material properties such as modulus of elasticity,
bioyield and tensile points. Some of these properties were also
essential as input parameters in the simulation studies. Physical
compression tests were carried out for the cylindrical pear
specimens. The specimens were extracted from the fruit through
a smooth surfaced tube (specimen dimensions: 0.020;  0.025 m)
and they were compressed between two rigid (relative to the
product) metal plates. All physical measurements and tests were
carried out at the biological material test laboratory of the
Department of Agricultural Machinery and Tech.’ Engineering
(Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey). A computer-aided universal
biological material test device (loading capacity: 2000 N) was
utilised for the compression tests. All of the physical tests were
carried out for the single moisture content of the specimens
(84.23  0.49%, wet-base, 10 specimens) at a room temperature of
20
C. Compression tests of food materials are described in
standard ASAE S368.4 W/Corr. 1 DEC2000 (R2012). This standard
suggests a speed of 2.5–30 mm min1 as the nominal compression
velocity for most hard fruits and vegetables. The standard also
indicates that the bioyield point is best observed at velocities
below 10 mm min1 for specimen such as apples. Additionally,
some higher test speeds were also evaluated during preliminary
experiments. Eventually a compression velocity of 2.5 mm min1
was used in all experiments. The data sampling rate was 10 Hz and
10 specimens were used for each of the compression tests. Some
physical measurements on the whole pear, the set-up for physical
compression testing and the graphical representation of the test
results, which exhibit the force-deformation characteristics of the
pear specimens, are shown in Fig. 1.
2.2. Material model idealisation procedure
In real life, based on experimental evidence, agricultural
products exhibit viscoelastic behaviour under deformation (Moh-
senin, 1986). The real life behaviour of agricultural material is time-
dependent and the viscoelastic behaviour is highly nonlinear. This
type of nonlinear viscoelastic behaviour is normally classified as
viscoplasticity. Viscoplasticity is a time-dependent plasticity
phenomenon. Another type of nonlinear viscoelasticity is the
type observed in rubber-like materials where nonlinearity results
due to large or finite strains (hyperelasticity) (Mohsenin, 1986;
Sitkei, 1986). The most common example of such as material is
rubber, whose stress–strain relationship can be defined as
nonlinearly elastic, isotropic, incompressible and generally inde-
pendent of strain rate. In this study the hyperelastic material
model was not considered, as elastomer/rubber-like very large/
nonlinear elastic deformation behaviour was not expected during
pear impact deformation. Nonlinear viscoelastic behaviour is very
complex phenomenon. Therefore, to explain the viscoelastic
behaviour of agricultural products, researchers are forced to make
simplifying assumptions and apply the theories of linear visco-
elasticity. In this context, some researchers have tried to explain
apple deformation by assuming linear viscoelastic material
parameters (Ahmadi et al., 2016; Dintwa et al., 2008); however,
no viscoelastic/viscoplastic material property models have been
found for pear in the literature search.
Any real material shows deviation from the ideal material
models and numerical simulation tools have still some limitations
in modelling real life responses. Therefore appropriate assump-
tions should be made with respect to the material properties and
the purpose of the simulation study. The linear viscoelastic
material model was not considered in this study as it would be
difficult and impractical to determine/simulate permanent
86 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97
Fig. 1. The set-up for physical compression testing and the test results.
(plastic) deformation (which is the main reason of the bruising)
case and nonlinearity at the impact. However, permanent (plastic)
deformation can be simulated more easily by considering the
elastic–plastic material model.
Another important issue related to nonlinear material models is
the loading rate, which has an obvious effect on the product
deformation characteristics. Common to all mechanical analyses of
engineering materials and their behaviour in structural compo-
nents is the need for constitutive models that link the states of
stress and strain (Runesson, 2006). There are various constitutive
models used in FEM based explicit dynamics analyses for various
materials (Gazonas, 2002; ANSYS Doc 2016). Not only physical
tensile/compression tests but also other mechanical experimental
tests, curve-fitting calculations and strain rate consideration are
essential to define the parameters used in most of these material
models (Ruggiero et al., 2012; Cronin et al., 2013; Murakami and
Kamiya, 1997). Strain rate considerations in constitutive material
models may be the focus of future research work for deeper cortex
crack propagation during pear bruising. The strain rate effect was
not included in the material models used in this study. Instead,
another material model based on nonlinear elastic–plastic
material behaviour with yield point limits and bi-linear isotropic
hardening plasticity idealisation approaches was introduced.
Experimental data were used here to derive the material model
of the pear fruit. Physical compression tests revealed the
deformation characteristics of the pear specimen under quasi-
static compressive loading. Under this compressive loading,
specimen displayed almost linear deformation behaviour up to
an initial failure/damage (bioyield) point. Beyond this point,
permanent (plastic) deformation was observed and then specimen
collapsed. This phenomenon may be described by plasticity theory.
Plasticity theory is concerned with materials which initially
deform elastically, but which deform plastically (permanently)
upon reaching a yield stress (Pandey, 2016). In this regard, it would
not be wrong to express the material model of the pear via a
plasticity approach. The initial bruising point may be assumed as
the bioyield point of the pear and its plasticity may be seen as a
material failure to determine bruising volume.
The object of plasticity theory is to describe elastic–plastic
behaviour when a local stress condition is multiaxial and structural
geometry is complex (Carpinteri, 2012). Common to all mechanical
analyses of engineering materials and their behaviour in structural
components is the need for constitutive models that link the states
of stress and strain (Runesson, 2006). However, describing a
material model which can reflect true-to-life deformation behav-
iour is a complicated phenomenon in FEM-based simulations.
Therefore, to simulate elastic–plastic material behaviour in a
realistic manner, some idealised plasticity theory-based material
models ranging from simple to complex are provided in advanced
FEM-based simulation codes. The choice of a constitutive model
generally depends on the experimental data available to fit the
material constants (ANSYS Doc. 2016).
The essential characteristics of the plasticity constitutive
models used in the FEM simulations are to have: (1) a yield
criterion that defines the material state at the transition from
elastic to elastic–plastic behaviour; (2) a flow rule that determines
the increment in plastic strain from the increment in load; and (3) a
hardening rule that gives the evolution in the yield criterion during
plastic deformation. The hardening rule describes the changing of
yield surface with progressive yielding, which means that yield
stress grows in magnitude as plastic deformation continues (or
increases). A bilinear hardening model is available in two forms
which use in different rules: isotropic hardening and kinematic
hardening. The bilinear kinematic model works on the assumption
that the total stress range (i.e. the difference between the ultimate
tensile stress (UTS) and the maximum compressive stress) is equal
to twice the yield stress. This is sometimes known as the
Bauschinger effect. This model may be used for materials that
obey von Mises yield criterion. The isotropic hardening model also
uses the von Mises yield criterion coupled with an isotropic
hardening law, and assumes that the total stress range is equal to
twice the UTS (Mac Donald, 2007; ANSYS Doc. 2016). As an ideal
perspective, bilinear stress–strain relation in consideration of
tensile and compression loads can be represented as shown in
Fig. 2(a). Representation of the bilinear kinematic and isotropic
hardening behaviours are given in Fig. 2(b) and (c), respectively.
 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97 87

Fig. 2. Bi-linear elastic–plastic stress–strain relation, kinematic and isotropic hardening behaviour models.

Fig. 3. Material model idealisation.

The isotropic hardening plasticity material model is often used
in large strain analyses. Kinematic hardening is recommended for
situations where the strain levels are relatively small (less than 5–
10% true strain) (ANSYS Doc. 2016). Large strain deformation in
nonlinear impact cases is an expected phenomenon. Therefore, in
pear impact cases, the bilinear isotropic hardening material model
was described in this study's FEM-based simulations. Based on
experimental data, bilinear isotropic hardening material model's
idealisation of the pear's material is shown in Fig. 3. Related
material properties of the pear and the impact surfaces used in the
simulations are given in Table 1.
2.3. Reverse engineering and CAD modelling procedures
A realistic description of the original product geometry is one of
the essential features for obtaining realistic and accurate
88 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97

Table 1
Material properties of the pears and impact surfaces used in the simulation.

Material properties used in FEM based simulation

Materials Modulus of elasticity Tangent modulus Poisson's Bioyield/yield point Tensile point Force @ bioyield/yield Density
(MPa) (MPa) ratio (MPa) (MPa) point (N) (kg m3)
Fruit
Pear (Ankara 3.248 (R2: 0.9966) 1.358 (R2: 0.9546) 0.427 0.300 0.309 205.850 1032
variety)a,b,c

Impact surface materials

Stainless steeld 193000 1800 0.310 210 – – 7750
Rubber “Mooney – Rivlin 2 parameters” 1000
e
(vulcanised)
Wood (yellow 8400 – 0.318 – – – 4000
poplar)e
a
Modulus of elasticity (tan a): slope of the average true stress-true strain curve in elastic region.
b
Tangent modulus (tan b): slope of the average true stress-true strain curve in plastic region.
c
Poisson's ratio (Yurtlu and Erdogan, 2005).
d
ANSYS product material library (ANSYS Product 2016).
e
Data book (Green et al., 1999).

deformation results in engineering simulations. In this regard, a 2.4. Simulation procedure

pear was selected randomly from non-bruised test specimens and
reverse engineering technology was employed in creating 3D CAD
data for the whole pear in this study. A NextEngine-2020i 3D
desktop laser scanner was utilised in the digitalisation process of
the fruit. The scanning procedure was carried out for eight
scanning substeps for the whole fruit specimen in both vertical and
horizontal positions. The total scanning process with HD resolu-
tion at macro range options was completed in approximately thirty
minutes. Scanned fruit surfaces were defined as point clouds.
Subsequently, they were aligned and remeshed into the Scan-
StudioHD software. SolidWorks 3D parametric design software
features were used for ordering the surface mesh structure and
final surface refining of the solid model. Solid modelling details and
some dimensional properties of the digitalised fruit model are
given in Fig. 4.
Various cases of the pear impact were considered and they
were simulated through nonlinear FEM-based explicit dynamics
simulation approach. To do this, 27 simulation scenarios were set
up in total. In the scenarios, the pear was allowed to make free-
fall impact onto a flat platform from predefined impact heights
under standard gravity. These impact case scenarios were
simulated for various combinations. In these combinations, three
different impact heights (0.25, 0.50, 1 m), three different impact
orientations (0
, 45
, 90
) and three different impact surfaces
(stainless steel, wood-yellow poplar, and rubber-vulcanised
materials) were considered. An explicit dynamics module of
the ANSYS Workbench commercial FEM code was utilised to
simulate the scenarios. The time steps used in explicit time
integration are generally smaller than in implicit time integration.

Fig. 4. Solid modelling of the pear.

 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97 89

For elements with a characteristic dimension of 1 mm and a
material sound speed of 5000 m s1 the required time step for a
stable solution would be 0.18 ms. To solve this simulation to a final
time of 0.1 s requires 555,556 time increments (ANSYS Doc. 2016).
The pear model used in the simulation was assumed to be a whole
homogeneous flesh structure. The boundary conditions with
frictional contact (nonlinear contact) definitions and an idealised
bilinear isotropic strain hardening elastic–plastic material model
for the pear were defined in the simulation set-up. Standard
gravity (9.8066 m s2) was considered in the simulation. Single
moisture content of the fruit (84.23  0.49%, wet base, 10
specimens) was assumed.

Fig. 5. Simulation scenario set-up, mesh sensitivity analysis and mesh structure details.
90 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97

One of the important issues in a finite element analysis is the
selection of the appropriate element size. Mesh density is a
significant metric used to control the accuracy of the finite element
model. A smaller element size will represent the model better and
produce results with a higher accuracy. However, if the element
size is too small, a large amount of computer time may be required
to solve the model, especially for multiple iterations that are
typical of nonlinear and dynamic analyses. A mesh sensitivity
check can then be useful to decide upon the appropriate element
size. To do this, a sample impact scenario was run with various
element sizes and the effect of the different element sizes (from
coarse to finer) on the equivalent stress results was investigated.
The mesh sensitivity study indicated that the minimum element
size to sufficiently represent the pear with an acceptable
computation time was 1.5 mm. Subsequently, an identical curva-
ture meshing strategy was utilised in creating finite element
models (mesh structure) of the solid models used in the
simulations. Initial impact moment, deformation progression,
rebound period in contact and fully non-contact moment after
impact energy absorption durations were considered in the
simulation solve time and each of the impact case simulations
was solved for 0.01 s. The simulation scenarios, boundary
conditions, mesh sensitivity analysis and mesh structure details
of the models are shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 6. Simulation visual print-out: stress progression visuals.

 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97
3. Results and discussion
After completion of the simulation preprocessor steps, simula-
tion scenarios were run and the results recorded. Useful numerical
data and deformation visuals were obtained from simulation
results. Visual printouts successfully demonstrated time-depen-
dent stress progression and distribution on the fruit body during
predefined impact events. Bruised regions of the fruit body were
described as the stress regions which were beyond the bioyield
stress point of 0.3 MPa. This definition allowed us to describe
bruise volumes of the fruit that occurred because of impact
phenomena. The bruised regions were precisely bordered and
extracted from the deformed body in the simulation and were
exported to CAD software to calculate their dimensional features
such as volume, mass, surface area, etc. Figs. 6 and 7 illustrate the
stress distribution visuals with a graphical representation of the
stress-contact force progression with the energy activity summary
and bruise volume extraction, respectively, for a sample impact
case (impact surface: wood-yellow poplar; impact height: 1 m;
impact angle: 0
). Results obtained from all simulation scenarios
are also represented as stress-contact force progressions in graphs
in Fig. 8. These are very complex to represent through physical
experiments.
As can be seen in Figs. 6 and 7, in addition to deformation and
bruise volume information, simulation results provide energy
activity summary data upon impact. These valuable data allowed
us to calculate the bruise susceptibility (ratio of bruise volume to
internal absorbed energy) of the fruit for each of the predefined
impact cases. Numerical data and related calculations are given in
Table 2. Graphical representation of the bruise susceptibility
amounts against impact heights and impact angles with the
different impact platforms is provided in Fig. 9.
Fig. 7. Simulation visual print-out: maximum stress moment and bruise volume extraction.
91
Numerical results (Table 2) revealed that the maximum
equivalent stress value (0.613 MPa) was obtained from simulation
no. 9 (impact height: 1 m; impact angle: 90
; impact surface:
stainless steel). The minimum equivalent stress value was
0.229 MPa which was obtained from simulation no. 22 (impact
height: 0.25 m; impact angle: 0
; impact surface: rubber).
Although the stress result of simulation no. 9 represented the
maximum stress value, the maximum bruise volume
(3.59  105 m3) and maximum susceptibility (1.70  105 m3 J1)
values were obtained from simulation no. 12 (impact height: 1 m;
impact angle: 0
; impact surface: wood) (These susceptibility
results are very close to each other). The maximum stress value in
this scenario (simulation no. 12) was 0.543 MPa (Figs. 6 and 7). In a
similar manner, the maximum contact force value (712.33 N at
simulation no. 15) between fruit and impact platforms did not take
place at the same simulation scenario with the maximum stress
value. These results highlighted that geometry was an essential
factor in stress intensity occurrence in the fruit body. There was no
bruise detection at the simulation scenarios numbered 19, 20, 22,
23, 25 and 26 with the rubber platform. The rubber platform
resulted in fewer bruises than the others, and the minimum
susceptibility value (9.57  106 m3 J1 at simulation no. 24) was
obtained with the rubber impact platform.
In simulation scenario no. 12 which was demonstrated in Figs. 6
and 7 (in which the maximum susceptibility magnitude was
calculated) at the impact moment (simulation solve time (SST):
0.00 s), energy transfer (i.e. kinetic energy to internal and contact
energy) started and contact force between the fruit and the
platform went to the maximum at the SST of 2.4  103 s. This
moment was also the maximum stress moment, i.e. the moment
where the maximum level of the impact energy was absorbed by
the fruit. After this moment, the fruit body proceeded to rebound.
92 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97

Fig. 8. Simulation results: equivalent stress and contact force progressions.

In the following duration, at a SST of 4.4  103 s, contact between
the fruit and the platform was broken and the simulation was
finalised at a SST of 1.00  102 s. The simulation results
highlighted that after rebound (a fully non-contact situation),
the stress values did not go back to zero values at this moment due
to plastic work produced by deformation.
One of the indicators to be inspected, which can test the
accuracy of the finite element model and simulation results, is the
energy activity summary of the explicit dynamics simulations. In
this activity, kinetic energy, internal (absorbed) energy, contact
energy and hourglassing/hourglass energy activities can be
observed. Hourglassing is a deformation that produces no volume
or strain change in hex/quad meshes in a finite element model. It is
essentially a spurious deformation mode of a finite element model,
resulting from the excitation of zero-energy degrees of freedom.
Therefore, this energy activity is called hourglass energy or zero-
mode energy (Hallquist, 2006; Stewart et al., 2006; Wallmeier
et al., 2015). In related literature, it is suggested that hourglass
energy should not exceed 5–10% of internal energy (Björkmon,
2010; Dilek and Gedikli, 2014; ANSYS Doc. 2016). Simulation
energy summaries revealed that the hourglass energy did not
exceed 5–10% of internal energy values in any of the simulation
 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97 93

Table 2
Simulation results and calculation of the bruise susceptibility.

scenarios described in this study. Thus, it can be said that FE
element size is appropriate and the accuracy of the finite element
model is satisfactory.
On the other hand, in energy activity, conservation of energy is
expected. This energy conversation state in the simulation
indicates accurate simulation results (Chotika et al., 2011; Elitok
et al., 2006). Energy activity for the simulation results has been
inspected in this study (a sample energy activity summary graph
can be seen in Fig. 6). It was observed for all free-fall fruit impact
cases described in the simulation scenarios that potential energy
was transferred to kinetic energy during the free fall of the fruit
and that it was transferred to internal and contact energy
(absorbed energy by the fruit) upon impact. All results indicated
that there was no disturbance in the conservation of the energy

Fig. 9. Calculated bruise susceptibility amounts against impact heights and impact angles at the different impact platforms.
94 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97
state. In addition to this, analytical and FEM-based calculations for
total energy were compared. The relative difference was less than
10% (Fig. 6). These values indicated that simulation results were
trustworthy and that the simulation successfully represented the
dynamics of the impact case.
Finally, it would not be wrong to say that accuracy of the finite
element model has been verified through an hourglass energy
inspection approach. It can also be said that simulation visual and
numerical results reflect accurate and realistic deformation
characteristics of the pear deformation under defined boundary
conditions, and that the simulation energy activities support this
through energy conversation states obtained from the simulations.
The bruise susceptibility indices were successfully calculated
from the data collected from the impact simulation scenarios.
Three impact heights, three impact orientations and three impact
surfaces were specifically considered in these scenarios. In
addition to this, these data were also analysed by means of a
response surface analysis approach to predict the bruise
susceptibility amount for different impact cases not considered
in the simulation scenarios. Response surface methodology (RSM)
is used for empirical model building. RSM can be described as a
collection of mathematical and statistical techniques. Originally,
RSM was developed to model experimental responses and then
migrated to the modelling of numerical experiments (Box and
Draper, 1987).
Fig. 10. Response surface graphs and prediction models for bruise susceptibility.
Specific to this study, to predict the bruise susceptibility indices
on a specific impact platform for various impact events, a
prediction model has been expressed though response surface
analysis as described in Eq. (1).
yi ¼ b0 þ b1 x1i þ b2 x2i þ b3 x21i þ b4 x22i þ b5 x1i x2i þ ei ð1Þ
3 1
Here yi is bruise susceptibility (m J ); x1i is impact angle (
); x2i is
impact height (m); b0 is a constant coefficient; b1, b2, b3, b4, and b5
are the interaction coefficients of linear, quadratic and second-
order terms, respectively; and ei is the standard error term. The
quality of the fit of the model in Eq. (1) is evaluated using the
coefficient of determination (R2). Results of the analysis are
represented in Fig. 10 as three-dimensional response surface
graphs with prediction models for stainless steel, wood and rubber
impact surfaces respectively.
Response surface analysis approach provided useful informa-
tion for evaluating the bruise susceptibility indices against a very
wide range of impact events. Coefficient of determination (R2)
values, which were obtained from response surfaces, were 0.8907,
0.8813 and 0.9733 for the impact platforms of stainless steel, wood
(yellow poplar) and rubber (vulcanised), respectively. These values
indicate that the response surface models may be considered
satisfactory, however, it may be necessary to check the empirical
model in Eq. (1) to evaluate whether it can provide an adequate
approximation or not. Unless the model shows an adequate fit,
 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97
Fig. 11. Evaluation of approximation accuracy level of the empirical model.
response surface may give poor or misleading results. The
approximation accuracy level of the empirical model was
evaluated through calculation of relative differences between
the results obtained from the simulation and the empirical model.
The evaluation results are given in Fig. 11. In this representation, it
was seen that the range of differences were calculated between
0.094 and 7.03%. The maximum difference was 7.03% (impact
scenario with rubber platform: 90
, 1.00 m) and the minimum
difference was 0.094% (impact scenario with stainless steel
platform: 0
, 0.25 m). Based on these results, the response surface
model obtained in this study for predicting bruise volume looks
like it was quite reasonable and it would not be wrong to say that
results were in good agreement.
4. Conclusion
The major aim of the work presented in this study was to
determine bruise susceptibly indices of pears (Ankara variety)
under various cases of impact by means of a FEM-based explicit
dynamics simulation technique. In this regard, the aim of the study
has been accomplished and the parameters related to bruise
susceptibly indices of the pear have been successfully described. In
addition to numerical data obtained from simulation results, useful
visuals of time-dependent (dynamics) deformation of the fruit
under various impact conditions have been successfully exhibited.
These results may help to provide a deeper understanding of the
complicated deformation behaviour of the fruit due to impact
phenomena which may be met in related agricultural production
phases. This deeper understanding may provide a novel point of
95
view for designing more efficient agricultural and food machinery
systems.
This study has also highlighted that advanced computer aided
design, reverse engineering and engineering simulation techni-
ques are very useful and should be considered as mainstream
applications in agricultural and food research related to inves-
tigations into the deformation of agricultural and food materials. A
nonlinear explicit dynamics approach is more promising for
gaining a realistic simulation of the product deformation, however,
these types of nonlinear simulations have not yet become
mainstream practices particularly in research related to the
impact-effected deformation of agricultural and food products.
Some of the most important points extracted from this study
can be summarised as follows:
 Reverse engineered pear models have ensured a more realistic
deformation behaviour of the product. This approach was found
to be very promising in creating digital models and realistic
deformation simulations of various irregularly shaped agricul-
tural and food products.
 The experimental properties have been utilised in describing
idealised material models which have been successfully applied
to a FEM-based simulation work set-up. Material models
presented in the study can also be used in further research
related to various computer aided rheological analyses of pears.
 Useful deformation visuals and graphs which supported the
numerical results have been represented in this simulation work.
This has provided an improved understanding of the product
deformation under various impact cases.
96 H.K. Celik / Postharvest Biology and Technology 128 (2017) 83–97
 Maximum bruise susceptibility magnitude was calculated for
simulation scenario no. 12 with the impact on a wooden platform
(impact angle: 0
; impact height: 1 m). The minimum magnitude
was with the rubber platform (impact angle: 45
; impact height:
1 m).
 In addition to numerical results extracted from the simulations,
empirical models to determine bruise susceptibility under a very
wide range of impact cases have been presented by means of
response surface methodology. Prediction models have been
successfully presented with a reasonable coefficient of determi-
nation (R2) values. Verification check results for these models
have also indicated that the maximum relative difference
between the simulation and empirical model results was
7.03%. This value is considered a reasonable difference and so
empirical models have given reasonable results.
 It has been verified that the simulation results are logically in
agreement with the physical test results and that they are
trustworthy. The verified results can be an accurate reference for
design studies of processing systems for industrial products.
This study contributes further research to the use of numerical-
methods-based nonlinear explicit dynamics simulation techniques
in complicated deformation investigations related to agricultural
and food products.
Acknowledgement
This research is partly supported financially by The Scientific
Research Projects Coordination Unit of Akdeniz University
(Turkey).
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