Properties[edit]

The properties of raw shale oil vary depending on the composition of the parent oil shale and
the extraction technology used.[29] Like conventional oil, shale oil is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons, and is characterized according to the bulk properties of the oil. It usually contains
large quantities of olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons. It can also contain significant quantities
of heteroatoms. A typical shale oil composition includes 0.5–1% of oxygen, 1.5–2% of nitrogen and
0.15–1% of sulfur; some deposits contain more heteroatoms than others. Mineral particles and
metals are often present as well.[30][31] Generally, the oil is less fluid than crude oil,
becoming pourable at temperatures between 24 and 27 °C (75 and 81 °F), while conventional crude
oil is pourable at temperatures between −60 and 30 °C (−76 and 86 °F); this property affects shale
oil's ability to be transported in existing oil pipelines.[30][32][33]

Shale oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are carcinogenic. The US EPA has
concluded that raw shale oil has a mild carcinogenic potential, comparable to some intermediate
petroleum refinery products, while upgraded shale oil has lower carcinogenic potential, as most of
the polycyclic aromatics are believed to have been broken down by hydrogenation.[34] The World
Health Organization classifies shale oil as a Group 1 carcinogen to humans.[35]

Upgrading[edit]
Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it
be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments
before it can be sent to a conventional oil refinery.[36]

Particulates in the raw oil clog downstream processes; sulfur and nitrogen create air pollution. Sulfur
and nitrogen, along with the arsenic and iron that may be present, also destroy the catalysts used in
refining.[37][38] Olefins form insoluble sediments and cause instability. The oxygen within the oil,
present at higher levels than in crude oil, lends itself to the formation of destructive free radicals.
[31]
Hydrodesulfurization and hydrodenitrogenation can address these problems and result in a
product comparable to benchmark crude oil.[30][31][39][40] Phenols can be first be removed by water
extraction.[40] Upgrading shale oil into transport fuels requires adjusting hydrogen–carbon ratios by
adding hydrogen (hydrocracking) or removing carbon (coking).[39][40]

Shale oil produced by some technologies, such as the Kiviter process, can be used without further
upgrading as an oil constituent and as a source of phenolic compounds. Distillate oils from the
Kiviter process can also be used as diluents for petroleum-originated heavy oils and as an adhesive-
enhancing additive in bituminous materials such as asphalt.[40]

Uses[edit]
Before World War II, most shale oil was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used
as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad
wood preservative. As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser
extent in the production of various chemicals.[36]

Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of middle
distillates such as kerosene, jet fuel and diesel fuel.[31][41][42] Additional cracking can create the lighter
hydrocarbons used in gasoline.[31][43]
"Pale sulfonated shale oil" (PSSO), a sulfonated and ammonia-neutralized variant named
"Ichthammol" (chemical name: Ammonium bituminosulfonate) is still in application today.[44]