Airport Engineering

Lecture 3

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
Significance of Airport Design

• To create airport facilities for accommodating wide variety of aircrafts

• Aircraft vary widely in terms of physical dimensions & performance

characteristics

• Aircrafts may be categorized based on a large number of specifications

• Certain aircraft specifications become critical, depending on the portion of

area of airport
Components of an Aircraft
Aircraft axes
Forces on aircraft
• Weight: The force caused by gravity &
always directed towards the centre of the
earth
• Lift: The force that holds an aircraft in the
air. Wings create most of the lift. Opposing
force to weight. Perpendicular to flight
direction
• Drag: The force that acts opposite to the direction of motion.
Air resistance caused by friction & differences in air pressure
• Thrust: The force that moves an aircraft in the direction of the
motion. Opposing force to drag. Generated by propulsion
system
 Aircraft moments
• Three controls/ three Axes movements

• Roll: Rotation around the front-to-back axis; x-axis

• Yaw: Rotation around the vertical axis; z-axis
• Pitch: Rotation around the side-to-side axis; y-axis
Dimensional standards
Dimensional standards
• Length: distance from front tip of the fuselage to the back end of the tail
section, known as empennage
• To determine the length of an aircraft’s parking area, hangars
• In commercial service airport, the length of largest aircraft performing at least 5
departures per day determines the required amount of aircraft rescue & firefighting
equipment on airfield
• Wingspan: distance from wingtip to wingtip of the aircraft’s main wings
• To determine the width of aircraft parking areas & gate spacing,
• To determine the width & separations of runways & taxiways on the airfield.
• Height: distance from the ground to the top of the aircraft’s tail section
• To determine the height of aircraft parking areas, hangars, etc.
• Wheelbase: distance between centre of the aircraft’s main landing gear &
centre of its nose gear
• Wheel track: distance between outer wheels of an aircraft’s main landing gear
Dimensional standards
Minimum Turning Radius
• Dependent on wheelbase & wheel track
• Design of taxiway turnoffs, intersections &
other areas on airfield requiring aircraft
turn
• Function of nose gear steering angle
• Corresponds to max. nose gear steering
angle, approx. 50o
𝑅180𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 𝑏 tan 90 − 𝛽 + 𝑡ൗ2
b = wheelbase of an aircraft
t = wheel track of the aircraft
β = maximum steering angle
Min. Circling Radius
Depends on
• Type of aircraft
• Air traffic volume
• Weather conditions

Recommended radii for different aircrafts:

i) Small general aviation aircrafts under VFR conditions =1.6 km
ii) Bigger aircrafts under VFR conditions = 3.2 km
iii) Piston engine aircrafts under IFR conditions =13 km
iv) Jet engine aircrafts under IFR conditions = 80 km
 Landing gears
• Three basic gear configurations:
• Single-wheel: Main gear having a total of two wheels, one on each
strut
• Dual-wheel: Main gear having a total of four wheels, two on each
strut
• Dual-tandem: Two sets of wheels on each strut
Landing gear configuration
• More complex for largest of commercial service aircraft than the
simple configurations
• Critical role in distributing weight of an aircraft - design of airfield
pavements
BOEING 747 BOEING 777

AIRBUS A-380
Airport Engineering

Lecture 4

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
Aircraft weight
• Operating Empty Weight (OEW): basic weight of the aircraft including
crew & all necessary gear required for flight but not including payload &
fuel
• Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW): OEW of an aircraft plus the weight of its payload.
• Maximum Structural Payload: ZFW - OEW
• Maximum Ramp Weight: maximum weight authorized for ground
maneuver including taxi & run-up fuel
• Maximum Gross Take-off Weight: maximum weight authorized at brake
release for takeoff. Excludes taxi & run-up fuel. Varies with atmospheric
conditions
• Maximum Structural Take-off Weight (MSTOW): maximum gross take-off
weight for an aircraft operating at sea level elevation at a temperature of
59°F (15°C). Std. design weight measurement used in airport planning &
design
• Maximum Structural Landing Weight (MSLW): structural capability of the
aircraft in landing. Less than or nearly equal to MSTOW
Types of Engines
• Piston engine: propeller-driven aircraft powered
by gasoline-fed reciprocating engines. Most small
general aviation aircraft

• Turbojet: The engine consists of a compressor, a

combustion chamber, & a turbine at the rear of
the engine

• Turbofan or Turboprop: turbojet engine to which

large-diameter blades has been added, usually
located in front of the compressor. Single row of
blades - single stage; two rows of blades -
multistage
Jet engines over conventional engines:
Advantages
• Freedom from vibrations
• Simplicity of control: Power is applied directly; no transmission or
conversion; less energy loss
• No radiators are required for cooling; this removes added weight and
drag on the jet units
• No spark plugs are required to support combustion and operation
• Noiseless operations
• Decreased fire hazards
• Lower specific weight
Types of Aircraft Propulsion
Engine Use Speed limit Advantages Limitations
(km/h)
Piston Long range, 250 Low fuel Operates at low altitude
moderate speed, consumption,
transports and reliability, long service
bombers life
High fuel consumption, medium
Moderate range high 750 Versatile, reliable altitude
speed fighters

Small private 400 Low initial cost, Low altitude, short range
aircrafts reliable
Turbojet High speed; medium Sonic High speed at high Payload and range limited by fuel
range fighters altitude, smooth consumptions
performance
Turboprop Intermediate and Sub sonic Low fuel consumption Speed limited by propeller
low range transport at high powers, long efficiency
and bombers range
Secondary Controls
Primary controls:
• Not mandatory in all aircraft
Elevator –Pitch
• Improves the performance characteristics
Rudder –Yaw
• Assistance in flying the aircraft Aileron -Roll
Flaps
• Located beside the Aileron on the wings

• Only extends downwards

• Wing camber increases

• Increases lift force at low velocity

• Used during take-off and landing

• Different settings of the flap also called

configurations
Slats
• Can only move downwards

• Increases the wing camber

• Increases lift force

• Increases stall angle (helps to fly higher)

• Different configurations during take-off and

landing
Spoilers
• Can only move upwards

• Spoils the airflow on top surface of wing and

thus increase drag force on the aircraft

• Reduce speed and lift

• Helps to reduce aircraft altitude

• Needed for safe landing

Tabs
• Two types: i) Balance tabs ii) Trim tabs

• Balance tabs: if elevator is to be deflected up,

tab goes down. This assists in control surface
deflection.
Balance
tab

• Trim tabs: When tab is up, elevator goes down.

This helps in levelling the aircraft from a nose
Nose up
up/nose down situation while in air. The aircraft trim
is then said to be “Trimmed”
Nose down
trim
Airport Engineering

Lecture 5

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
Obstructions to Airport
• All fixed (temporary or permanent) & mobile objects or parts that are located on
an area intended for the surface movement of aircraft or that extend above a
defined surface intended to protect aircraft in flight
• Site are selected such that it does not obstruct the safe landing & take-off of
aircraft
• Steps should be taken to curb the possibility of
any future obstruction

• Airport provide zoning ordinances regarding the

permissible height of structures & land use
Zoning Laws
1. Height Zoning
• Also known as hazard zoning. Height zoning is mainly used to protect the
approaches to the airport from the obstruction of any object
• Given w.r.t (i) 4.5 km distance from runway & (ii) further every 1.5 km upto a
distance of 15 km from airport
• Certain rules and regulars are made to the heights of structures on land
surrounding the airport
2. Land use Zoning
• Governs the type of development that takes place at the adjoining areas of
airport
• Classified as: (i) Related to aviation, & (ii) Related to non-aviation
• Provide rules on agricultural, commercial, industrial, & recreational activities
Turning Zone
• Area used for turning operation of aircraft, during engine failures etc.

• Operates at a low height

• Any object located within 4.5 km from runway with height more than
51 m above airport elevation is considered as an obstruction

• Any object located beyond 4.5 km is considered as an obstruction if

its height above 51 m is increased more than 30 m for each additional
1.5 km within a distance of 15 km
Classification of Obstructions

• Obstructions to a safe air navigations are broadly divided into two

categories:
1. Objects protruding above certain imaginary surfaces
2. Objects exceeding their limiting heights above the ground
surface in approach zones & turning zones
Imaginary Surfaces

• The types of imaginary surfaces are:

• Take-off climb surface

• Approach surface

• Transitional surface

• Inner horizontal surface

• Conical surface

• Outer horizontal surface

Imaginary Surfaces: 3D
Imaginary Surfaces: Top View
Imaginary Surfaces: AA & BB sections
Take-off Climb Surface
• An inclined plane located beyond the end of runway or clearway for
each direction intended for the take-off of aeroplanes
• Originates at inner edge of specified length, located at a specified
distance from the end of runway or clearway
• Plane from inner edge slopes upward at specified rate
• Sides of plane from end of inner edge diverging at specified rate to a
final specified length & continuing at that width for remaining length
• Elevation is to be equal to highest point on extended runway
centreline between end of runway & inner edge, or on clearway, if
provided
Airport Engineering

Lecture 6

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
Imaginary Surfaces

• The types of imaginary surfaces are:

• Take-off climb surface

• Approach surface

• Transitional surface

• Inner horizontal surface

• Conical surface

• Outer horizontal surface

Imaginary Surfaces: 3D
Approach Surface
• An inclined plane established from the smaller ends of runway strip for
runway direction intended to be used for landing
• Originates at inner edge of specified length, located at a specified distance
before the threshold
• Elevation of inner edge is to be elevation of the midpoint of the threshold
• Two sides diverge uniformly at a specified rate from the centreline of
runway
• Ends at an outer edge which is located at a specified overall distance from
the inner edge & parallel to the inner edge
• Approach surface may be divided into three sections: 1st section, 2nd
section & horizontal section
Clear Zone
• Inner most portion of approach zone
• Most critical portion from obstruction
view-point
• Purchase of land in this zone is
recommended for effective
implementation of zoning laws
• All obstructions are to be removed
• Level area is preferred, but not
essential
 Inner Horizontal Surface
• Horizontal plane at a specified height above the
reference elevation datum extending to an outer
boundary comprising:
• For single runway, semi-circular curves of a specified
radius centred on the middle of each of the runway strip
ends & joined tangentially by straight lines on each side
of the runway, parallel to the runway centreline

• For multiple runways, curves of a specified radius centred

on the middle of each of the runway strip ends & curves
are joined by a tangential line as two curves intersect
Conical Surface
• Extends upwards & outwards from the periphery of the inner
horizontal surface to a specified height above the inner horizontal
surface
• Lower edge coincide with the periphery of inner horizontal surface
• Upper edge is located at a specified height above the inner horizontal
surface
• Slope of the conical surface is to be measured in a vertical plane
perpendicular to the periphery of the inner horizontal surface
Transitional Surface
• Inclined planes originating at the lower edge from side of runway
strip, & side of the approach surface with its upper edge located in
plane of inner horizontal surface
• The surface slopes upward & outward at a specified rate
• Elevation of a point on lower edge will be:
• Along the side of approach surface, equal to elevation of approach surface
• Along the side of runway strip, equal to the elevation on the centreline of the
runway or stopway
Outer Horizontal Surface

• A plane located 150 m above the aerodrome reference point (ARP)

elevation

• Extending from the upper edge of conical surface for a distance of

15000 m radius from ARP
 A

OHS
Conical
surface
h1
IHS
h+h1 = 150 m
h
*
Runway ARP

A
15km
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DYu5Aw7OPcI&ab_channel=Wesl
eyCatig
Airport Engineering

Lecture 7

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
 Runway
• A defined rectangular area on the airport surface prepared for the take-off
& landing of aircraft
• Runways may be man-made surface or a natural surface
• An airport may have one or several runways
• Runways are sited, oriented, & configured in a manner to provide for the
safe & efficient use of the airport
Factors affecting runway location include:
Local weather conditions: wind distribution,
visibility & topography
Type & amount of air traffic
Aircraft performance requirements
Aircraft noise
Runway Markings
Runway Configuration

• Runway configuration: Number & relative orientations of one or more

runways on an airfield

• Basic configurations are:

• Single Runway

• Parallel Runways

• Intersection Runways

• Open-V Runways
Single Runway
• Simplest of the runway configurations
• Capacity:
• VFR condition - 50 to 100 operations per
hour
• IFR condition – reduces to 50 to 70
operations per hour
• Depends on composition of the aircraft mix
& navigational aids available

*VFR – Visual Flight Rules

*IFR – Instrument Flight Rules
 Parallel Runways
• More than one runway parallel to each other
• Spacing between parallel runways are classified as:
• Close - spacing of 700 to 2500 ft; at IFR conditions an operation of one
runway is dependent on the operation of other runway
• Intermediate- spacing of 2500 to 4300 ft; at IFR conditions an arrival on one
runway is independent of a departure on the other runway
• Far- spacing > 4300 ft; at IFR conditions the two runways can be operated
independently for both arrivals & departures
• Dual-lane runway can handle:
~ 70 % more traffic than a single
runway in VFR conditions
~ 60 % percent more traffic than a
single runway in IFR conditions
Intersecting Runways
• Two or more runways in different directions
crossing each other
• Chosen when relatively strong winds occur
from more than one direction resulting in
excessive crosswinds
• When winds are strong, only one runway of
a pair of intersecting runways can be used
• Capacity depends on the location of
intersection
• Farther the intersection is from take-off end
& landing threshold, lower is the capacity
 Open-V Runways
• Runways in different directions which do not intersect
• Open-V runways revert to a single runway when winds are strong from one
direction
• Highest capacity is when operations are away from the V and this is
referred to as a diverging pattern
• VFR condition - 60 to 180 operations per hour
• IFR conditions - 50 to 80 operations per hour
• When operations are toward the V, it is
referred as converging pattern
• VFR condition - 50 to 100 operations per hour
• IFR conditions - 50 to 60 operations per hour
Airport Engineering

Lecture 8

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
Wind Characteristics
• Calm period: period for which the wind velocity is < 6.4 kmph

• Wind coverage: Percentage of time during which the crosswind

component is within allowable limit
Runway Orientation
• Orientation of a runway is defined by the direction of the operations
performed by aircraft on the runway, relative to magnetic north
• Typically, oriented that the runway may be used in either direction
• Runways are typically oriented based on the area’s wind conditions
• Primary runway is closely oriented in the direction of the prevailing winds
• ICAO recommends that runways to be oriented so that aircraft may be
landed at least 95 % of time with allowable crosswind components
• If wind coverage is less than 95 %, a crosswind runway is recommended
Runway Orientation
• ICAO specifies allowable crosswind component as:
• 20 kn (23 mph OR 37.04 kmph) for runway lengths > 1500 m
• 13 kn (15 mph OR 24.076 kmph) for runway lengths between 1200 & 1500 m
• 10 kn (11.5 mph OR 18.52 kmph) for runway lengths < 1200 m

• Desirable direction of runways for wind coverage can be determined by

examining under the following conditions:
• Entire wind coverage regardless of visibility or cloud ceiling (all weather conditions)
• Wind conditions when the ceiling is at least 1000 ft & the visibility is at least 3 mi
(good weather conditions)
• Wind conditions when ceiling is between 200 & 1000 ft and/or the visibility is
between ½ & 3 mi
Wind Rose
• Orientation of the runway is determined through graphical vector
analysis using wind rose
• Two types:
• Type 1: Shows direction & duration
• Type 2 : Shows direction, duration & intensity
• A standard wind rose consists of a series of concentric circles cut by
radial lines using polar coordinate graph paper
• Concentric circles are drawn to the scale of the wind
magnitude/duration
• Area between each pair of successive lines is centered on wind
direction for Type 2
Wind Rose

Type 1 Wind Rose Diagram Type 2 Wind Rose Diagram

Wind Rose
Wind Rose
• A template is drawn to same radial scale representing crosswind
component limits
• Middle line represents the runway centerline
• Template is placed over the wind rose in such that the centerline on
the template passes through the center of the wind rose

• Determine % of time a runway in the

direction of the centerline of the template
can be used such that the crosswind
component limit does not exceed
• Template is rotated until the sum of %
included between the outer lines is
maximum
Wind Rose

90o - 270o: Operations 90.8 % of time 30o - 210o: Add. operations 5.8 % of time
Wind Rose
Red marked portion covers the
additional 5.8 %

This will be direction of crosswind

runway
Total wind coverage for both
runways is 96.6 %

In total now >95% allowable limit

Airport Engineering

Lecture 9

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
Runway Length Estimation
• Length of runway is critical safe landing & take-off of aircrafts
• Runway length required will vary based on aircraft characteristics &
several ambient conditions
• Design runway length:
• MGTOW of critical aircraft
• Critical aircraft performance specifications
• Airports’ field elevation
• Temperature
• Critical aircraft - aircraft which flies the greatest nonstop route
segment from the airports at least 500 operations per year
Basic Runway Length
• Length of runway under the following assumed conditions at the airport:
• Airport altitude is at sea level
• Temperature at the airport is standard
• Runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction
• No wind is blowing on runway
• Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
• No wind blowing enroute to the destination
• Enroute temperature is standard
• Determined at*: (i) Normal landing case; (ii) Normal take-off case; & (iii)
Engine failure case
*For piston engine aircrafts, (i) & (iii) alone considered
Basic Runway Length
Basic Runway Length

Normal Landing Case

• Sufficient runway length to allow for normal variation in landing
technique, overshoots, poor approaches, etc.
• Aircraft should come to a full stop, i.e. stop distance (SD) within 60 %
of the landing distance (LD)
• Assuming that the pilot makes an approach at the proper speed &
crosses the threshold of the runway at a height of 50 ft
• LD must be of full-strength (FS) pavement
Basic Runway Length
Normal Take-off Case
• All engines are available & sufficient runway is required to accommodate
variations in lift-off techniques & performance characteristics of aircraft
• Take-off distance (TOD) - 115 % of actual distance the aircraft uses to reach
a height of 35 ft (D35)
• Clearway (CL) - Rectangular area beyond runway, upward slope ≤ 1.25 %,
width ≥ 500 ft & length ≤ 1000 ft
• Clearway ≤ ½ ( TOD - 115 % of the distance to reach point of liftoff, Lift-off
distance (LOD))
• TOD - CL = Take-off run (TOR). TOR must be FS pavement
Basic Runway Length
Engine Failure Case
• One engine fails at a critical point during an aircraft take-off & pilot makes
decision whether or not to continue with a take-off, or perform an
emergency stop
• Decision speed (V1): V > V1 - continue take-off & V < V1 - breaks to stop
• Accelerate-stop distance (DAS) - distance from beginning of take-off roll to
emergency stop
• Stopway (SW) - part of the DAS beyond the take-off run; lesser strength
pavement

Estimate field length (FL) for each operation

FL made up of three components, FS, SW, & CL
Basic Runway Length
• Normal Landing Case
𝐹𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐷
where,
𝑆𝐷
𝐿𝐷 =
0.6
𝐹𝑆1 = 𝐿𝐷
• Normal Take-off Case
𝐹𝐿2 = 𝐹𝑆2 + 𝐶𝐿2𝑚𝑎𝑥
where,
𝑇𝑂𝐷2 = 1.15 𝐷352
𝐶𝐿2𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.50 𝑇𝑂𝐷2 − 1.15𝐿𝑂𝐷2
𝑇𝑂𝑅2 = 𝑇𝑂𝐷2 − 𝐶𝐿2𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑆2 = 𝑇𝑂𝑅2
Basic Runway Length
• Engine-failure take-off case:
𝐹𝐿3 = 𝐹𝑆3 + 𝐶𝐿3𝑚𝑎𝑥
where,
𝑇𝑂𝐷3 = 𝐷353
𝐶𝐿3𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.50 𝑇𝑂𝐷3 − 𝐿𝑂𝐷3
𝑇𝑂𝑅3 = 𝑇𝑂𝐷3 − 𝐶𝐿3𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑆3 = 𝑇𝑂𝑅3
• Engine-failure aborted take-off case:
𝐹𝐿4 = 𝐹𝑆 + 𝑆𝑊
where,
𝐹𝐿4 = 𝐷𝐴𝑆
Basic Runway Length

𝐹𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑂𝐷2 , 𝑇𝑂𝐷3 , 𝐷𝐴𝑆, 𝐿𝐷

𝐹𝑆 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑂𝑅2 , 𝑇𝑂𝑅3 , 𝐿𝐷
𝑆𝑊 = 𝐷𝐴𝑆 − 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑂𝑅2 , 𝑇𝑂𝑅3 , 𝐿𝐷
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝐿 − 𝐷𝐴𝑆 , 𝐶𝐿2𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐶𝐿3𝑚𝑎𝑥
Length Corrections
1. Correction for Elevation
• Increase in elevation, longer the length of runway
• Length should be increased at a rate of 7 % per 300 m (1000 ft) rise on
elevation above mean sea level
2. Correction for Temperature
• Increase in airport reference temperature, longer the length of runway
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔
• Airport reference temperature = 𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 +
3
• Length should be increased at a rate of 1 % for every 1 oC rise of airport
reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature at that
elevation
Length Corrections
• The temperature gradient of std. atmosphere from MSL to the altitude
at which the temperature becomes – 15.6oC is -0.0065oC per metre.
• The temperature gradients become zero at elevations above the
altitude at which temperature is 15.5oC
ICAO recommends that if total correction for elevation & temperature > 35 % of
basic length, corrections should be further checked by conducting at site
3. Correction for Gradient
• Length should be increased at rate of 20 % for every 1 % of effective gradient
Problem
The length of the runway under std. conditions is 1620 m. The airport site is
at an elevation of 270 m. Airport reference temperature is 32.9oC. If the
runway is to be constructed with an effective gradient of 0.2%, determine
the corrected length.
(i) Correction for elevation
7 270
= ∗ 1620 ∗ =102 m
100 300
Corrected length=1620+102=1722 m
(ii) Std atm temperature at given elevation above MSL
= 15o – 0.0065*270 =13.18oC
(iii) Correction for temperature
Rise in temperature=32.9o-13.18o =19.72oC
 1722
Correction= ∗ 19.72 = 340 m
100
Corrected length= 1722+340 = 2062 m
2060−1620
(iv) Total correction in % = *100 =27.2% <35% (hence ok as per
1620
ICAO)
(v) Correction for gradient
20
= ∗ 2062 ∗ 0.2 = 82.48 m
100
Corrected length =2062+82.48 =2144.48 m

Final corrected runway length is 2144.48 m~ 2145m

Airport Engineering

Lecture 10

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
Important components of airport layout
• Runway
• Taxiway
• Hangar
• Apron
• Terminal building
• Aircraft stand
• Control tower
• Parking
Taxiway
It is a path on the airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars and
terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface (asphalt or
concrete), although smaller airports may use gravel and grass.

• Dual parallel taxiways - two taxiways parallel to each other on which

airplanes can taxi in opposite directions
• Exit taxiway - taxiway used as an exit from a runway to other aircraft
operating area
• Apron taxiway - taxiway located on
periphery of an apron intended to
provide a through taxi route across
the apron
• Taxilane - portion of the aircraft
parking area used for access between
the taxiways & aircraft parking
positions
Aircraft stand
• A designated area intended to be
used for parking aircraft.
• An aircraft stand has a specific
number.
• Visual docking guidance system is
used
Parking and Control Tower

• Parking: A designated area for

parking of vehicles inside the
airport premises

• Control tower: A tower at an

airfield from which air traffic is
controlled by radio and observed
physically or via radar
Hangar
• A closed building structure to hold aircrafts, space crafts and tanks in
protective storage
• Most hangars are built of metal but can also be made of wood or
concrete
Holding Apron
• Also known as holding pads, run-up pads, or holding bays
• Areas used as storage areas for aircraft prior to take-off & are placed
adjacent to ends of runways
• Aids if one aircraft needs to bypass another
• Design criteria: adequate space for aircraft to maneuver easily onto
the runway irrespective of its position

• Also, to provide sufficient room for an

aircraft to bypass parked aircraft on the
holding apron
• Holding apron will be designed for the
largest aircraft which will use apron
Factors controlling taxiway layout
• Aircrafts landed & taxiing towards apron should not interfere with
aircrafts taxiing for take-off
• At busy airports, exit taxiways located at various points for early
exiting of aircrafts from runway
• Taxiway route such that shortest practicable distance from apron to
runway end
• Intersection of taxiway & runway should be avoided
• Exit taxiway should be designed for high turn off speeds
Taxiway Design
• Turning radius: The change in aircraft path is done by providing a
smooth horizontal curve. The design should be such that the aircraft
can negotiate the curve without significant reduction in speed.

Criteria for taxiway radius design:

• Type of aircraft
• Speed of aircraft
• Horonjeff’s equation
Taxiway turning radius
• Type of aircraft: Recommendations based on taxiing speed of jet aircraft

• For airports serving large subsonic jets, a min. radius of curvature of 120 m is
suggested
• For supersonic transports, a min. radius of curvature of 180 m is suggested

• Speed of aircraft:
𝑉2
𝑅=
125𝑓
Where,
V is exit speed (kmph)
R is radius of curve (m)
F is coefficient of friction= 0.13
Taxiway turning radius Main gear
T

• Horonjeff’s equation:
0.388𝑊 2
𝑅=
(0.5𝑇 − 𝑆) Wheel tread
W
Where, Nose gear
S
R is radius of curve
W is aircraft wheel base
T is width of taxiway
S is distance between midpoint of main gear
and edge of taxiway
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑆= +6
2
Problem:
A taxiway is to be designed for a type A airport, operating Boeing 707. The aircraft
characteristics are as follows: length of wheel base (W) is 18 m, turning speed (V)
is 45 kmph, tread of main gear is 6.5 m, lateral friction is 0.13.
(i) Boeing 707 is subsonic aircraft, so design turning radius (R)= 120 m.
𝑉2 452
(ii) 𝑅 = 125𝑓
=
125∗0.13
= 124.6 m
(iii) Horonjeff’s eqn:
S=6.5/2 +6=9.25; For Type A and B airports T =22.5 m
0.388𝑊 2 0.388∗182
𝑅= = = 62.86 m
(0.5𝑇−𝑆) (0.5∗22.5−9.25)

Final turning radius is maximum of I, ii and iii which is 124.6 m~125m

Exit Taxiway
• The function of exit taxiways, or runway turnoffs as they are
sometimes called, is to minimize runway occupancy by landing
aircraft.
Geometric design consideration:
• Angle of turn
• Compound curve
• Exit speed
• Stopping distance θ
• Taxiway length
• Fillet radius
• Length of L1 and L2
Exit Taxiway:Geometric design
• Angle of curve (θ or Δ): 30o-45o desirable for
curve negotiation
Exit speed (kmph) Radius of R1 (m)
65 517
• Exit speed and radius of entrance curve (R1): 80 731
95 941

• Exit speed and radius of central curve (R2):

𝑉2
𝑅2 =
125𝑓
Where,
V is exit speed (kmph)
R is radius of curve (m)
F is coefficient of friction= 0.13
Exit Taxiway:Geometric design
• Length of entrance (L1) and central curve (L2):
𝑉3
𝐿1 =
45.5𝐶𝑅2
• Deflection angle of entrance curve (Δ1) and central curve (Δ2):

180𝐿1
Δ1 =
𝜋𝑅1
Δ2 = Δ- Δ1
𝜋𝑅2 Δ2
𝐿2 =
180
Exit Taxiway:Geometric design
• Stopping distance (SD): Sufficient distance to be provided on the
taxiway to decelerate the aircraft after it leaves the runway.
𝑉2
𝑆𝐷 =
25.5𝑑
• Fillets: Extra width provided at curves to prevent rear wheels from
going off the pavement edge
Airport Engineering

Lecture 11

Dr. Deotima Mukherjee

Assistant Professor
PEC, Chandigarh
Airport Pavement
They are designed and constructed to provide adequate support for
loads imposed by aircraft and to lay a surface that is firm, stable, skid
resistant, all-weather surface, free of debris and other particles. That
can be blown or picked up by propeller wash or jet blast.
Airport Pavement
Airport pavement will need:
• Structural capacity to support imposed load
• Sufficient inherent stability to withstand abrasive action of traffic,
environment and other deteriorating factors
• To be constructed properly using quality materials and workmanship
• To be maintained with regular and routine maintenance
Pavement Design Standard
• Flexible pavement
• Design: based on Layered Elastic Theory
• Materials: Asphalt Mix Pavement P-401
• Rigid pavement
• Based on Layered Elastic Theory and 3D Finite element theory
• Materials: Cement Concrete Pavement, P-501
Materials
FAA Pavement Design
• Computer program FAARFIELD to determine all pavement thickness
• Vehicle: All aircraft fleet and other vehicles over the intended design
life (20 years)
• Most pavement design is done for most demanding aircraft, but it is
good practice to use all aircraft
• At small airports, often the most demanding load is that of
maintenance and refuelling vehicles
Flexible Pavement Design
FAARFIELD uses
• Maximum vertical strain at the top of subgrade (Rutting)
• Maximum horizontal strain at the bottom of all asphalt layers as the
predictors of the pavement structural life (Fatigue cracking)
 Miner’s Law

Plate does not break upto N-1 blows but breaks on the Nth hammer
blow due to cumulative damage caused till that points starting
from minute impact of the first blow.

This is the concept of Cumulative Damage Factor

plate
So, n/N gives the idea of how much damage would be caused
at any level before the complete failure 1st blow minor damage
2nd blow little more
3rd blow even more
100 .
.
.
.
nth blow
.
.
.
n N Nth blow breaks=100%
 N1+N2=100%
N1=60 N2=30
N1+N2+N3+…+N10=100%
n10/N10
n2/N2 n3/N3
n2/N2 n1/N1
n1/N1
…...

For as many number of hammers we have based

on the total blows required by each hammer we
can get the cumulative damage caused
Concept of Flexible Pavement Design
Cumulative Damage Factor
• The contribution of each aircraft type in a given traffic mix is summed
to obtain the total cumulative damage from all aircraft operations in
the traffic mix.
• If CDF<1 pavement is safe; >1 means pavement has failed
Steps to Design: FAARFIELD

Select pavement type (Flexible/Rigid)

Modify pavement structure (add/delete layers)

Provide traffic mix

Determine CDF

Run pavement thickness design