STATAPP
concerned with the collection, presentation,
Reasons for using statistics
• aid in summarization
• aid in “getting at what’s going on”
• aid in extracting “information” from the
data
• aid in communication
Origin of statistics
❖ Statistics were obtained long before
Christ was born in order to prepare
available manpower and resources in
wars
❖ The word Statistics was derived from
Italian word statistica meaning
statesman.
Uses of statistics:
The main function of statistics is to enlarge our
knowledge of complex phenomena.
The following are some uses of statistics:
1. It presents facts in a definite and precise
form.
2. Data reduction.
3. Measuring the magnitude of variations in
data.
4. Furnishes a technique of comparison
5. Estimating unknown population
characteristics.
6. Testing and formulating of hypothesis.
7. Studying the relationship between two or
more variable.
8. Forecasting future events
What is/are Statistics?
In Singular sense
Statistics means the art or science which is
and analysis of quantitative data so that
intelligent judgment may be formed upon them.
In Plural sense
Statistics means information useful to decision
makers such as statistics on employment and
unemployment, or vital statistics on births,
deaths and marriages.
Classifications:
Descriptive Statistics - Gives numerical and
graphic procedures to summarize a collection
of data in a clear and understandable way.
Inferential Statistics - Provides procedures to
draw inferences about a population from a
sample.
Populations & Samples
Population –The entire set of individuals or
objects of interest or the measurements
obtained from all individuals or objects of
interest.
Sample – A portion, or part, of the population
of interest.
A Good Sample
o The sample needs to be substantial
enough to accurately represent the
entire population.
o Every unit in the population has an
equal and independent probability of
being chosen; individuals are chosen at
random.
o If data is not collected randomly, it
cannot be used in any meaningful way
to draw conclusions. Random (or
 probability) sampling lowers bias and weight) are infinitely divisible into
sample error. whatever units a researcher may
choose. For example, time can be
measured to the nearest minute,
Statistical data second, half-second, etc.

The collection of data that are relevant to the Basic Concepts and Definition
problem being studied is commonly the most
Variable: A characteristic about each individual
difficult, expensive, and time-consuming part of
element of a population or sample.
the entire research project.
Data (singular): The value of the variable
Statistical data are usually obtained by
associated with one element of a population or
counting or measuring items.
sample. This value may be a number, a word,
 Primary data are collected or a symbol.
specifically for the analysis
Data (plural): The set of values collected for
desired
the variable from each of the elements
 Secondary data have already belonging to the sample.
been compiled and are available
Experiment: A planned activity whose results
for statistical analysis
yield a set of data.

Parameter: A numerical value summarizing all
A variable is an item of interest that can take the data of an entire population.
on many different numerical values.
Statistic: A numerical value summarizing the
A constant has a fixed numerical value. sample data.

Data Types of variables

Statistical data are usually obtained by

counting or measuring items. Most data can be
put into the following categories:
• Qualitative - data are measurements
that each fail into one of several
categories. (hair color, ethnic groups
and other attributes of the population)
• Quantitative - data are observations
that are measured on a numerical scale
(distance traveled to college, number of
children in a family, etc.)
Types of Variables Example: A college dean is interested in
learning about the average age of faculty.
• Variables can be classified as discrete
Identify the basic terms in this situation.
or continuous.
The population is the age of all faculty
• Discrete variables (such as class size)
members at the college.
consist of indivisible categories, and
continuous variables (such as time or
A sample is any subset of that population. For What is the The type of Your blood
example, we might select 10 faculty members effect of diet soda you sugar
and determine their age. and regular drink (diet or levels
soda on blood regular)
The variable is the “age” of each faculty
sugar levels?
member.
One data would be the age of a specific faculty
member. How does The amount Number of
The data would be the set of values in the phone use of phone use hours of
sample. before bedtime before bed sleep
affect sleep?
The experiment would be the method used to Quality of
select the ages forming the sample and sleep
determining the actual age of each faculty
member in the sample.
The parameter of interest is the “average” age
of all faculty at the college. Measuring Variables

The statistic is the “average” age for all faculty • To establish relationships between
in the sample. variables, researchers must observe the
variables and record their observations.
The variables in a study of a cause-and-effect This requires that the variables be
relationship are called the independent and measured.
dependent variables.
• The process of measuring a variable
The independent variable is the cause. Its requires a set of categories called a
value is independent of other variables scale of measurement and a process
that classifies each individual into one
The dependent variable is the effect. Its
category.
value depends on changes in the independent
variable.
Research Independent Dependent 4 Types of Measurement Scales
Question variable(s) variable(s)
1. A nominal scale is an unordered set of
categories identified only by name.
Nominal measurements only permit you
to determine whether two individuals are
Do tomatoes The type of The
the same or different.
grow fastest light the rate of
under tomato plant growth 2. An ordinal scale is an ordered set of
fluorescent, is grown of the categories. Ordinal measurements tell
incandescent, under tomato you the direction of difference between
or natural light? plant two individuals.
3. An interval scale is an ordered series of
equal-sized categories. Interval
measurements identify the direction and
magnitude of a difference. The zero
point is located arbitrarily on an interval
scale.
 4. A ratio scale is an interval scale where 2.1 Measuring Variables
a value of zero indicates none of the
To specify and apply the appropriate statistical
variable. Ratio measurements identify
approach for its analysis and inferences, one
the direction and magnitude of
must have a thorough understanding of the
differences and allow ratio comparisons
nature and type of the data that will be used.
of measurements.
To establish relationships between variables,
researchers must observe the variables and
Applications of Statistics record their observations. This requires that
the variables be measured. The process of
• describe the characteristic of the
measuring a variable requires a set of
elements in the population under study
categories called a scale of measurement
through the computation or estimation of
and a process that classifies each individual
a parameter such as the proportion,
into one category.
total, and average
• compare the characteristics of the
elements in the different subgroups in 4 Types of Measurement Scales
the population through contrasts of their
1. A nominal scale is an unordered set of
respective summary measures
categories identified only by name.
• justify an assertion made by the Nominal measurements only permit you
researcher about a particular to determine whether two individuals are
characteristic of the population or the same or different.
subgroups in the population
2. An ordinal scale is an ordered set of
• determine the nature and strength of
categories. Ordinal measurements tell
relationships among the different
you the direction of difference between
variables of interest such as the
relationship of a person’s grade when he two individuals.
graduated from college with his current 3. An interval scale is an ordered series of
income, or, the relationship of a person’s
equal-sized categories. Interval
calorie intake and aerobic exercise with
measurements identify the direction and
his weight
magnitude of a difference. The zero
• identify the different groups of inter- point is located arbitrarily on an interval
related variables under study scale.
• reveal the natural groupings of the 4. A ratio scale is an interval scale where
elements in the population based on the
a value of zero indicates none of the
values of a set of variables
variable. Ratio measurements identify
• determine the effects of one or more the direction and magnitude of
variables on a response variable differences and allow ratio comparisons
• clarify patterns and trends in the values of measurements.
of a variable over time or space
• predict future outcomes such as next
2.2 Summation and Product Notation
year’s GNP or next quarter’s demand for
various agricultural products 2.2.1 Summation Notation
 Summation notation is necessary in
computing descriptive statistics like the total,
average, and standard deviation. It is a
mathematical symbol that denotes sums of
numerical values.
For example, we would like to get the total
amount spent for groceries for the last 6
months or we would like to compute the total
sales of a certain product for the week.
A. Definition
∑𝐧𝐢=𝟏 𝐱 𝐢 = x1 + x2 + x3 + …., + xn
Where:
∑ is the summation operator ( Greek
capital letter sigma)
i is the index of summation
1 is the lower limit of the summation
n is the upper limit of the summation
xi is the value of the variable for the ith
observation
The Greek capital letter sigma, ∑. is the
shorthand used for the operation of addition.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
WHEN TO USE NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING?
• THIS TYPE OF SAMPLING CAN BE
USED WHEN DEMONSTRATING THAT
A PARTICULAR TRAIT EXISTS IN THE
POPULATION.
• IT CAN ALSO BE USED WHEN THE
RESEARCHER AIMS TO DO A
QUALITATIVE, PILOT OR
EXPLORATORY STUDY.
• IT CAN BE USED WHEN
RANDOMIZATION IS IMPOSSIBLE
LIKE WHEN THE POPULATION IS
ALMOST LIMITLESS.
• THIS KIND OF SAMPLING IS USEFUL
WHEN THE RESEARCHER HAS
LIMITED BUDGET, TIME AND
WORKFORCE.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
1. JUDGEMENTAL/PURPOSIVE
In this method, researchers select the samples
based purely on the researcher’s knowledge
and credibility. Researchers choose only those
people who they deem fit to participate in the
research study. compared to other individuals.
It’s commonly used in qualitative research,
especially when considering specific issues
with unique cases.
2. ACCIDENTAL/CONVENIENCE
It is when samples are selected from the
population only because they are conveniently
available to the researcher. Researchers
choose these samples just because they are
easy to recruit and accessible.
3. CONSECUTIVE
It is a sampling method is very similar to
convenience sampling, with a slight variation.
Consecutive sampling technique gives the
researcher a chance to work with many topics
and fine-tune his/her research by collecting
results that have vital insights.
4. QUOTA
Defined as a non-probability sampling method
in which researchers create a convenience
sample involving individuals that represent a
population. Researchers choose these
individuals according to specific traits or
qualities. They decide and create quotas so
that the market research samples can be
useful in collecting data.
5. SNOWBALL
It is a method where new units are recruited by
other units to form part of the sample. Thus, a
technique where an initial sample will be asked
to identify other members of the population.
Advantages of Non-probability Sampling
• does not require a sampling frame
• allows researchers to target particular
groups within the population
• more conducive and practical method
• getting responses quicker
• more cost-effective
Disadvantages of Non-probability Sampling
• samples are unlikely to represent to the
population
• undermines the generalizability and
validity of the results
• risk of several kinds of research bias
such as:
- sampling bias
- observer bias
- undercoverage bias
SAMPLING
Definition:
Sampling is the act of studying only a segment
or subject of the population which represents
the whole.
It is basically concerned with the selection of a
subset of individuals from within a statistical
population to estimate the characteristics of the
whole population.
POPULATION VS. SAMPLE
The population is the entirety of the group from
whom you intend to derive conclusions. The
sample, meanwhile, refers to the specific
population from which you will obtain your data.
Importance
• reducing cost
• improving accuracy
• creating more scope
• gathering data with a greater speed
Steps involved in sampling:
1. Identify and define the target population
2. Select sampling frame
3. Choose sampling methods
4. Determine sample size
5. Collect the needed data
SAMPLING FRAME
It refers to a list or an organized representation
of all the items or individuals that could
potentially be selected for a research study or
survey. It serves as the basis for selecting a
representative sample from a larger population.
The population could be people, objects,
events, or any other units of interest depending
on the research context.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD SAMPLING FRAME
• Include all individuals in the target
population.
• Exclude all individuals not in the target
population.
• Includes accurate information that can
be used to contact selected individuals.
SAMPLING DESIGN: PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Simple Random Sampling – Uses randomly
generated numbers to choose elements to
sample.
Example: In our recitation in Tax 2, our
professor is using shuffled index cards with our
name written on it, to choose someone to recite
or to answer some questions. There is an
equal chance for us to be chosen and to be
asked some questions.
Stratified Sampling – Divides a population
into categorized groups and samples one
element from each group.
Example: A person wanted to know which
department in University of Batangas is the
best in math. In stratified sampling, one way to
determine that, is to choose one person in
each department who will be a representative
to compete in math competition. In that
example, the population is the University of
Batangas, the groups are the departments (ex.
Acct dept. engr. dept) and the samples are the
representatives.
Systematic Sampling – Samples every nth
element in a population. For example, every 3rd
person.
Example: Selecting every 20th person to enter
the movie room in a line of 200 moviegoers.
Cluster Random Sampling – Divides a
population into representative clusters and
samples one whole cluster.
Example: A group of researchers are
conducting a study on the consumption of soda
in Batangas city. The Batangas city is then
divided into areas called clusters, and then
select certain clusters to be a part of the
sample group.
Sampling Design: Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling – Attempts to obtain
samples without pre planning of the selection
of samples. Depends on the convenience of
researcher.
Examples: Students in grade 12 are assigned
to conduct research at their school. They are
only permitted to conduct surveys during the
week. During the week, the researcher
selected samples or respondents who were
present at the time.
Consecutive Sampling – A sampling method
where the first subject that meets the inclusion
criteria will be selected for the study. If the
second subject also meets that criteria, he or
she will also be included, and so forth.
Example: Online and social media surveys,
asking acquaintances, and surveying people in
a mall, on the street, and in other crowded
locations regarding the quality of a make-up
brand. After, they move to a place to another.
samples or respondents are selected because
they happened to be in the right place and in
the right time.
Judgmental Sampling – Sample is selected
based on the researcher’s judgement. It
involves the researcher making a judgement on
which elements of the population should be
included in the sample.
Example: A researcher wants to conduct a
study regarding the effectiveness of the distant
learning or online classes in Batangas city.
The researcher believes that online class
students in Batangas should be the
respondents of the research.
Quota Sampling – Relies on the non-random
selection of predetermined number or portion
of units. This is called a quota.
Example: A cigarette company wants to find out
what age group prefers what brand of
cigarettes in Batangas city. They apply survey
quota on the age of 20 years old above. With a
total of 50 respondents both male and female.
Snowball Sampling – A non-probability
sampling method where new units are recruited
by the other units to form part of the sample.
Example: For example, a researcher studying
the experiences of undocumented immigrants
in a particular city. This population might be
difficult to reach through traditional sampling
methods due to fear of legal repercussions,
lack of formal records, and other barriers.
The researcher might start by contacting a
local organization that provides services to
immigrants. Through this organization, the
researcher could connect with a few willing
individuals to participate in the study.
Indicators
• It is a specific, observable, and
measurable characteristic that is used to
demonstrate changes or progress in
achieving a certain goal.
• For each outcome, there must be at
least one indicator. This indicator must
be focused, clear, and specific. The
change measured by the indicator
should represent the progress that the
plan aims to make.
• An indicator should be defined in precise
terms that states clearly and exactly
what is being measured. The indicator
should also give a good idea of the data
needed and the population among
whom the indicator is measured.
• An indicator does not define a certain
level of achievement. Words like
“improved”, “increased”, or “decreased”
are not included in an indicator.
Characteristics of Indicators:
• Valid - there should be an accurate
measure of behavior, practice, or task
which is the expected output of the
intervention.
• Reliable - it should be consistently
measurable over time and in the same
way by different observers.
• Precise - it should be operationally
defined in clear terms.
• Measurable - it should be quantifiable
with the use of the available tools or
methods.
• Timely - a good indicator provides a
measurement at time intervals that are
relevant and appropriate in terms of
goals and activities of the plan/project.
• Programmatically important - it should
be linked to the plan/project or to
achieving the objectives of the
plan/project.
Considerations
• Availability of data: Some data may be
considered ‘privileged’ information by
agencies, projects, or government
officials.
• Data may be available only on
aggregated levels or already calculated
into indicators that may not be the ideal
indicators for your programme or
activities.
• Resources: Ideal indicators might
require collecting data to calculate an
unknown denominator, or national data
to compare with project area data, or
tracking lifetime statistics for an affected
and/or control population, etc.
• The cost of collecting appropriate data
for ideal indicators is prohibitive.
• Human resources and technical skills
may be a constraint as well.
• Programmatic and external
requirements: Indicators may be
imposed from above by those not
trained in monitoring and evaluation
techniques.
• Reporting schedules may not be
synchronized (e.g. fiscal vs. reporting
year).
• Different stakeholders’ priorities may
diverge.
• Standardized indicators should be used
if available.
How many indicators are enough?
• Some guidelines to follow when
selecting indicators:
• At least one or two indicators per result
(ideally, from different sources)
• At least one indicator for every core
activity (e.g. training, airing of TV spot)
• No more than 8-10 indicators per area of
significant programme focus
• Use a mix of data collection strategies
and sources
There are 2 different kinds of indicators,
knowing the difference between them is
important.
Process Indicators are used to monitor the
number and types of activities carried
out. Examples include:
 • The number and types of services
provided
• The number of people trained
Results Indicators are used to evaluate
whether or not the activity achieved the
intended objectives or results. Example
include:
• The perceptions of survivors about the
quality and benefits of services provided
by an organization or institution as
measured by individual interviews
• Results indicators can be developed at
the output, outcome and impact levels.
(Bott, Guedes and Claramunt, 2004)
• Output indicators illustrate change
directly related to the activities
undertaken in the program (e.g.
percentage of traditional leaders in
community x who completed the training
on international human rights standards
related to violence against women and
girls whose knowledge improved).
• Outcome indicators refer to changes
demonstrated as a result of program
interventions over the medium and long
term (e.g. the number of decisions in the
informal justice system of community x
related to violence against women that
reflect a human rights-based approach)
• Impact indicators measure the long-
term effect of programme interventions
(e.g. the prevalence of violence against
women and girls in community x.)
• An important question that needs to be
answered in order to track project
progress is how to define success.
Typically, organizations can track the
number of events they have organized
and the number of people who attended
(outcomes), but cannot track how
people change their attitudes or
behavior (outcomes), especially over
time.
• The key impact indicator is a reduction
in violence rates and rates, but this will
take years to achieve and measure. As
a result, more indicators are needed to
gauge whether programs are on track.
• Monitoring and evaluation frameworks
and plans should incorporate both
process and results indicators.
Examples:
Employment Survey:
Indicators: Localized unemployment rates (by
region, department, and employment area)
Motivation needed by teachers:
Indicators:
1. Performance level in proportion to
extrinsic motivation
2. Performance level in proportion to
extrinsic motivation
Register of Enterprises:
Indicators: Business start-ups
Performance Level:
Indicators:
1. Students’ evaluation
2. Attendance rates
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a method in statistics
that involves selecting a sample from a larger
population using a random process, where
each member of the population has a known
and equal chance of being chosen. This
approach is essential for ensuring that the
sample is representative of the entire
population, which allows for accurate
generalizations and statistical inferences.
Step 1: Choose your population of interest
Step 2: Determine a suitable sample frame
Step 3: Select your sample and start your
survey
WHEN TO USE?
• When you want to reduce the sampling
bias
• When the population is usually diverse
• To create an accurate sample
Advantages of Probability Sampling: Data is a collection of discrete or continuous
values that transmit information, describing
It’s cost effective amount, quality, fact, statistics, other
- A larger sample can also be chosen based on fundamental units of meaning, or just a series
numbers assigned to the samples. Then you of symbols that can be more formally
can choose random numbers from the more understood.
significant sample.
Good Data Defined
It's simple and straightforward
Probability sampling is an easy way as it does • Data quality tells us how reliable a
not involve a complicated process. It’s quick particular set of data is and whether or
and saves time. not it will be good enough for a user to
employ in decision-making.
It’s non-technical • Data quality management is a core
This sampling method doesn’t require any component of the overall data
technical knowledge because of its simplicity. management process, and data quality
improvement efforts are often closely
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROBABILITY tied to data governance programs that
AND NON-PROBABILITY aim to ensure data is formatted and
used consistently throughout an
Probability Non-probability organization.
Sampling Sampling
The samples are Samples are Why data quality is important
randomly selected. selected based on
the researcher’s • Bad data can have significant business
subjective judgment. consequences for companies.
Everyone in the Not everyone has an • Poor-quality data is often pegged as the
population has an equal chance to source of operational snafus, inaccurate
equal chance of participate. analytics and ill-conceived business
getting selected.
strategies.
Researchers use this Sampling bias is not
technique when they a concern for the Characteristics of a good data
want to keep a tab on researcher.
sampling bias. • Accuracy – ensures the data being
Useful in an Useful in an gathered and used for various purposes
environment having a environment that are trustworthy and reliable.
diverse population. shares similar traits. • Reliability - the extent to which the data
Used when the This method does is consistent and dependable for its
researcher wants to not help in intended use.
create accurate representing the • Timeliness – refers to availability,
samples. population
accessibility, and up to date information.
accurately.
• Relevance – refers to the degree or
Finding the correct Finding an audience
audience is complex. is very simple. level of importance of data to subject
matter.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD DATA • Completeness – How comprehensive is
the information?
Data is information, information is knowledge, a) All necessary data are present
and knowledge is power. and accurate.
 b) Complete data can help
organization make better
decisions.
How to Improve Data Quality
• Data profiling
• Data Standardization
• Geocoding
• Matching or Linking
• Data Quality Monitoring
• Batch and Real time
A good data quality service should provide
a data quality dashboard that delivers a
flexible user experience, and can be
tailored to the specific needs of the data
quality stewards and data scientists running
data quality oversight