STATISTICS

-the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data
-A standard statistical procedure involves the collection of data leading to test of the relationship between two statistical
data sets, or a data set and synthetic data drawn from an idealized model

Statistics can be regarded in two way

As a method
As a data

USES OF STATISTICS

Problems of estimates
Problems of comparison
Health need identification
Analysis of problem and trends
Epidemiologic evaluation
Program planning
Budget preparation and justification
Administrative decision making
Health education

As a METHOD- it refers to orderly processes of data collection, organization, presentation and interpretation (tabulation
of
data, computation of rates and frequency distribution, graphic presentation)

As a DATA it refers to quantitative data affected to a marked extent by a multiplicity of causes. Data are collected in order
to measure something (number of deaths, births, specific diseases, hospital admissions)

Statistics AS A METHOD
DESCRIPTIVE METHOD- used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer
questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather it addresses the "what" question
Eg: What are the characteristics of the population of those being studied in clinical trials?
INFERENTIAL METHOD- are techniques that allow us to use these samples to make generalizations about the populations
from which the samples were drawn
Eg: We could calculate the mean and standard deviation of the clinical trial success for the 100 people and this could
provide valuable information about this group of 100 volunteers.

Statistics AS A DATA
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA ON COMMUNITY HEALTH SECTOR
1. Demographic- Population, size, age, sex, geographic distribution, mortality, morbidity, growth rate
2. Health Status- Causes and distribution of mortality and morbidity as to residence, place of occurrence, age, sex
3. Health Resources- Number and distribution of health facilities, health manpower, health expenditures
4. Health-related Socio-economic Environmental Factors- Water supply, excreta disposal, school enrollment, food
establishment, transports, food intake/habits

TYPES OF DATA
1. TIME SERIES DATA- a collection of a set of numerical values, collected over a period of time. The data might have been
collected either at regular intervals of time or irregular intervals of time.
2. SPATIAL DATA- If the data collected is connected with that of a place, then it is termed as spatial data
3. SPACIO-TEMPORAL DATA- If the data collected is connected to the time as well as place

CATEGORIES OF DATA
PRIMARY DATA- is the one, which is collected by the investigator himself for the purpose of a specific inquiry or study. Such
data is original in character and is generated by survey conducted by individuals or research institution or any organization.
A. DIRECT PERSONAL INTERVIEWS- The investigator personally meets them and asks questions to gather the
necessary information
B. INDIRECT ORAL INTERVIEWS- the investigator contacts witnesses or neighbors or friends or some other third
parties who are capable of supplying the necessary information
C. INFORMATION FROM CORRESPONDENTS- The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different
places and compiles the information sent by them
D. MAILED QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD- Under this method a list of questions is prepared and is sent to all the informants by
post. The list of questions is technically called questionnaire.

2. SECONDARY DATA- are those data which have been already collected and analyzed by some earlier agency for its own
use; and later the same data are used by a different agency.
A. PUBLISHED SOURCES- eg: Books, journals and those found in the internet
B. UNPUBLISHED SOURCES- There are various sources of unpublished data such as records maintained by various
Government and private offices, studies made by research institutions, scholars, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
The process of grouping into different classes or sub classes according to some characteristics
The collected data, also known as raw data or ungrouped data are always in an un organized form and need to be
organized and presented in meaningful and readily comprehensible form in order to facilitate further statistical analysis

OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

It condenses the mass of data in an easily assimilable form.
It eliminates unnecessary details.
It facilitates comparison and highlights the significant aspect of data.
It enables one to get a mental picture of the information and helps in drawing inferences.

TYPE OF CLASSIFICATIONS OF DATA

CHRONOLOGICAL- the collected data are arranged according to the order of time expressed in years, months, weeks, etc.
- The data is generally classified in ascending order of time.
2. GEOGRAPHICAL- the data are classified according to geographical region or place
3. QUALITATIVE- data are classified on the basis of same attributes or quality like sex, literacy, religion, employment etc.,
Such attributes cannot be measured along with a scale.
4.QUANTITATIVE- refers to the classification of data according to some characteristics that can be measured such as height,
weight, etc.

ORGANIZATION OF DATA
Classification, tabulation, graphical presentation and diagrammatic presentation of data.

1.TABULATION- it refers to the arrangement of any data in an orderly sequence, so that they can be presented concisely
and compactly and so that they can be understood easily.

TYPES OF DATA FOR TABULATION

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION- data are grouped according to some scale of classification, where the sum of the entries is
equal to the total. The figures may either be in actual numbers, in percent or in both. The scales used may be qualitative,
quantitative or both.

TYPES OF DATA FOR TABULATION

CORRELATION DATA- used to compare two or more frequencies
TIME SERIES DATA- data set that tracks a sample over time

PARTS OF THE TABLE

TITLE- Should states the objective of the table. It should state clearly, briefly, and comprehensively what the figures in the
body of the table stand for, how the data are classified, where and when obtained.
STUBS- indicate the basis of classification of the rows or horizontal series of figures
COLUMN HEADING- indicates the basis of classification of columns or vertical series of figures.

BODY OF THE TABLE- This is made up of the figures filing the cells or compartments brought about by the coordinates of
the rows and columns.
MARGINAL TOTALS- refer to the column totals and row totals

FOOTNOTE/SOURCE- indicates the source of information and indicative of notations regarding the table

2.GRAPHING- The purpose is to convey a simpler idea of what the statistical table contains.
- A statistical graph is either a series of lines joined together, or bars or enclosed areas, drawn to represent certain
statistical information under consideration
PARTS OF A GRAPH

TITLE- indicate clearly and briefly what the figures in the body of the graph stand for, how the data were classified, and
where and when obtained. This is placed at the bottom of the graph, preceded by a number for easy reference.
AXIS- a graph has 2 axes, the vertical and the horizontal. One
of the axes is always quantitative scale while the other is either qualitative or quantitative scales.
X axis- horizontal
Y axis- vertical
LEGEND- this is needed when one is drawing more than one graph in a graphing space. This clarifies to what particular
item each of the graph refers. It is placed either at the bottom of the graph or as close as possible to the figures being
identified.

BODY OF THE GRAPH- these are the lines, bars or figures drawn within the graphing space. Scales and intervals of data are
included here

TYPES OF DATA COMMONLY REPRESENTED BY GRAPHS

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION- there are two kinds of scales used, the qualitative and the quantitative which may
discontinuous variety (counts) or continuous (measurement)
2. TRENDS- numbers (counts) or raters (measurements) plotted over a given time period

3. CORRELATION OF DATA- maybe either of the two

DIFFERENT TYPE OF GRAPHS

LINE GRAPH- this is used to graph time series data to depict trends or changes with time with respect to some other
variables
BAR GRAPH AND POLYGON- this is used to graph qualitative variables and discontinuous variables of the quantitative
variety
PICTORIAL DIAGRAM- this is usually in the form of rectangles, squares or circles (pie), used to depict the distribution of a
whole, with different segments representing different segments representing different frequencies.
SCATTER POINT DIAGRAM- this is used to show relationship of simultaneous measurements.

DEMOGRAPHY AND POPULATION

Statistical study of human population

It encompasses the study of the size, structure and distribution of these populations, and spatial and/or temporal
changes in them in response to birth, migration, aging and death.

POPULATION
Population is the study of the character, number, and distribution of living organisms residing in or migrating through
particular places.

Study of population is closely associated with social and biological sciences and
it examines the relative size of a breeding group with respect to the age structure, number of
viable offspring, survival rates, and longevity among separate aggregations.

ESTIMATES OF POPULATION SIZE

Continuous Population Registration- Consist of registering births, deaths, emigration and immigration, making necessary
additions and subtractions to the existing population
Surveys- Simple way of estimating the number of population in a smaller area. One ay is to count the number of houses
and for every ten houses, conduct a census. Based on the censused household, estimate the average occupant per house
and then multiply this figure by the number of household
Mathematical Estimates
Arithmetic Increase Method- it is assumed that the population increases at a constant amount per year. The difference
between the last two censuses is taken and then divided by the number of year between them to get the average
amount of population increase per year.
Geometric Increase Method- assume that population increases at a constant rate per year. The principle mathematical
operation therefore is the determination of annual rate of population change.