D.

C MACHINES
DESCRIPTION OF ESSENTIAL FEATURES

1. ARMATURE
It is a core of steel laminations that forms the rotating part of the DC machine housing the winding where an
emf is induced.
The Armature consist of four basic parts:
(a) Copper coils are fixed into slots in the armature core.
(b) The core, made up of laminated silicon steel sheets, insulated from one another to minimize the effect
of eddy current.
(c) The commutator, which consists of a series of copper segments insulated with mica. The armature coils,
which generate alternating current, are connected to the risers on the commutator segment.
The commutator is a device which is used in the case of the generator , to draw unidirectional current
from the rotating armature coils. This reversal of current in the coils has to take place while the two
commutator segments to which the coil is connected are being short-circuited by a brush, and the
process is termed commutation.

Definition of Commutation
Commutation is the process by which coils connected to the brush are short-circuited to facilitate the
reversal of the current in the winding.

Reason to use a commutator

A d.c machine has to give a voltage that remains constant in direction and magnitude.
It is therefore necessary to use a commutator to enable a steady or direct voltage to be obtained from
the alternating e.m.f generated in the rotating conductors.

Commutator Losses
(i) Loss due to contact resistance between the brushes and the brass segments. This loss is
dependent
upon the quality of the brushes.
(ii) Loss due to friction between the brushes and the commutator. This loss depends totally on the
brush pressure, the coefficient of friction and the peripheral speed of the commutator.

(d) The Armature Shaft: both the armature core and the commutator are keyed on the steel shaft. The shaft
may also contain a fan for cooling the generator windings.

There are TWO types of armature windings

(i) Lap winding (ii) Wave winding

Lap Winding
In lap windings there are many paths in parallel as the machine has poles. The total current output divides equally
between them. Lag wound generators produce high current low voltage output.

Wave Winding
In the wave winding there are only two paths in parallel irrespective of the number of poles in the machine, each
path supplying half the total current output. The ends of each coil winding are separated by 180 0.Wave wound
generators produce high voltage, low current output.

The difference between both windings are the ends of the lap winding are placed adjacent to each other on the
commutator, whereas the wave winding at the ends of each coil is bent in opposite direction and consist of ends
that are spread apart.
The lap winding is also called parallel winding because their coils are connected in parallel whereas in the
wave winding the coils are connected in series and hence it is called series winding. The emf of the lap
winding is less as compared to wave winding. The lap winding requires an equalizer for the better
commutation.
2. YOKE
It is the part of the generator which forms the outer casing of the generator and support the main
field system inside the generator. It is made of wrought iron or steel as it makes the magnetic
circuit of the main poles. The main poles are either mounted with the yoke or bolted to the yoke.
Pole shoes are screwed onto the ends of the poles to hold the field coils in place and also to
increase the efficiency of the magnetic path. The field coils are usually cotton-insulated copper
conductors and are wedged onto the pole pieces.

3. BRUSH GEAR/ ASSEMBLY

The purpose of the brushes is to collect the current from the armature conductors, through the
commutator. The brushes are made of carbon and are housed in a brush box fitted with a spring, to
ensure good contact on the commutator.

4. END PLATES
These are mechanically connected to the yoke and provides support to the brush assembly and
housing for the bearing which supports the armature.

ARMATURE REACTION
Definition: Armature reaction is the phenomenon produced as a result of the interaction between
the field produced by the armature current and the machine magnetic field.

Explanation: Where the armature flux interacts with the field flux, the magnetic field becomes distorted
resulting from canceling of some of the field flux. This causes the magnetic neutral plane to
shift from the geographic neutral plane. This weakening of the field is referred to as
armature reaction.
OR
● The armature reaction is always perpendicular to the field flux of the dynamo.

● The combination of the two fields causes distortion of the fields thus the magnetic
neutral plane moves accordingly.
● This resulting distribution is referred to as armature reaction

DIAGRAM TO DEMONSTRATE
THE INTERACTION OF
ARMATURE AND FIELD FLUX
FOR A TWO POLE D.C MOTOR
DIAGRAM OF THE MAGNETIC NEUTRAL PLANE OF THE DYNAMO AND THE ASSOCIATED VECTOR
DIAGRAM

WAYS OF REDUCING ARMATURE REACTION

1. Use field poles with high reluctance tips to concentrate the flux towards the center of the dynamo.

2. Use chamfered pole laminations which will concentrate the flux as shown below.

3. Reduce armature flux and maintain the main field by slotted or punched field pole laminations.
4. Use compensating windings to eliminate/ cancel armature magnetomotive force (mounted in the
face of the field pole face)

5. Install compensating poles to oppose flux which interferes with the commutation with the
commutation process.

Residual Magnetic Field in DC motor

Residual magnetic field is the magnetic effects left in the iron core of the DC machine after it was last used.
If the machine is used as a generator, this residual magnetism is needed to start building up a voltage for
some generator configuration.

METHODS OF EXCITATION WITH REFERENCE TO THE FIELD WINDING CONNECTIONS

The methods used connecting the field winding is divided into two groups:
(i) Separately excited (ii) Self excited

SEPARATELY EXCITED MACHINES

● Separately excited means that field winding is connected to a source of supply other than the
armature of its own machine.
 ● An external source is used to excite the field winding.

● Since the field is supplied by an independent external source, control of flux would be easier and
hence speed control.
● An external source is required so it is not economic. It is used where fine control of speed is needed.

To

Calculate Generated Voltage for a separately excited generator on No-Load:

When field current is increased Eg = Vnl x flux ratio OR Eg = Vnl x Generated field current
Terminal Field Current

When the speed is reduced Eg = Vnl x Flux Ratio x Speed Ratio

OR Eg = Vnl x Generated field Current x Speed Ratio
Terminal Field Current

SELF EXCITED
When some of the voltage generated by the generator itself is used to excite its own field. It is divided into
three connections.
(i) Series Field (ii) Shunt Field (iii) Compound Field

Self Excited Generator

● Since the field is not supplied by an independent external source control of the flux would be harder
and hence speed not easily controlled.
● An external source is not required so it is economical.
SERIES CONNECTION
The field winding being connected in series with the armature winding,

Characteristics
The output voltage is dependent on the load
applied: voltage increases with load. With no
load on the shaft of the dc series motor the speed of the machine increases dramatically.
● High starting torque

● Poor speed regulation

● Should never be run without a load

SPEED LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF A SERIES DC MOTOR

APPLICATION
This type of generator is seldom used,
but can be used as a ‘booster’ on d.c
transmission lines.

SHUNT CONNECTION
The field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding. The output voltage of the d.c shunt
generator is controlled by connecting a variable resistor in series with the field. Control is obtained by
varying the field strength (weak field gives low voltage)
Characteristics
The output voltage of the shunt generator drops approximately 25% from no-load to full load.
● Low starting torque

● Good speed regulation

● Can run without a load

No- Load Full- Load

High counter e.m.f Decreased counter emf
Low armature current Increase armature current
Low Torque Increased Torque

Application
The shunt generator is used for battery charging and motor car generators.

Critical Field Resistance for a self – excited Shunt Generator

This is the maximum allowable field resistance of a dc machine which will enable it to build up a voltage
when operated as a self –excited shunt generator.

COMPOUND CONNECTION
This generator contains both series and shunt windings. One of these windings is connected in series while
the other is connected in parallel with the armature. This generator is most widely used in D.C generator
because it is capable of meeting varying low conditions and at the same time maintaining good voltage
regulation. There are two types of compound generator:

a. Long Shunt b. Short Shunt

If the current that flows through the shunt field flows through the series field, then the generator is called a
Long Shunt Generator. If the current that flows through the shunt field does not flow through the series
field then the generator is called a Short Shunt Generator.

Difference in operation of the long shunt and short shunt compound generators

Long Shunt
● Terminal voltage remains constant with load

● Series field (Rs) in series with armature

● The shunt winding is in parallel with both string of both the shunt winding and the armature

Short Shunt
● Terminal voltage increases with load. Improved voltage regulations

● Series field (Rs) in series with load

● The shunt winding is in parallel with the armature

● The series winding is connected in series with both the shunt winding and the armature.

Cumulative compound Generator

 ● The magnetic field of the series and shunt field acts in the same direction on each pole

Differential Compound Generator

● The magnetomotive (mmf) force of the series field opposes the shunt field

The resistor across the series winding of both the long and short shunt compound generator is referred to
as the diverter resistor. This resistor is used to divert the current from the series winding to adjust the flux
generated by this winding. This in turn adjusts the degree/level of compounding achieved by the
generator. Compound generators may be adjusted for flat , over and under compound.

The Flat Compound is one in which the full load voltage is known as the no load voltage. If the generator
operates as a flat compound changes/increase in speed result in decreased saturation and hence will not
affect compounding.

The Over Compound is one in which the full load voltage is greater than the no load voltage.

The Under Compound is one in which the full load voltage is less than the no load voltage.

The degree of compounding is selected based on the low condition under which the machine operates.
When the external load is situated near the generator the flat compound generator may be used since the
voltage will be at maximum. When the external load is located at a distance from the generator an
overload generator should be used to compensate for the voltage drop.

APPLICATION
● Lighting set

● Marine equipment

No-load Characteristics for various

configurations of a d.c Generator
TORQUE VS. ARMATURE CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

TORQUE VERSUS SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF A MACHINE WITH A LOW RESISTANCE ROTOR

What do we mean by characteristics?

The characteristics give you the information of the performance of the generator/ motor during different operating
conditions.
For generators what happens if we increase the excitation on the induced voltage. What happens if you increase the
load. The answers we get from the characteristics of the machines.
Why is this important? To select the correct generator/ motor for a selected operation.

TEST CARRIED OUT TO DERIVE THE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Open circuit/ No load (magnetization)
2. Internal characteristics
3. External Characteristic

For Separately Excited Generator

Calculation of EMF Generated (induced voltage) in an Armature winding
E = 2 Z x Nrp x Φ
C 60

E= generated emf Nr = Speed of motor

P = pairs of poles C = # of poles
Z = # of conductors Φ = Flux in webers

Let c = number of parallel paths through the winding between positive and negative brushes.
Note: c = 2 for a wave winding
c = 2p for a lap winding

the number of conductors in series in each path = Z/ c

φ – flux can change from the field excitation
Field excitation is directly equal to flux.

OA – emf due to residual magnetism

BC – liner part of the open circuit current
CD – saturated part
Machine operate in the liner (BC) part

INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
E = Vt + IaRa +VBD
Ia = IL
If I increase IL increases.

The characteristics between the induced voltage and armature current (Ia) or load current (I L) is called
INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS.
The difference between no load induced voltage to ON load induced voltage is because of increased
armature (Ia) or load current (IL) caused by armature reaction.

Terminal Voltage Vt = Eg – IaRa increase in load, load current (IL) also increases with increase in Ia hence Vt
decreases.
The characteristics between terminal voltage and load current (IL) is called EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS.
Difference between NO load induced voltage and terminal voltage is because of armature resistance due
to IL

To calculate the speed of the motor

Speed of motor (Nr) = V
Φ

V = applied voltage Φ = flux in webers

Mechanical power developed by armature

P = Ia x Eg

Ia = Armature current in amps

Eg = Generated emf

TOTAL ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLIED TO THE ARMATURE

P = Ia x VT

Ia = Armature Current
VT = Applied Voltage (Terminal Voltage)

Nr = Speed of motor
TO CALCULATE THE GENERATED EMF (Eg)
Eg = Vt + IaRa + VBD
Vt = Eg – (IaRa + VBD)

Primary Factors affecting terminal voltage in DC

● Ia Ra

● Armature Reaction

● Reduction of field flux due to reduction in Vt due to both above

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SEPARATELY EXCITED AND SELF EXCITED DC GENERATORS

● Both terminal voltages are diminished by the Ia Ra voltage drop across the armature.

● Both terminal voltages are diminished by armature reaction

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEPARATELY EXCITED AND SELF EXCITED GENERATORS

● The terminal voltage in the separately excited generator is less than a self-excited generator.

● Self excited generator works on its own feedback whereas separately excited generator need a
external source to work
Motors are classified by their speed load characteristics. Classification of DC motors are:
1. Constant Speed - Shunt & Compound Motors
2. Varying Speed – Series & Compound Motors
3. Adjustable Speed – Shunt & Compound
4. Adjustable Variable Speed – Series & Compound

METHODS OF VARYING SPEED OF A D.C MACHINE

The speed of a D.C machine can be altered by varying either the flux or the armature voltage or both. The
methods most commonly employed are:
● A variable resistor termed a Field Regulator – in series with the shunt winding.

● A resistor termed a series controller – series with the armature

● Use of a Thyristor

FIELD REGULATOR
Field regulator which is a variable resistor connected to the field winding influencing the field current and
the emf generated.

CONTROLLER
A variable resistance in series with the armature to adjust the potential difference across the armature.

THYRISTOR
Terminal voltage control uses a thyristor to control the voltage applied to the armature.

LOSSES THAT CONTRIBUTES TO DECREASED EFFICIENCY IN DC MACHINES

● Copper losses (joules heating from windings)

● Hysteresis losses (heating)

● Eddy current losses (heating)

● Mechanical losses (Friction & Windage)

Copper losses
Due to I2R heat losses in the armature and field winding.

IRON LOSSES
Due to hysteresis and eddy current losses in the armature. This loss may be reduced by constructing the
armature of the silicon steel laminations having a high resistivity and low hysteresis loss. At constant speed,
the iron loss is assumed constant.
MECHANICAL LOSSES (Friction and Windage losses)
Due to bearing and brush contact friction and losses due to air resistance against moving parts( called
windage). At constant speed, the iron loss is assumed constant.

USES OF D.C MACHINES

● Lathes * Drills

● Mills * Cranes

● Elevators * Sewing machines

● Compressors * Trains

● Welders * For charging batteries

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A DC GENERATOR AND A DC MOTOR

There is no difference in construction between the generator and the motor.
The only difference is that in a generator the generated emf (Eg)is greater than the terminal voltage (Vt).

Eg = Vt + IaRa Armature current (Ia) = Line current (IL) + Field Current (IF)

Whereas in a motor the generated emf (Eg) is less than the terminal voltage (Vt). The generated emf is also
called a counter/ back emf (Ec).
Eg = Vt - IaRa Armature Current (Ia) = Line Current (IL) – Field Current (IF)

To calculate total Torque developed

Letter Symbol for Torque is M Unit: Newton-meter(Nm)

T x ω = Ea Ia or T x ω = Va Ia

T = Torque
ω = angular velocity E = emf generated Ia = Armature current

Total Torque = Ea Ia To Call angular velocity ω = 2π Nr

ω 60

Mechanical Power developed by armature

P = 2 π M Nr
60

Torque (M) = 60 x P
2 π Nr
QUESTION
1. A 50Hp motor operating on 240V d.c takes 166.67 A when operating at rated conditions. Determine the
efficiency of the machine.
(06P2Q9d)

2. A d.c motor draws a current of 120A when connected to a 480V d.c source. The specification of the
motor are as follows; Vd.c = 480V, Ra = 0.2Ω, no. of poles = 6, no. of conductors = 864, flux per pole =
0.06Wb,
Armature connection = Lap. Cal. the (i) speed (ii) gross torque developed by the armature.
(12P2Q7d)

3. A d.c motor takes 120A at 450V. the resistance of the armature circuit is 0.25Ω. The machine has 6
poles and the armature is lap wounded with 1200 conductors. Given that the flux per pole is 0.06Wb. Cal
The:
(i) speed of the motor
(ii) mechanical power developed
(iii) total torque developed (SPP2Q9)

4. Question (07P2Q7e)
1. A separately excited generator has a no-load voltage of 125V when the field current is 2.5A and is
driven at 1800 rpm. Assuming it is operating in the straight portion of its saturation curve, cal.
(i) the generated voltage when the field current is increased to 2.8A
(ii) the generated voltage when the speed is reduced to 1500 rpm and the field current is increased to 3A.
(iii) If the generator operates as a flat compound generator at its rated speed (1000 rpm) discuss the effect
on compounding if the speed was increased.