AL-Balqa Applied University

Faculty of Engineering Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Thermal engineering Lab

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Experiment (1) : Marcet Boiler
Objectives :-

1. Obtain a balance relationship between temperature and pressure of saturated steam.

2. Compare the slope of the graphic (dP/dT) and the theoretical value.
3. Study the time during heat addition and cooling of the water.
Discussion (Theory):-

When energy increases within the water , the increasing of activities among the molecules
enables the increase in the number of molecules escape form surface until an equilibrium
state is reached. The state of equilibrium depends on the pressure between the water surface
and the steam.

At low pressure the molecules become easier to leave the water surface and less energy is
needed ti achieve the equilibrium state (boiling point) , the temperature and pressure when
equilibrium is occurs are called saturated temperature and saturated pressure.

The saturated pressure depends only on the temperature.

The Clapeyron equation :-

Clapeyron equation enables us to determine the enthalpy change associated with a phase
change (hfg ) , from knowledge of (p) , (v) , (T).

For an isothermal liquid-vapor phase change the integral yields :

𝑑𝑃 𝑔 𝑔
𝑆𝑔 − 𝑆𝑓 = ( ) (𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉𝑓 ) ∫ 𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝑇𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑓

𝑑𝑃 𝑆𝑓𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔
( )= ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 𝑇𝑆𝑓𝑔 𝑆𝑓𝑔 =
𝑑𝑇 𝑣𝑓𝑔 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝑑𝑝 ℎ𝑓𝑔
During the phase change process , the ( ) =
pressure remain constant , therefore, 𝑑𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑣𝑓𝑔

𝑑ℎ = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝 𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 0

𝑑ℎ = 𝑇𝑑𝑠

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 Figure (1) : Solid-liquid-vapor diagram

Figure (2) : Marcet boiler

1. Safety valve 5. Thermometer

2. Container 6. Electric heater
3. Barometer 7. Level valve
4. Power source

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Experiment steps :

1- Connect the unit to the power supply to provide a heating rate of (1.5 kw) to the
electrical heater .

2- Open the level valve and switch on the power supply .

3- Wait for the steam output through the level valve to ensure that there is no air trapped
in the boiler .

4- Close the level valve and continue heating until the maximum gauge pressure
reaches ( 6 bar ) .

5- Decrease the temperature to room temperature in which the electrical heater will be
off .

6- Record all temperature readings at different pressure setting of the boiler when the
boiler is heated and cooled .

Table 1 : Data collected and calculated result.

Pressure p (bar) Temperature T (C) Measured Calculated

Increase Decrease Average Average Slope Slope
Gauge Absolute (C) (C) T (C) T (K) dP/dT

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 GT103
Two stage compressor test

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Symbols and variables on the test set
P1 Compressor 1 out Bar (gauge)
P2 Compressor 2 in Bar (gauge)
P3 Reservoir pressure Bar (gauge)
Tq1 Torque for dynamometer 1 N.m
Tq2 Torque for dynamometer 2 N.m
T1 Air inlet (dry) temperature C
T2 Air inlet (wet bulb) temperature C
T3 Compressor 1 outlet C
T4 Intercooler inlet C
T5 Compressor 2 inlet C
T6 Compressor 2 outlet C
T7 Intercooler water inlet C
T8 Intercooler water outlet C
T9 Reservoir temperature C
V1 Voltage applied to dynamometer 1 Volt
V2 Voltage applied to dynamometer 2 Volt
A1 Current passing through dynamometer 1 Ampere
A2 Current passing through dynamometer 2 Ampere
N1 Rotational speed pf compressor 1 Rev/min
N2 Rotational speed pf compressor 2 Rev/min

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 𝑚̇𝑎 and 𝑚̇𝑣 Mass flow (air or water) Kg/s
P Pressure Pascal or bar where shown
𝑃𝑅 Pressure ratio -
𝛥𝑝 Difference in pressure (across the orifice) Pascal or 𝑚𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 where shown
P0 Local atmospheric pressure Pascal or bar where shown
𝑃𝑖 and 𝑇𝑖 Intermediate pressure and temperature Pascal or bar and kelvin
𝐶𝑑 Coefficient of discharge (across the orifice) -
𝐶𝑝 Specific heat j/(g.K)
A Area of the orifice 𝑚2
ρ Density Kg/𝑚3
T Temperature Kelvin or C
T0 Local atmospheric temperature Kelvin or C
𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 Theoretical values of temperature and pressure K and Pa
R Gas constant of the air Dry air 287 j/(kg.K)
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ Volumetric and mechanical efficiency -
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑜 Isothermal and overall isothermal efficiency -
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡 Intercooler efficiency -
n Polytropic index -
𝑉𝑐 Clearance volume 𝑚3
𝑉𝑠 Swept volume 𝑚3
W Work done J
𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ and 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 Mechanical or electrical power Watts
𝑊𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜 Indicated and isothermal power Watts
W Specific work KJ/kg
g Acceleration of the gravity 9.81 m/𝑠 2
𝑐𝑣 Specific heat capacity at constant volume J/(kg.K)
∅ Relative humidity %
𝛾 Ratio of specific heat -
Q Heat flow rate Watts

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Units, ‘bar g’ and Absolute (abs) Values
Note that many equations in this theory use the SI units (for example – Pa for pressure and
K for temperature) unless stated. So for some equations you must convert your pressure
readings of bar into Pa (Pascal), and temperature readings for Celsius (C) into Kelvin (K).
Where the equation uses a pressure ratio, the units are important.
1 bar = 100000 Pa
0 ®C = 273 K and 100 ®C = 373 K
Also note that the Control Panel display pressures in gauge pressure, shown in units of
bar, giving the common use of the acronym ‘bar g’. For your calculations, you must add
the local atmospheric pressure P0 to give the absolute value ‘P abs’ in bar or Pa.

How a Compressor Works

Figure (2) : Reciprocating compressor

A compressor delivers a quantity of fluid at a particular pressure. A reciprocating

compressor is a positive displacement device. A moving piston in a cylinder reduces the
volume of a fixed mass of air. According to Boyle’s Law, the pressure of a gas is inversely
proportional to its volume, so the reduction in volume of the air increases it’s pressure.

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However, to move the piston, the compressor must receive input of work. The amount of
work input needed relates to the force in the piston and the distance it moves.
So, at any instant during the compression process for a unit mass of gas:
Work input = (force on piston) x (distance moved by piston)
= (pressure on piston surface) x (surface area of piston) x (distance moved by piston)
= (pressure on piston surface) x (change in volume of air)

This is normally expressed as:

W = ʃ PdV

Where dV is the change in volume for a small time step of the whole compression
process.

Theoretical analysis of the compression cycle

Figure (3) : The compression cycle (PV diagram)

(4-1) induction Clearance volume (Vc)

(1-2) compression Swept volume (Vs)

(2-3) delivery Swept volume per cycle ( Vs = V1-V3 )

(3-4) expansion Induced volume per cycle ( V = V1-V4

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 Figure (4) : Actual (PV diagram)

Since reciprocating compressors have relatively slow rotational speeds, the

thermodynamic processes of compression and expansion do not follow adiabatic (n=1.4)
or isothermal processes (n=1). The polytropic index is usually about 1.3, following the
law :

𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶

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Polytropic Index
The relation we use to find ‘n’ is called polytropic expression defining as :
𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶
𝑃 (𝑏𝑎𝑟) = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 10−8 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
Where :
ρ : density of water.
g : gravitational acceleration (9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 ) .
C : means constant .
n : polytropic index .

-If (n = 0) then (P = C) , this process is called isobaric process .

-If (n =∞) then (V = C) , this process is called isometric process .
-If (n = 1) then (T = C) , this process is called isothermal process .

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The polytropic index for a compressor as a value found by a test that changes variables and
produces a chart of the logarithmic values. The gradient of the chart then helps you to
calculate the polytropic index.
The value is a characteristic of the machine and useful for then using to calculate the
theoretical performance of the machine. The usual method is to produce a PV chart as
shown later in this guide. Another method is to fix the speed while varying delivery
pressure. This produces varying temperature and pressure ratios across the compressor.
Temperature ratio = Outlet temperature/Inlet temperature (in Kelvin)
Stage 1 = T3/T1
Pressure ratio PR = Outlet pressure/Inlet pressure (absolute values)
Stage 1 = P1/P0
The slope of the chart gives (n-1)/n, from which you can find n.
In theory, the index should be constant at any speed, but in reality the change in
performance of real machines at different speeds mean that it is best done at a mid-range
speed.

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Calculations :

𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛
𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑛
=( )
𝑃2 𝑉1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇1
=
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇2
𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑇1
=
𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑇2
By substituting of equation (2) in (1)
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑇1 𝑛
=( )
𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑇2
𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
=( ) ×( )
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑃1
𝑃2 𝑛−1 𝑇1 𝑛
( ) =( )
𝑃1 𝑇2
𝑛−1
𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑛
=( )
𝑇2 𝑃1
To find (n) we take logarithm for both sides of the equation
𝑇1 𝑛−1 𝑃2
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑇2 𝑛 𝑃1

𝑃
ln ( 2 )
𝑃0
𝑛=
𝑃 𝑇
ln ( 2 ) − ln ( 3 )
𝑃0 𝑇1

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Airflow through the orifice (𝒎̇ 𝒂 )

The pressures upstream and downstream of the orifice plate give a pressure change ∆𝑃
that helps to calculate the flow rate of air through the compressor. The mass flow (kg/s) is
given by the following equation:
𝑚̇ 𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐸𝐴√2∆𝑃𝜌
Where
𝑃𝑜
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝜌) =
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇1
𝐸 = (1 − 𝛽 4 )−0.5 𝑑 𝜋𝑑 2
𝛽= 𝐴=
𝐷 4

Airflow to stage 2
Total mass airflow at equilibrium is constant throughout the system, but the air entering
each stage determine its volumetric efficiency.
The inlet conditions determine the air density at stage 1, however, the average
intermediate pressure and temperature determine the density at stage 2.
𝑃𝑜
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 1 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌1 =
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇1
𝑃𝑖
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌2 =
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇𝑖
When using the intercooler to keep T5=T1 you can simplify this to:
𝑃𝑖
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌1
𝑃𝑜

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Clearance volume (𝑽𝒄 ) and volumetric efficiency (𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍 )
The pistons never actually reach the top of their cylinders because of a small clearance
volume ( to prevent damage). This means that for each piston stroke, a small amount of air
is compressed but never delivered. So, the actual volume of air moved is less than the swept
(theoretical )𝑉𝑠 .
The ratio of the clearance volume against the swept volume in the cylinder is termed the
clearance ratio :
𝑉𝑐
𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉𝑠
The volumetric efficiency is a ratio of the actual volume flow of air that passes through the
compressor in a given time (or cycle) against the theoretical volume of the air that should
move.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Alternatively, using mass flow :
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡) 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑚̇𝑎
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = × 100%
𝑚̇𝑠
Where swept mass flow for compressor 1 :
𝜌1 2𝑉𝑠1 𝑁1
𝑚̇𝑠1 =
60
And for compressor 2 :
𝜌2 2𝑉𝑠2 𝑁2
𝑚̇𝑠2 =
60

Note that the value 2𝑉𝑠 double the swept volume, due to 2 cylinder acting at each
revolution.
Note that when equilibrium, the air mass flow 𝑚̇𝑎 passes equally through both
compressors.

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An alternative or ideal equation allows for clearance volume 𝑉𝑐 , allowing you to predict
the theoretical volumetric efficiency :
𝑉𝑐 1
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1 − [𝑃𝑅 𝑛 − 1]
𝑉𝑠
For the GT103 Test Set, the volumetric efficiency found from Equation 8 will never be as
high as that found from Equation 11, as the real machine cannot pass as much air as it
should. This due to the slight fraction caused by the orifice and inlet manifold needed for
measurement of the air inlet conditions. The resulting actual air mass flow becomes less,
but the swept volume remains the same, giving a lower efficiency, compared to the
theoretical value.
If the air passed directly into the compressor inlet, actual volumetric efficiency would
increase to nearer the theoretical efficiency. To be strictly correct, the restriction would
cause the pressure at the inlet of the real compressor to be slightly less than expected,
resulting in a smaller pressure ratio PR affecting the theoretical efficiency.
Two Stage Volumetric Efficiency
Due to the interaction between the two stages, overall volumetric efficiency for the two
stages together can give misleading results, so generally you find individual volumetric
efficiency for the two stages and compare with just one operating under similar conditions.

Indicated work rate (𝑾𝒊)

The indicated work done rate (𝑊̇ 𝑖) is given by the area of the PV diagram of a compressor,
so that :

𝑊̇ 𝑖 = ∮ 𝑃𝑑𝑉̇

𝑛
𝑊̇ 𝑖 = (𝑃 𝑉̇ − 𝑃1 𝑉𝑎̇ )
𝑛−1 2 𝑏
𝑛 (
𝑛−1
)
𝑊̇ 𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑅𝑇 ( ) [(𝑃𝑅 ) 𝑛 − 1]
𝑛−1
T : the initial temperature in Kelvin.
𝑃𝑅 : pressure ratio in absolute values.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊̇ 𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 1 𝑊̇ 𝑖 + 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 2 𝑊̇ 𝑖

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Mechanical speed, Torque and Shaft Power
Speed
Due to 3:1 pulley ratio, Compressor Speed = 1/3 x Dynamometer Speed. However as the
speed sensor is at the compressor pulley, it’s display shows compressor speed directly.
Dynamometer torque (𝑻𝒒 ) and shaft power (𝑾̇𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 )
The Dynamometer measures the torque at their own position, displayed on the control
panel. However, due to the 3:1 pulley ratio, the torque at each compressor is 3 times that
at dynamometer, so you must multiply the displayed value by 3 to find the mechanical
power.
𝑇𝑞1 × 3 × 2𝜋 × 𝑁1
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 1 𝑊̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
60
𝑇𝑞2 × 3 × 2𝜋 × 𝑁2
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 2 𝑊̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
60

Due to the belt and pulley system, you cannot assume that all the torque is due to the compressor, as
same power (torque) becomes lost to the friction in the pulley system. For this reason, you can assume
that the actual (Wmech) at the compressor is around 80% of that calculated.

Actual Wmech = Calculated Wmech x 80%

When calculating the total power for the two stages of compression, you simply add the
two values of power together, so total power:
Total Wmech = compressor 1 Wmech + compressor 2 Wmech
Dynamometer Electrical Power (Welec)
Each dynamometer works from its own electric variable speed drive inside the Control
Panel. The two analogue meters for each compressor instrument group measure directly
the voltage (V) and current (A) applied at the dynamometer. The sum of these values gives
the electrical power applied to the dynamometer in Watts, so that:
Dynamometer 1 Wmech = V1 × A1
Dynamometer 2 Wmech = V2 × A2
Knowing the electrical power applied and the shaft power at the output can help to
appreciate the approximate power transfer and efficiency of the dynamometer-to-
compressor drive system.

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Mechanical Efficiency
This is the ratio of the indicated power used by the compressor to compress air, against the
input shaft power applied to the compressor (from the Dynamometer) :
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = × 100%
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑊̇𝑖
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = × 100%
𝑊̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
Isothermal power and efficiency
This is the work done to increase the air pressure. It is a product of the air mass flow, its
initial properties and the pressure increase. It doesn’t allow for the internal energy increase
of the air.
Note that the pressure ratio is based on absolute values.
𝑊̇𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑅𝑇 × 𝑙𝑛(𝑃𝑅 )
Where T is the initial gas temperature in kelvin. This would be T1 for the first stage of the
compressor and Ti for the second stage in kelvin.
The pressure ratio that of each stage (P1/P0 for the first stage ) or of the entire two stages
(P3/P0) for a two stage configuration.
The isothermal efficiency is the ratio of work done over the indicated power used to do the
work. Therefore, isothermal efficiency is higher than overall efficiency .
𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 = × 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑊̇𝑖𝑠𝑜
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 = × 100%
𝑊̇𝑖
Overall isothermal efficiency
This is a measure of how efficient the compressor in at turning input (shaft) mechanical
power into work done compressing the air. It is an overall efficiency of the system
including all losses .
𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝜂𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑜 = × 100%
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑊̇𝑖𝑠𝑜 𝜂𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 × 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
𝜂𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑜 = × 100%
𝑊̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ

19
As you will find, the receiver will collect the water during the experiment. This is the vapor
in the compressed air condensing on the walls of the receiver as the air fills and passes
through the receiver. Eventually, this condensate would fill the receiver. In industrial
applications, the receiver would have an automatic vent device or air dryer system to help
prevent this. For this reason, engineers need to know how much condensate is likely to
accumulate in a given time. This depends on the water vapor (humidity) conditions of the
air. Psychometric is the study of the humidity in the air.

Specific humidity
This is a ratio of the mass of the water vapor in the air under test and dry air.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚̇𝑣
𝜔= =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑑𝑟𝑦
Obviously, the dry air would have the same mass as the test air if its water vapor were
removed, so
𝑚̇𝑎 𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 𝑚̇𝑎 − 𝑚̇𝑣
Assuming that water vapor behaves as a perfect gas, then using Dalton’s law of partial
pressure
𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑣 𝑃𝑣
𝜔= × = 0.622 × = 0.622 ×
𝑃𝑎 𝑅𝑣 𝑃𝑎 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑣
Since 𝑅𝑎 gas constant for dry air = 0.2871 kJ/kg.k
𝑅𝑣 gas constant for water vapor = 0.4615 kJ/kg.k
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑣

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 Difference between dry and wet bulb temperature

𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 Saturated
𝑻𝟏 (C) vapor pressure
(C) 𝑷𝒗𝒔𝒂𝒕
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 (bar)
15 80 61 44 27 13 -- -- -- -- -- 0.01704
16 81 63 46 30 15 -- -- -- -- -- 0.01817
17 81 64 47 32 18 -- -- -- -- -- 0.01936
18 82 65 49 34 20 -- -- -- -- -- 0.02063
19 82 65 50 36 22 10 -- -- -- -- 0.02200
20 83 66 51 37 24 12 -- -- -- -- 0.02337
21 83 67 53 39 26 14 -- -- -- -- 0.02486
22 83 68 54 40 28 17 6 -- -- -- 0.02642
23 84 69 55 42 30 19 8 -- -- -- 0.02808
24 84 69 56 43 31 20 10 -- -- -- 0.02982
25 84 70 57 44 33 22 12 -- -- -- 0.03166
26 85 71 58 46 34 24 14 5 -- -- 0.03360
27 85 71 58 47 36 26 16 7 -- -- 0.03564
28 85 72 59 48 37 27 18 9 -- -- 0.03779
29 86 72 60 49 38 28 19 11 -- -- 0.04004
30 86 73 61 50 39 30 21 13 5 -- 0.04242
31 86 73 61 51 40 31 22 14 7 -- 0.04491
32 86 74 62 51 41 32 24 16 9 -- 0.04754
33 87 74 63 52 43 33 25 17 10 -- 0.05029
34 87 75 63 53 43 35 26 19 12 5 0.05318
35 87 75 64 54 44 36 28 20 13 7 0.05622

Relative humidity
Pv ṁv ṁv
∅= = ω=
Pvsat ṁvsat ṁa − ṁv
Where Pvsat is the saturation vapor Therefore water vapor mass flow rate :
pressure. ωṁa
ṁv =
If you know the wet and the dry inlet air ω+1
temperature, you can use Table (1) to find Water vapor condenses in the reservoir,
the inlet relative humidity and saturation where is has ∅ = 100%
vapor pressure.
Pv = ∅Pvsat

To find the rate at which water collects in the reservoir, you must find the water mass flow
ṁv at the inlet and at the outlet (reservoir).
With saturated vapor condition 𝑃𝑣 is a function of temperature only and therefore, if the
pressure of the mixture 𝑃 is increased, the percentage water vapor content is reduced; this
reduction achieved by condensation.

21
Single and Multiple Stage Comparisons

The most obvious advantage of the two stage compression is the higher pressures the it can
achieve. Most compressors lose efficiency with increased pressure ratio, so a single stage
normally works to a maximum of around 8 or 9 bar ratio. Simply having a second identical
compressor allows you to double that pressure, but at the expense of doubling the work
input.
Alternatively, where one compressor works at 8 bar, then adding an identical unit in series
(two stages) and setting each stage to 4 bar gives a corresponding increase in volumetric
efficiency for each stage as compared to the single stage.
Theoretically and ideally, the two compressors would use slightly less power than just one,
but in real applications this and mechanical efficiency improvement depends on how you
drive each compressor. Separate motors and drive systems have their own efficiencies.
Ideally, an efficient drive system working both compressors from one motor will give the
best efficiency.
Isothermal efficiency should increase slightly for each unit, as its pressure ratio becomes
less. Overall isothermal efficiency may not change, as this also depends on the mechanical
input condition.
The installer or designer has to decide whether to use a single stage compressor for short
term savings due to the reduce amount of parts, or the longer term efficiency and
maintenance savings of two or more stages compressor.

22
Intermediate conditions
In a real two stage machine supplying a flow of air, there are both pressure and temperature
gradients between the air leaving the first stage and entering the second stage.
Therefore, for accurate results on the Test Set you must average the pressure and
temperature values to approximate the intermediate condition:
𝑇3 + 𝑇5
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑖 =
2
𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑖 =
2
Also note the slight change in pressure ratio at the first stage when set for use with the
second stage. It changes from the simple P1/P0 ratio to Pi/P0.
Compressor theory shows that for minimum total power consumption in an ideal machine,
the stages would share the work done and the intermediate pressure should equal the square
root of the inlet and final outlet pressures, which in the Test Set should be:
𝑃𝑖 = √𝑃0 × 𝑃3
Note: all values are absolute.
From this, in an ideal machine for 4 bar g (5 bar abs) delivery and 1 bar atmospheric would
give:

𝑃𝑖 = √𝑃0 × 𝑃3 = √1 × 5 = 2.23 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠

At this point, 𝑃𝑖 ⁄𝑃1 = 𝑃3⁄𝑃𝑖 and compressor 1 𝑊𝑖 = compressor 2 𝑊𝑖

Intercooling should reduce the average intermediate pressure, compared to a non-
intercooled system.

23
Intercooler heat energy analysis
The intercooler has a simple tubed air/water heat exchanger there the interstage air is cooled
from the first stage exit temperature to a lower value. Considering the heat flow rates, the
following equations can be defined.
Heat gained by water :
𝑄̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 (𝑇8 − 𝑇9)
Heat lost by air :
𝑄̇𝑎 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇4 − 𝑇5)
Since the thermocouple are very close to the intercooler, there will be very small heat losses
which are not accountable.
In general :
𝑄̇𝑎 = 𝑄̇𝑤 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Or thermal efficiency for the intercooler :
𝑄̇𝑤
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
𝑄̇𝑎
However, since condensation will be taken place, the value of 𝑄̇𝑎 will be less than the
actual amount of heat lost by the air. The difference is due to the amount of heat required
to condensate a proportion of the water vapor.
The difference can be evaluated, but needs long, repetitive calculation. A more important
ratio of use with the heat exchanger is the thermal ratio defined as :

𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝

𝜀=
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝

24
Experiment (2) : Single Stage – Polytropic Index
Aim :
To vary the delivery pressure of compressor 1 across its range and find it polytropic index
at a given speed .
Procedure :
1. Find your local atmospheric pressure Po, You can assume 1 bar, but the actual value
gives slightly more accurate result.
2. Create a Blank Results Table.
3. Set rocker switch R1 to down. This sends the output of compressor 1 directly to the
receiver.
4. Fully shut (turn clockwise) the air flow valve.
5. Start compressor 1 and set its speed to 750 rev/min (+/-5 rev/min). Keep this speed
constant during the test.
6. Wait a few minutes for the reservoir pressure to start rising while watching the
Compressor 1 output pressure P1.
7. When P1 reaches 2 bar g (gauge), open the air flow valve a few turns and carefully
adjust it to keep P1 constant (by keeping the flow from the receiver constant).It will
take several minutes of careful adjustment. This helps, as its also allows time for the
compressor to warm up.
8. Wait at least ten minutes for the compressor outlet temperature T3 and pressures to
stabilize, Then record the values as shown in the blank results table.
9. In steps, use the air flow valve to regulate P1 at increasing pressures up to 10 bar g
(gauge) as shown in the result table. At each step, wait at least ten minutes for the
outlet temperature T3 and pressures to stabilize. NOTE that you record P3 only for
reference, While an air flow is present, P3 will always the slightly less than P1.
10.After you have finished, slowly open the air flow valve while reducing compressor
speed until you reach roughly 0 bar at P3. Switch off the compressor, shut the air
flow valve and drain the condensate in the receiver.

If you have time, repeat for compressor speeds of 500 (rev/min) and 1000 (rev/min).

25
Experiment (3) : Single stage volumetric efficiency
Aim :
To vary the delivery pressure of compressor 1 across its range and find its volumetric
efficiency at a given speed.
Procedure :
1. Find your local atmospheric pressure. You can assume (1 bar), but the actual value
gives slightly more accurate.
2. Create a Blank Results Table.
3. Set rocker switch R1 to down. This sends the output of compressor 1 directly to the
receiver.
4. Fully shut (turn clockwise) the air flow valve.
5. Start compressor 1 and set its speed to 750 rev/min(+/-5 rev/min). Keep this speed
constant during the test.
6. Wait a few minutes for the reservoir pressure to start rising while watching the
Compressor 1 output pressure P1.
7. When P1 reaches 2 bar g (gauge), open the air flow valve a few turns and carefully
adjust it to keep P1 constant (by keeping the flow from the receiver constant). It will
take several minutes of careful adjustment. This helps, as its also allows time for the
compressor to warm up.
8. Wait at least ten minutes for the compressor outlet temperature T3 and pressure to
stabilize, then record the values as shown in the blank results table.
9. In steps, use the air flow valve to regulate P1 at increasing pressure up to 10 bar g as
shown in the results table. At each step, wait at least ten minutes for outlet
temperature T3 and pressure the stabilize. Note that your record P3 only for
reference. While an air flow is present, P3 will always be slightly less than P1.
10.After you have finished, slowly open the air flow valve while reducing compressor
speed until you reach roughly 0 bar at P3. Switch off the compressor, shut the air
flow Valve and drain the condensate in the receiver.

26
Experiment (4) : Single stage other efficiencies
Aim :
To vary the delivery pressure of compressor 1 across its range and find its mechanical,
isothermal and overall efficiency at a given speed.
Procedure :
1. Find your local atmospheric pressure. You can assume (1 bar), but the actual value
gives slightly more accurate.
2. Create a Blank Results Table.
3. Set rocker switch R1 to down. This sends the output of compressor 1 directly to the
receiver.
4. Fully shut (turn clockwise) the air flow valve.
5. Start compressor 1 and set its speed to 750 rev/min(+/-5 rev/min). Keep this speed
constant during the test.
6. Wait a few minutes for the reservoir pressure to start rising while watching the
Compressor 1 output pressure P1.
7. When P1 reaches 2 bar g (gauge), open the air flow valve a few turns and carefully
adjust it to keep P1 constant (by keeping the flow from the receiver constant). It will
take several minutes of careful adjustment. This helps, as its also allows time for the
compressor to warm up.
8. Wait at least ten minutes for the compressor outlet temperature T3 and pressure to
stabilize, then record the values as shown in the blank results table.
9. In steps, use the air flow valve to regulate P1 at increasing pressure up to 10 bar g as
shown in the results table. At each step, wait at least ten minutes for outlet
temperature T3 and pressure the stabilize. Note that your record P3 only for
reference. While an air flow is present, P3 will always be slightly less than P1.
10.After you have finished, slowly open the air flow valve while reducing compressor
speed until you reach roughly 0 bar at P3. Switch off the compressor, shut the air
flow Valve and drain the condensate in the receiver.

27
 P1 T1 T3 P0
NO (bar) (bar) 𝒍𝒏 (𝑷𝟏) 𝒍𝒏 (𝑻𝟑) n n
Gauge abs (C) (K) (C) (K) abs 𝑷𝟎 𝑻𝟏 (cal) (slop)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

NO ρ ΔP 𝒎̇𝒔 𝒎̇𝒂 ή𝒗𝒐𝒍 ή𝒗𝒐𝒍 T Pr 𝑾𝒊𝒔𝒐 𝑾𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝑾𝒊 ή 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 ή 𝒊𝒔𝒐 ή 𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒐

(air) (mmH2O) (kg/s) (kg/s) (act) (theo) (N.m)
1
2
3
4
5
6

28
Experiment (5) : Determination of reservoir condensate
Aim :
To show how to predict the mass (and therefore approximate volume) of the condensate
that will collect in the reservoir over a given time, using the air temperature and pressure.
Procedure :
1. Find your local atmospheric pressure. You can assume 1 bar, but the actual value
gives slightly more accurate results.
2. Create a blank results table,
Speed rev/min :
Local atmospheric pressure P0 (bar) :
Measurement period :
Condensate collected :
P1 T1 T2 T3 T9 P1 𝑚𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑚̇𝑎
Bar g C C C C Bar abs ΔP Kg/s

3. Start compressor 1 and set its speed to 750 rev/min (+/-5 rev/min). Keep this speed
constant during the test.
4. Adjust the air flow valve to give 3 bar g (gauge) at P1.
5. Keeping the speed and P1 pressure constant, run the compressor for a fixed period
of time (for example 30 minutes), that allows it to reach equilibrium.
6. At the end of your measurement period, record the values as shown in the results
table.
7. Leave the airflow valve partly open while you quickly reduce the compressor
speed back to zero and switch off.
8. Allow all pressures to drop to zero and the receiver temperature T9 to return to
ambient. This may take several hours.
9. Use a calibrated container (not supplied) to collect the condensate from the
receiver drain valve.

29
Experiment (6) : Two stage – intermediate pressure
Aim :
To determine and compare the intermediate pressure of a two stage compressor, with and
without intercooler.
Procedure 1 – no intercooler :
1. Find your local atmospheric pressure. You can assume 1 bar, but the actual value
gives slightly more accurate results.
2. Create a blank table, similar to table 6.
3. Start compressor 1 and set its speed to 750 rev.min-1(+/-5rev/min). Keep this
speed constant during the test.
4. Start compressor 2 and set its speed to 250 rev.min-1 (+/-5 rev/min). Keep this
speed constant between each set of results.
5. Set rocker switch R1 upwards and R2 downwards to direct air flow from
compressor 1 to compressor 2 without the intercooler.
6. Shut the air flow valve and wait a few minutes for the reservoir pressure P3 to start
rising to 4 bar.
7. When P3 reaches 4 bar g (gauge), open the air flow valve a few turns and carefully
adjust it to keep P3 constant.
8. Wait at least ten minutes for the compressor outlet temperature T3, T6 and
pressures to stabilize, then record the values as shown in the blank results table.
9. In steps, increase compressor 2 speed up to 950 rev.min-1 as shown in the results
table. At each step, wait at least ten minutes for the outlet temperature T3, T6 and
pressures to stabilize.
10. After you have finished, slowly open the air flow valve while reducing compressor
speed until you reach roughly 0 bar at P3. Switch off the compressor, shut the air
flow valve and drain the condensate in-the receiver.

Procedure – with intercooler :

Set rocker switches R1 and R2 upwards to direct air flow through the intercooler.
Repeat procedure 2 but use the intercooler flow to keep the inlet temperature T5 at
compressor 2 as near to the air inlet temperature T1 as possible. You will need to adjust
the intercooler flow as the air temperature leaving the first compressor changes during
the experiment. Your cooling water supply may affect the limits of this experiment.

30
Procedure 3 – Different intermediate temperatures :
if your cooling water supply is low enough, you can try the experiment with compressor
2 inlet (T5) much lower than the ambient temperature at T1 (T5 lower than T1). You can
follow this up with another experiment with T1 bigger than T5 and compare the effect of
the different intermediate temperature.
Local atmospheric pressure P0 :
Compressor 1 N1 speed :
Intercooler : yes/no

N2 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950

(rev/min)
P1 (bar)
Tq1 (N.m)
V1 (volt)
A1 (amperes)
Power 1
P2 (bar)
Tq2 (N.m)
V2 (volt)
A2 (amperes)
Power 2
T1 (C)
T2 (C)
T3 (C)
T4 (C)
T5 (C)
T6 (C)
T7 (C)
T8 (C)
T9 (C)
Manometer
𝑚𝑚𝐻2 𝑂
Intercooler
flow (L/min)

31
Experiment (7) : Two stage efficiency
Aim :
To determine the efficiencies of each stage with and without intercooler.
Procedure :
1. From your results for other tests, choose the conditions where the intermediate
pressure is similar to the ideal and the two compressors share the workload (to within
100 Watts). Compare with the results for a single stage delivering the same pressure.
2. Alternatively.
 Run a two stage test at a given delivery pressure and speed combination so
that the two compressors share the workload with and without the intercooler.
 Run a third test with only compressor 1 delivering the same output pressure
as with the two combined, but at a similar air flow.

NOTE : allow at least 30 minutes for conditions to stabilize between each

configuration

Result Analysis
Use this result to calculate the mechanical power, volumetric, mechanical, isothermal and
overall efficiencies for the three configurations.

32
Experiment (8) : pressure volume diagram.
Aim :
To show how to produce and analysis the pressure volume (PV) diagram for a piston and
cylinder compressor.
Procedure :
1. Refer to the appendix and fit the pressure indicator sensor to the adapter above the
compressor you are to test.
2. Run the compressor at your chosen speed (anything between 300 and 1000 rev/min).
3. Allow at least minutes for temperature to stabilize, then record all readings.
4. Use the indicator (as described in the appendix) to procedure a PV diagram.

33
Heat Pump

34
1 compressor 18 refrigerant flow sensor
2 force air condenser 19 condenser water flow sensor
3 water condenser 20 evaporator water flow sensor
4 forced air evaporator 21 pressure sensor located at the inlet of
the compressor
5 water condenser 22 pressure sensor located at the outlet of
the compressor
6 four-way valve 23 manometer located at the outlet of the
compressor
7 thermostatic expansion valves at the 24 manometer located at the refrigeration
refrigeration chamber inlet chamber inlet
8 temperature sensor of the refrigerant at 25 manometer located at the freezing
the condenser inlet chamber inlet
9 temperature sensor of the refrigerant at 26 manometer located at the inlet of the
the condenser outlet compressor
10 temperature sensor of the refrigerant at 27 high and low pressure control
the evaporator inlet
11 temperature sensor of the refrigerant at 28 coolant accumulation tank
the evaporator outlet
12 temperature sensor of the water at the 29 water evaporator regulating valve
condenser and evaporator inlet
13 temperature sensor of the water at the 30 air evaporator regulating valve
condenser outlet
14 temperature sensor of the water at the 31 air condenser regulating valve
evaporator inlet
15 temperature sensor of the air at the 32 water condenser regulating valve
condenser and evaporator inlet
16 temperature sensor of the air at the 33 regulating valve for the water flow in
condenser outlet the condenser
17 temperature sensor of the air at the 34 regulating valve for the water flow in
evaporator outlet the evaporator

35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
Data :

47
48
49
Table (1) : Using water as a source for heat transfer in the condenser and evaporator.
𝑚̇𝑤 Temperature Pressure 𝑊̇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 𝑚̇𝑅134𝑎 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 Coefficient of performance
(L/min) (C) (bar) (watt) (L/h)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 P1 P2 Water R134a Water R134a (H)th (H)act (R)th (R)act

Table (2) : Using air as a source for heat transfer in the condenser and evaporator.
𝑚̇𝑤 Temperature Pressure 𝑊̇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 𝑚̇𝑅134𝑎 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 Coefficient of performance
(L/min) (C) (bar) (watt) (L/h)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 P1 P2 air R134a air R134a (H)th (H)act (R)th (R)act

50
 50

51
 conduction
Introduction:
heat transfer is a basic science that deals with the rate of transfer of thermal

energy. They are three basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are conduction,

convection, and radiation, and discuss thermal conductivity.Conduction is the

transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of asubstance to the adja

cent, less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Con

vectionis the mode of heat transfer between a solidsurface and the adjacent liq

uid or gas that is in motion, and it involves thecombined effects of conduction

and fluid motion. Radiation is the energyemitted by matter in the form of elec

tromagnetic waves (or photons) as a resultof the changes in the electronic con

figurations of the atoms or molecules.

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a sub-
stance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles. Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liq-
uids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during
their random motion. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by freeelectrons.

The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of the
medium, its thickness, and the material of the medium, as well as the tempera-
turedifference across the medium.

52
Description

the paste was put on the heater, cooler and sample (stainless steel) surfaces. So
as to prevent the presence of air that acts as an isolator .then the heater power
was calculated by current and voltage values. After sufficient time ≈ (5 min), for
steady state condition the temperature values were recorded.

Figure 2: radial and axial heat conduction study unit.

53
1. Temperature controller Allows to regulate the temperature of the resistor
used
2. Ammeter Allows to measure the current flowing through the resistor used
3. Voltmeter Allows to measure the current flowing through the resistor used
4. Sample + support Storage area of the samples used for axial conduction
(Stainless steel D25mm, brass D25 mm and brass D15 mm)
5. Axial module - Heat source Consisting of a brass cylinder D25 mm
equipped with a heating cartridge
6. Axial module - Cold source Consisting of a brass cylinder D25 mm
equipped with a circulating cold water
7. Push button Allows you to read the power used by the resistor on the
voltmeter and ammeter
8. Resistors operation indicator
9. Three positions Switch Select the module controlled by the regulator
10. Radial module Brass disk Ø = 110 mm e = 3 mm
11. Cooling circuit (network)
12. Lever maintaining the axial modules
T : 21 temperature readings by thermocouple T type

Electrical box includes: A white light for voltage presence A general power
disconnect USB output for supervision.

54
 Experiment 1 “conduction along simple bar”
Objective:
To investigate fourier’s law linear conduction of heat along simple bar.

Theory:
If a plane wall of thickness (dx) and area (A) supports a temperature difference
(dT) then the heat transfer rate per unit time (Q) by conduction through the wall is
found to be:

Q ~ AdT/dX

If the material of the wall Is homogeneous and has thermal conductivity (K) then:
𝑑𝑇
Q = K .A .𝑑𝑋

If should be noted that heat flow is positive in the direction of temperature fall.

Figure 1: steady heat conduction.

55
Procedure :

1-Perform the verifications given in the equipment installation section

2-Open the water supply valve and check that the water circulates

3-Turn the selection switch of the conduction mode to "axial"

4-Launch the acquisition software

5-Place the sample in brass D25mm between the heat source and the cold source
after verifying the presence of conductive paste on the faces in contact

6-Lock it in position by turning the lever with the red ball to the left

7-Activate the selector "current-voltage reading " in order to know the power of
the heating cartridge

8-Use the arrows to adjust the setpoint to 100 C

9-On the software in the axial heating section , select the brass sample

10-Record the values in the chart given on next page after stabilization of the
temperatures (5-10 minutes)

11-Also record the controller output power in %

12-Swivel the lever with the red ball to the right and remove the sample.

Data
Setpoint T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 % P Q K
W/m.k
w W

56
 Experiment 2“Effect of surface contact”
Objective: To demonstrate the effect of surface contact on thermal conduc-
tion between adjacent slabs of material.

Theory:
When two surface are in contact, path of thermal conduction exists only across
those points where actual physical contact occurs on microscopic scale the de-
gree of thermal contact depend on the respective surface finishes.

Air trapped in the gap between each surface acts as a thermal insulator resulting
in temperature step the conduction path. This can be reduced by the use of con-
duction compound, which fills the air spaces and improved thermal contact.

The Thermal Resistance Concept, equation (1) for heat conduction through a
plane wall can be rearranged as;
T1−T2
Qcond, wall = (W) (1)
R wall

Where,
𝐿
Rwall = 𝑘𝐴(°C/W) (2)

is the thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction or simply the con-
duction resistance of the wall. Note that the thermal resistance of a medium
depends on the geometry and the thermal properties of the medium.

Figure 1: heat flow

57
Procedure :

1-Perform the verifications given in the equipment installation section

2-Open the water supply valve and check that the water circulates

3-Turn the selection switch of the conduction mode to "axial"

4-Launch the acquisition software

5-Place the sample in brassD25mm between the heat source and the cold source
after verifying from non the presence of conductive paste on the faces in contact

6-Lock it in position by turning the lever with the red ball to the left

7-Activate the selector "current-voltage reading " in order to know the power of
the heating cartridge

8-Use the arrows to adjust the setpoint to 100 C

9-On the software in the axial heating section , select the brass sample

10-Record the values in the chart given on next page after stabilization of the
temperatures (5-10 minutes)

11-Also record the controller output power in %

12-Swivel the lever with the red ball to the right and remove the sample.

Data and calculation:

Setpoint T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 % P Q K
W/m.k
w W

58
 Experiment 3 " cross-sectional area"

Objective:
To investigate the effect of change in cross-sectional area on the temperature
profile along a thermal conductor.

Theory:
the rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the tempera-
ture difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely pro-
portional to the thickness of the layer. That is,

(Area) (Temperature difference)

Rate of heat conduction ~ or,
(𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)

𝑇1−𝑇2 𝑑𝑇
Qcond= K A = - KA (W)
∆𝑋 ∆𝑋
(1)

where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the mate-

rial, which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat (Fig. 1). In the
limiting case of ∆x→ 0, the equation above reduces to the differential form

59
 𝑑𝑇
Qcond = - KA (W)
∆𝑋
(2)

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction. dT/dxis the temperature-

gradient, from continuity the heat flow ratio (Q) is the same for each section of
the conductor. Also the thermal conductivity (K) is constant (assuming no change
with average temperature of the material). The temperature gradient is inversely
proportional to the cross section area.

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
AH (𝑑𝑋)H = AS (𝑑𝑋)S = AC(𝑑𝑋)C (3)

(Area) (heater/cooler)
gradient ratio=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒)

Figure 1: steady heat conduction.

60
Procedure :

1-Perform the verifications given in the equipment installation section

2-Open the water supply valve and check that the water circulates

3-Turn the selection switch of the conduction mode to "axial"

4-Launch the acquisition software

5-Place the sample in brassD15mm between the heat source and the cold source
after verifying the presence of conductive paste on the faces in contact

6-Lock it in position by turning the lever with the red ball to the left

7-Activate the selector "current-voltage reading " in order to know the power of
the heating cartridge

8-Use the arrows to adjust the setpoint to 100 C

9-On the software in the axial heating section , select the brass sample

10-Record the values in the chart given on next page after stabilization of the
temperatures (5-10 minutes)

11-Also record the controller output power in %

12-Swivel the lever with the red ball to the right and remove the sample.

Data and calculation:

Setpoint T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 % P Q K
W/m.k
w W

61
Experiment 4“conduction along composite bar”
Objective:
To study the conduct on of heat along a composite bars and evaluate the overall
heat transfer coefficient.

Theory:
.the rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the tempera-
ture difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely pro-
portional to the thickness of the layer. That is,

(Area) (Temperature difference)

Rate of heat conduction ~ or,
(𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)

𝑇1−𝑇2 𝑑𝑇
Qcond= K A = - KA (W)
∆𝑋 ∆𝑋
(1)

where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the mate-

rial, which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat (Fig. 1). In the
limiting case of ∆x→ 0, the equation above reduces to the differential form

𝑑𝑇
Qcond = - KA (W)
∆𝑋

62
 Figure 1: steady heat conduction.

𝑄
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U =
𝐴∗( 𝑇ℎ𝑠−𝑇𝑐𝑠)

1/U = (XH/KH) + (XS/KS) + (XC/KC)

Procedure :

1-Perform the verifications given in the equipment installation section

2-Open the water supply valve and check that the water circulates

3-Turn the selection switch of the conduction mode to "axial"

4-Launch the acquisition software

5-Place the sample in stainless steel D25mm between the heat source and the
cold source after verifying the presence of conductive paste on the faces in con-
tact

63
6-Lock it in position by turning the lever with the red ball to the left

7-Activate the selector "current-voltage reading " in order to know the power of
the heating cartridge

8-Use the arrows to adjust the setpoint to 100 C

9-On the software in the axial heating section , select thestainless steel D25mm
sample

10-Record the values in the chart given on next page after stabilization of the
temperatures (5-10 minutes)

11-Also record the controller output power in %

12-Swivel the lever with the red ball to the right and remove the sample.

Data and calculation:

Setpoint T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 % P Q K
W/m.k
w W

64
 Experiment 5 “Radial conduction”

Objective:
To examine the temperature profiles and determine the rate of heat transfer re-
sulting from radial steady conduction through the wall of a cylinder.

Theory:
Consider a long cylindrical layer (such as a circular pipe) of inner radius r1, outer
radius r2, length L, and average thermal conductivity k (Fig. 1). The two surfaces
of the cylindrical layer are maintained at constant temperatures T1 and T2. There
is no heat generation in the layer and the thermal conductivity is constant. For
one-dimensional heat conduction through the cylindrical layer, we have T(r).
Then Fourier’s law of heat conduction for heat transfer through the cylindrical
layer can be expressed as

dT
Qcond, cyl= - k A (W)
dr
(1)

Where A = 2 𝝿 r Lis the heat transfer area at location r. Note that A depends on r,
and thus it varies in the direction of heat transfer. Separating the variables in the
above equation and integrating from r = r1, where T(r1) = T1, to r = r2, where T(r2)
= T2, gives
𝑟2 𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑐𝑦𝑙 𝑇2
∫𝑟=𝑟1 𝑑𝑟 = - ∫𝑇=𝑇1 𝑘 𝑑𝑇(2)
𝐴

65
Substituting A= 2 𝝿 r L and performing the integrations give

𝑇1−𝑇2
Qcond, cyl = 2 𝝿 L k 𝑟2 (W) (3)
ln( )
𝑟1

Figure 1: A cylindrical pipe with specified inner and outer

surface temperatures T1 and T2.

Procedure :

1-Perform the verifications given in the equipment installation section

2-Open the water supply valve and check that the water circulates

3-Turn the selection switch of the conduction mode to " radial "

4-Launch the acquisition software

6-Lock it in position by turning the lever with the red ball to the left

66
7-Activate the selector "current-voltage reading " in order to know the power of
the heating cartridge

8-Use the arrows to adjust the setpoint to 100 C

9-On the software in the Radial module Brass disk Ø = 110 mm L = 3 mm

(Ri 5mm_ Ro 55mm)

10-Record the values in the chart given on next page after stabilization of the
temperatures (5-10 minutes)

11-Also record the controller output power in %

12-Swivel the lever with the red ball to the right and remove the sample.

Data and calculation:

Setpoint T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 % P Q K
W/m.k
w W

67
 Exepriment 6 "Stefan-Boltzmann law”
Objectives:
To show that the intensity of radiation on a surface is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance of the surface from the radiation source.

To show that the intensity of radiation varies as the power of the source tempera-
ture.

Introduction:
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves
(or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurationsof the at-
oms or molecules. Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer ofenergy by
radiation does not require the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, energy
transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and itsuffers no attenuation
in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reachesthe earth.
In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form
of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from other
forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, ra-
dio waves, and television waves that are not related to temperature. All bodies at
a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. Radiation is a volu-
metric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb, or transmit
radiation to varying degrees. However, radiation is usually considered to be a
surface phenomenon for solids that are opaque to thermal radiation such as
metals, wood, and rocks since the radiation emitted by the interior regions of
such material can never reach the surface, and the radiation incident on such
bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns from the surface.

68
Theory:
The total energy dQ from an element dA can be imagined to flow through a hem-
isphere of radius r. a surface element on this hemisphere dA 1 lies on line making
an angle ɸ with the normal and the solid angle subtended by dA 1 at dA isdwɸ =
dA1/r2.

If the rate of flow energy through dA1 is dQɸ then dQɸ = iɸdwɸdA where iɸ is the
intensity of radiation in the ɸ direction.

Figure 1

The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
temperature Ts(in K or R) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

Qemit, max = σAsTs4(W) (1)

where σ = 5.67 * 108 W/m2 · K4 or 0.1714 * 108 Btu/h · ft2 · R4 is the

Stefan–Boltzmann constant.The idealized surface that emits radiation at this

maximum rate is called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is
called blackbody radiation (Fig. 2). The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is
less than the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is
expressed as

69
Qemit = εσAsTs4(W)(2)

where ε is the emissivity of the surface. The property emissivity, whose value is
in the range 0≤ ε ≤1, is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a
blackbody for which ε=1.

Figure 2: Blackbody radiation

Procedure:
In first experimental the radiometer reading (R) were recorded at distance (X),
the second experimental the temperature reading (t) and (R) were recorded at
ambient conditions.

figure 3:Heat Transfer Service Unit

70
 Figure 4:Laws of Radiant Heat Transfer

Reading Calcuaitions
Temperature Readiometer TS Ta Qb =5.59*R Qb=𝝈(𝑻𝒔𝟒 − 𝑻𝒂𝟒 )
Reading (Ts) Reading (R)
℃ W/ m^2 K K W/ m^2 W/ m^2

71
 Exepriment 7 “Emissvity”

Objective:

To determine the emissivity of different surface (polished, silver and matt

black )

Theory

Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the total energy emitted by a surface to

the total energy emitted by a black surface at the same temperature for real
bodies is a function of radiation wave length the angel of incidence the sur-
face temperature and even the surface finish but it is generally practical to
assume average values when making calculations tabulated values of typical
emissivities for various materials are to be found in polished tests dealing
with this subject usually the emissivity is introduce a multiplication constant
in heat transfer calculation as for example in the Stefan Boltzmann law
which is re write.

For the polished plate:

Reading Calcuaitions
Temperature Readiometer TS Ta Qb =5.59*R 𝑸𝒃
Qb=
Reading (Ts) Reading (R) 𝝈(𝑻𝒔𝟒 −𝑻𝒂𝟒 )

℃ W/ m^2 K K W/ m^2

72
For the silver plate:
Reading Calcuaitions
Temperature Readiometer TS Ta Qb =5.59*R 𝑸𝒃
Qb=
𝝈(𝑻𝒔𝟒 −𝑻𝒂𝟒 )
Reading (Ts) Reading (R)
℃ W/ m^2 K K W/ m^2

For the black plate:

Reading Calcuaitions
Temperature Readiometer TS Ta Qb =5.59*R 𝑸𝒃
Qb=
Reading (Ts) Reading (R) 𝝈(𝑻𝒔𝟒 −𝑻𝒂𝟒 )

℃ W/ m^2 K K W/ m^2

73
74
 Exepriment8 Free convection - fixed power”
Objectives:
To compare the surface temperatures of the heat transfer surfaces in forced and
free convection for a fixed input power.

Introduction:
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the ad-
jacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of con-
duction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection
heat transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction. The presence of bulk
motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the
fluid, but it also complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.

Description:

In the first experiment the fan was removed, the heat transfer surface was cho-
sen, the power increased to 15 watts, after 30 minutes (to stabiles) T 1 and T2
were recorded, finally the experimental was repeated for the other heat transfer-
surfaces.
Note: In the second experimental the fan wasn’t removed.

75
 Figure 2: TQ - TD1005 - Free and Forced Convection

• Includes three of the most common heat transfer surfaces: flat plate, pinned
and finned
• Thermocouples and a sensitive anemometer measure temperatures and air ve-
locity – shown on a digital display
• Additional hand-held thermocouple probe included – to measure temperatures
along the length of the pins and fins of two heat transfer surfaces
• Variable-speed fan and variable power heat source for a range of tests
• Can connect to TecQuipment’s Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS®)

76
Theory:
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also consid-
ered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process,
such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid drop-
lets during condensation. Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of con-
vection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the temperature difference,
and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

Qconv= hAs(Ts -T∞) (W) (1)

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 · °C or Btu/h · ft2 · °F,
Asis the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place, Tsis the
surface temperature, and T∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from
the surface. Note that at the surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface
temperature of the solid. The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a prop-
erty of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value de-
pends on all the variables influencing convection such as the surface geometry,
the nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.

Figure 1: The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection

77
Procedure:

1-Remove the fan from the top of the duct

2-fit your chosen heat transfer surface

3-Create blank results table

4-Increase the power to 15 watts

5-Wait for the temperature to stabilize while readjusting the power if necessary
and record the maximum temperature each surface reaches

6-Record the inlet (ambient temperature)

7-Switch off the heater and allow the surface to cool down to near ambient

Temperature

8-Repeat the experiment for the other heat transfer surfaces

Power = 15 W
Heat transfer T2 T1 Difference
surface Surface Temp Ambient Temp Ts – Tin (°C)
Ts(°C) Tin (°C)
Flat plate
Pinned
finned
Table 1

78
 Exepriment 9” Forced convection - fixed power”
Objectives:
To compare the surface temperatures of the heat transfer surfaces in forced
convection for a fixed input power.

Theory:
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also consid-
ered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process,
such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid drop-
lets during condensation. Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of con-
vection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the temperature difference,
and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

Qconv= hAs(Ts -T∞) (W) (1)

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 · °C or Btu/h · ft2 · °F,
Asis the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place, Tsis the
surface temperature, and T∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from
the surface. Note that at the surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface
temperature of the solid. The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a prop-
erty of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value de-
pends on all the variables influencing convection such as the surface geometry,
the nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.

Figure 1: The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection

79
Procedure:

1-Fit the fan to top of the duct

2-fit your chosen heat transfer surface

3-Create blank results table

4-Make sure fan speed is at zero

5-Switch on the heater and set it 15 watts power

6-Wait for the temperature to stabilize while readjusting the power if necessary
and record the maximum temperature each surface reaches

7-Increase the fan speed to give an air velocity of approximately 2 m/s

8-Wait for temperatures to stabilize and take readings of surface and inlet tem-
pertures

9-Switch off the heater and allow the surface to cool down to near ambient

Temperature

10-Repeat the experiment for the other heat transfer surfaces

Power = 15 W
Heat transfer T2 T1 Difference
surface Surface Temp Ambient Temp Ts – Tin (°C)
Ts(°C) Tin (°C)
Flat plate
Pinned
finned
Table 2

80
 Exepriment 10“Heat transfer coefficient and
Nusselt number”
Objectives:
To show how to find a value for heat coefficient and nusselt number for a heat
transfer surface in a duct for free convection.

Theory:
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also consid-
ered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process,
such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid drop-
lets during condensation. Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of con-
vection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the temperature difference,
and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

Qconv= hAs(Ts -T∞) (W) (1)

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 · °C or Btu/h · ft2 · °F,
Asis the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place, Tsis the
surface temperature, and T∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from
the surface. Note that at the surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface
temperature of the solid. The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a prop-
erty of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value de-
pends on all the variables influencing convection such as the surface geometry,
the nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid

Figure 1: The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection.

81
Nusselt Number
In convection studies, it is common practice to nondimensionalize the governing
equations and combine the variables, which group together into dimensionless-
numbers in order to reduce the number of total variables. It is also common prac-
tice to nondimensionalize the heat transfer coefficient h with the Nusselt number,
defined as

ℎ𝐿𝑐
Nu = 𝑘 (2)
wherek is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and Lcis the characteristic length.
The Nusselt number is named after Wilhelm Nusselt, who made significantcontri-
butions to convective heat transfer in the first half of the twentiethcentury, and it
is viewed as the dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient.

Figure 2: Heat transfer through a fluid layer of thickness L

And Temperature Difference T.

82
Procedure

1-Make sure the duct is perfectly vertical,as this will affect your results

2-Remove the fan from the top of the duct

3-Fit the flat heat transfer surface

4-Create blank results table

5-Set the heater to 20 watts

6-Move the duct traverse probe so it reads zero

7-Wait for the temperature to stabilize

8-Choosing to either move in equal steps

Duct trav- T1 T2 T3 Ts – Tin (°C) Tp – Tin (°C)

erse probe Amblent Heat transfer Duct traverse
posltlo temperature surface tem- probe Tp(°C)
(mm) (probe) Tin perature Ts
(°C) (°C)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
74

83
 Exepriment 11 “Heat exchanger
Objective :

1-To demonstrate the working principles of shell and tube heat exchanger Oper-
ating under parallel flow conditions

2- To demonstrate the working principles of shell and tube heat exchanger Oper-
ating under counter flow conditions

Theory:A heat exchanger is any device that effects the transfer of thermal ener-
gy from one fluid to another without mixing the fluids two types of heat exchang-
ers, Parallel flow and counter flow will be examined in this lab The parallel flow
heat exchanger has the hot and cold fluids flowing in the same Direction, but it
the two fluids flows in the opposite direction a counter flow typeAs show in the
figure
Fluid B

Fluid A

1 2

84
A –parallel flow heat exchanger

ta1

ta2
tb2

tb1

ma a

mb b

Assumptions:

U= constant through the exchanger

-The system is adiabatic

-The temperatures of both fluids are constant over a given cross section

-The specific heat of fluid is constant

H eat power absorbed (q)=Qc * 𝝆𝒄 * Cpc *(Tco-Tci)

Qc : volume flow rate of cold fluid

𝜌𝑐: density of cold fluid

Cpc: specific heat of cold fluid

Overall heat transfer coefficient

U =heat power absorbed / heat transmission * (LMTD)

LMTD :log mean temperature difference .

85
LMTD = ∆T2 - ∆T1 / ln (∆T2 - ∆T1 )

Heat transmission area = 0.96m^2

Heat exchanger effectiveness

(𝜺) =q / qmax

Qmax =Cmin ( Thi – Tci )

Ch = mh * Cph

Cc = mc * Cpc

NTU = UA / Cmin

By NTU method (Number of Transfer Units )

𝑪𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝟏−𝒆−𝑵𝑻𝑼 {𝟏+ (𝐂𝐦𝐚𝐱)}
(𝜺) = 𝑪𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝟏+(𝐂𝐦𝐚𝐱)

86
B: Counter flow heat exchangers :-

ta1

tb1 ta2

tb2
ma a

mb
b

Procedure :-

1- Turn on cold water supply

2- Set the heat exchanger up for parallel flow condition
3- Set the electrical supply switch on the on position and observe operation
of the pump
4- Set the temperature controller to 80℃
5- Open the cold water control valves and set the flow at 600 cc/min
6- Open the hot water control valves and set the flow at 1200 cc/min
7- After conditions have stabilized, records the data in the table below
8- After data has recorded, close the hot and cold water valves and turn off
the power
9- Sat the heat exchanger up for counter flow conditioins

Type Th in ℃ Th mid℃ Th out℃ Tc in ℃ Tc mid ℃ Tc out℃

Parallel
counter

Type Power Effectiveness LMTD NTU U

Absorbed KW 𝜺 w/m^2℃
Parallel
counter

87