AASTHA ANGRISH

➢ NTA NET PSYCHOLOGY (DEC 19)

➢ Research Scholar
➢ Referral Code: AASTHA10
Topic

Neurons and
Neural Impulse
 Neuron
➢ basic cell/unit of our nervous system.

➢ receives and sends messages within the nervous system.

➢ specialised cells which convert various forms of stimuli into electrical

impulses (neural message).

Neuron: Structure and Function
 Neuron: Structure and Function
➢ Dendrites- branchlike structures that receive messages from other
neurons.
➢ Soma- the cell body of the neuron. contains the nucleus and keeps the
entire cell alive and functioning.
➢ Axon- A fibre attached to Soma that carries the neural message to other
cells.
➢ Axon Terminals- responsible for communicating with other nerve cells.
Also known as Presynaptic terminals, Terminal buttons, Synaptic knobs.
Q1. (a)Soma (i)Synaptic Knobs A a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)

(b) Terminal Buttons (ii) Cell Body

B a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
(c) Dendrites (iii) attached to soma

(d) Axon (iv) Receive message C a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)

D a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)

Q1. (a)Soma (i)Synaptic Knobs A a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)

(b) Terminal Buttons (ii) Cell Body

B a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
(c) Dendrites (iii) attached to soma

(d) Axon (iv) Receive message C a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)

D a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)

➢ Myelin Sheath- a layer of fatty substances that insulates and protects
the neuron, speeds up the neural message traveling down the axon.
Glial Cells: produce the myelin and provide support for the neuron to grow,
deliver nutrients to neurons, clean up waste products and dead neurons.
They are mainly of two types:

Oligodendrocytes Schwann Cells

Produce myelin for brain and Produce myelin for body.

spinal cord (CNS)

Permanent Damage Can be repaired

➢ What would happen if the Myelin Sheath is destroyed?
Multiple Sclerosis: It’s a disease where the myelin sheath is
destroyed, which leads to diminished or complete loss of neural
functioning in those damaged cells.
• Demyelinating disorder.
• Autoimmune disease.
• Cause is unknown.
• Symptoms include fatigue, jerky movements, changes in vision,
balance problems, numbness in limbs
Q2. Which cells are A Stem Cells
responsible for the
production of myelin sheath?
B Glial Cells

C Both A & B

D None of the above

Q2. Which cells are A Stem Cells
responsible for the
production of myelin sheath?
B Glial Cells

C Both A & B

D None of the above

 Types of Neuron: Structural Classification

➢ Unipolar- single process that extends from

the cell body.

➢ Pseudounipolar- single, short process that

extends from the cell body and then branches

into two more processes extending in opposite
directions.
 Bipolar- two processes that extend in

opposite directions from the cell body.

Although rare, these are found in the
retina of the eye and the olfactory system.

➢ Multipolar- three or more processes that extend out

from the cell body. They comprise of more than 99% of

the neurons in humans, and are the major neuron type
found in the CNS and the efferent division of the PNS.
Types of Neuron: Functional Classification

Sensory/ • carries information from the

Receptors/ senses to the CNS
• Mostly pseudounipolar
Afferent
Motor/ • carries information from the
Effector/ CNS to the body muscles.
• Mostly multipolar
Efferent
• Situated in the spinal cord,
receives information from
Interneurons/ receptor and sends message to
Connectors the muscles through effectors.
• Mostly multipolar
Q3. Neurons that send A Afferent
messages from the central
nervous system to the body
muscles are ______ B Connectors

C Efferent

D Sensory
Q3. Neurons that send A Afferent
messages from the central
nervous system to the body
muscles are ______ B Connectors

C Efferent

D Sensory
 Neural Impulse
➢ Information travels within the nervous system in the form of a nerve

impulse.
➢ Nerve impulses are mostly electrical signals along the dendrites.

➢ A Neural Impulse is a spike of electrical activity or is an electrical charge that

travels down the length of a nervous system.

➢ For example, if you touch a hot stove, nerve cells in your fingers will be

activated, sending impulses through the nerves in your hand, quickly

reaching your brain, which will send a signal back down to move your hand
away from the heat.
➢ A nerve impulse is the way nerve cells (neurons) communicate with one

another.
➢ When the stimulus energy is relatively weak, the electrical changes are

so small that the nerve impulse is not generated and we do not feel that
stimulus.
➢ If the stimulus energy is relatively strong, electrical impulses are

generated and conducted towards the CNS.

➢ All or None Principle- The nerve fibres work according to the “all or none

principle” that is they either respond completely or do not respond at

all. The strength of the nerve impulse remains constant along the nerve
fibre.
➢ Each neural impulse has the same intensity – a cell either fires or it

doesn’t.
(To fire a gun, there must be enough force to pull the trigger. If you pull the
trigger harder, the bullet does not travel faster).
Q4. Each neural impulse A Yes
shows a varying degree of
intensity.
B No

Depends upon the

C intensity of stimulation

D None of the above

Q4. Each neural impulse A Yes
shows a varying degree of
intensity.
B No

Depends upon the

C intensity of stimulation

D None of the above

Resting Potential
➢ It is the state of the neuron when it is not firing a neural impulse or

message.
➢ The cell membrane is semipermeable. This means some substances that

are outside the cell can enter through tiny protein openings, or
channels, in the membrane, while other substances in the cell can go
outside.
➢ There is a semiliquid solution inside and outside the cells which contains ions.
➢ The relative charge of ions at resting potential is:

inside the cell : negative

outside the cell : positive
➢ Inside the cell - concentration of both smaller positively charged

potassium ions (K+) and larger negatively charged protein ions.

The negatively charged protein ions, however, are so big that they can’t get
out, which leaves the inside of the cell primarily negative when at rest.

➢ Outside the cell - lots of positively charged sodium ions (Na+) and

negatively charged chloride ions (Cl-)

but they are unable to enter the cell membrane when the cell is at rest
because the ion channels that would allow them in are closed.
➢ But because the outside sodium ions are positive and the inside ions are
negative, and because opposite electrical charges attract each other, the sodium
ions will cluster around the membrane. This difference in charges creates an
electrical potential.
 A Neutral
Q5. While at resting potential,
the inside of the cell is _____
B Positively charged

C Negatively Charged

D None of the above

 A Neutral
Q5. While at resting potential,
the inside of the cell is _____
B Positively charged

C Negatively Charged

D None of the above

 A Only A
Q6. Which statement/s among
the following regarding the
resting potential is correct? B A and B
a) There are K- ions inside
the cell
b) There are Na+ ions inside
the cell C Only C

c) There are K+ ions inside

the cell
d) There are Na+ ions D C and D
outside the cell
 A Only A
Q6. Which statement/s among
the following regarding the
resting potential is correct? B A and B
a) There are K- ions inside
the cell
b) There are Na+ ions inside
the cell C Only C

c) There are K+ ions inside

the cell
d) There are Na+ ions D C and D
outside the cell
Action Potential
➢ Action Potential is the release of the neural impulse, consisting of a reversal of
the electrical charge within the axon.
➢ When the neuron receives a strong chemical message/stimulation from another
neuron, it causes the gates in sodium ion channels to open, allowing the positive
sodium ions to flow into the cell. Thus the inside of the cell becomes positively
charged.
➢ The relative charge of ions at action potential is:

inside the cell : positive

outside the cell : negative
➢ Now the action potential is traveling down the axon. When it gets to the end of
the axon, the message will get transmitted to another cell.

Q7. Assertion: Action
potential is the reversal of the
electric charge.
Reason: Neuron receives a
strong chemical stimulation
from another neuron which
opens the gates in sodium
Both A and R are correct and R
A
is the correct explanation.
Both A and R are correct but
B R is the not the correct
explanation.
C A is correct, R is incorrect

ion channels, allowing the

positive sodium ions to
flow into the cell. D A is incorrect, R is correct

Q7. Assertion: Action potential
is the reversal of the electric
charge.
Reason: Neuron receives a
strong chemical stimulation
from another neuron which
opens the gates in sodium ion
Both A and R are correct and R
A
is the correct explanation.
Both A and R are correct but
B R is the not the correct
explanation.
C A is correct, R is incorrect

channels, allowing the positive

sodium ions to
flow into the cell. D A is incorrect, R is correct
 A Negative, positive
Q8. While at action potential,
the relative charge inside the
cell is ____ and outside of the B Positive, Neutral
cell is _____.

C Negative, Negative

D Positive, Negative
 A Negative, positive
Q8. While at action potential,
the relative charge inside the
cell is ____ and outside of the B Positive, Neutral
cell is _____.

C Negative, Negative

D Positive, Negative
Return of the cell to its resting state
➢ First, the sodium ion channels close immediately after the action potential has
passed, allowing no more sodium ions to enter.

➢ The cell membrane also pumps the positive sodium ions back outside the cell,
until the next action potential opens the ion channels again. This pumping
process is a little slow, so another type of ion gets into the act.

➢ Small, positively charged potassium ions (K+) inside the neuron move rapidly out
of the cell after the action potential passes, helping to more quickly restore the
inside of the cell to a negative charge.
Now the cell becomes negative inside and positive outside, and the neuron is
capable of “firing off ” another message.
 Multiple organ failure
A
Q9. Damage to the myelin
sheath results in _____
B Multiple disorders

C Multiple Sclerosis

None of the above

D
 Multiple organ failure
A
Q9. Damage to the myelin
sheath results in _____
B Multiple disorders

C Multiple Sclerosis

None of the above

D
 Continue your
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Unacademy
Let's crack it….!!

Referral Code: AASTHA10

AASTHA ANGRISH
➢ NTA NET PSYCHOLOGY (DEC 19)
➢ Research Scholar
➢ Referral Code: AASTHA10
 Topic

Synapse and
Neurotransmitters
 Synapse/Synaptic Gap
➢ Synapse is the fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one cell

and the dendrites of the next cell.

➢ It basically is a junction point between two neurons.

➢ Excitatory synapse: synapse at which neurotransmitters causes the

next cell to fire.
➢ Inhibitory synapse: synapse at which neurotransmitters causes the
next cell to fire.
 A Oligodendrocyte
Q1. Neurotransmitters must
pass from an axon terminal to
the next dendrite by crossing B Myelin
the _____

C Synapse

D None of the above

 A Oligodendrocyte
Q1. Neurotransmitters must
pass from an axon terminal to
the next dendrite by crossing B Myelin
the _____

C Synapse

D None of the above

Q2: Match the following:
(a) Presynaptic neuron (i) cause the receiving cell to stop firing
(b) Excitatory Synapse (ii)to which the neurotransmitters bind
(c) Postsynaptic neuron (iii) cause the receiving cell to fire

(d) Inhibitory Synapse (iv) from which the nerve impulse arrives

OPTIONS:
A) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
C) a(i), b(iii), c(ii), d(iv)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)
Q2: Match the following:
(a) Presynaptic neuron (i) cause the receiving cell to stop firing
(b) Excitatory Synapse (ii)to which the neurotransmitters bind
(c) Postsynaptic neuron (iii) cause the receiving cell to fire

(d) Inhibitory Synapse (iv) from which the nerve impulse arrives

OPTIONS:
A) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
C) a(i), b(iii), c(ii), d(iv)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)
 Neurotransmitters
➢ Neurotransmitters are the chemicals found in the synaptic vesicles,

which when released, has an effect on the next cell.

➢ Synaptic vesicles: are saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob.
 Synaptic vesicle-Presynaptic
A terminal-neurotransmitter
Q3. Choose the
correct order:
Neurotransmitter-Synaptic
B vesicle-Presynaptic terminal

Presynaptic terminal-synaptic
C vesicle-neurotransmitter

D None of the above

 Synaptic vesicle-Presynaptic
A terminal-neurotransmitter
Q3. Choose the
correct order:
Neurotransmitter-Synaptic
B vesicle-Presynaptic terminal

Presynaptic terminal-synaptic
C vesicle-neurotransmitter

D None of the above

When the action potential reaches the synaptic vesicles, the synaptic
vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap.

The neurotransmitters then float across the synapse and many of them fit
themselves into the receptor sites.

Now the ion channels are opened allowing the sodium channels to come in,
activating the next cell.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS FUNCTIONS
Acetylcholine Can be excitatory or inhibitory
Memory, arousal, attention, muscle contractions

Norepinephrine Excitatory
Arousal, mood

Dopamine Can be excitatory or inhibitory

Motor control and pleasure

Serotonin Can be excitatory or inhibitory

Sleep, appetite, mood, anxiety

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) MOST INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTER

Sleep, inhibits movements

Glutamate MOST EXCITATORY NEUROTRANSMITTER

Learning, memory formation, synaptic plasticity, nervous
system development
Endorphins Inhibitory
(it is a neuropeptide) Pain relief
 A Glutamate
Q4. Which of the following is
the most inhibitory
neurotransmitter? B Endorphins

C Norepinephrine

D GABA
 A Glutamate
Q4. Which of the following is
the most inhibitory
neurotransmitter? B Endorphins

C Norepinephrine

D GABA
 A Acetycholine
Q5. Which of the following is
associated with pain relief?
B Endorphins

C Norepinephrine

D Dopamine
 A Acetylcholine
Q5. Which of the following is
associated with pain relief?
B Endorphins

C Norepinephrine

D Dopamine
 A Serotonin
Q6. Which of the following is
the most excitatory
neurotransmitter? B Acetylcholine

C Glutamate

D GABA
 A Serotonin
Q6. Which of the following is
the most excitatory
neurotransmitter? B Acetylcholine

C Glutamate

D GABA
 Continue your
learning on
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Let's crack it….!!

Referral Code: AASTHA10

AASTHA ANGRISH
➢ NTA NET PSYCHOLOGY (DEC 19)
➢ Research Scholar
➢ Referral Code: AASTHA10
 Topic

Central and
Peripheral
Nervous Systems
 Central Nervous System (CNS)

➢ The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and the spinal

cord.
➢ Both the brain and the spinal cord are composed of neurons and glial

cells that control the life sustaining functions of the body as well as all
thought, emotion, and behavior.
 A Endorphins
Q1. Which of the following is
known as the “feel-good
hormone?” B Serotonin

C Dopamine

D None of the above

 A Endorphins
Q1. Which of the following is
known as the “feel-good
hormone?” B Serotonin

C Dopamine

D None of the above

The Brain
 core of the nervous system

 the part that makes sense of the information received from the senses,

makes decisions, and sends commands out to the muscles and the rest of
the body.
 has three divisions, two hemispheres and four lobes.
 A Endorphins
Q2. Which of the following is
a neuropeptide?
B Serotonin

C Dopamine

D None of the above

 A Endorphins
Q2. Which among the
following is a neuropeptide?
B Serotonin

C Dopamine

D None of the above

The Spinal Cord
 a long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and

the brain.
 Responsible for very fast, life saving reflexes where responses are

controlled by spinal pathways without involvement from the brain.

 A Spinal Cord
Q3. If you touch a hot stove,
you withdraw your hand
immediately, this is known as B Reflex Action
______

C Synapse

D None of the above

 A Spinal Cord
Q3. If you touch a hot stove,
you withdraw your hand
immediately, this is known as B Reflex Action
______

C Synapse

D None of the above

 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

➢ The term peripheral refers to things that are not in the centre or that are

on the edges of the centre.

➢ is made up of all the nerves and neurons that are not contained in the

brain and spinal cord.

➢ allows the brain and spinal cord to communicate with the sensory

systems of the eyes, ears, skin, and mouth and allows the brain and
spinal cord to control the muscles and glands of the body.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Voluntary activities.
Also known as Voluntary System
Divisions: Sensory (afferent) and
Motor (efferent)
Detects sensory stimuli such as
noise, taste, smell, touch, pain
Functions are simple
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Involuntary activities
Also known as Involuntary
system
Divisions: Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic
Detects sensory stimuli such as
blood pressure and pH
Functions are complex
 A Sensory
Q4. The afferent pathways
contain ______ neurons.
B Motor

C Connectors

D None of the above

 A Sensory
Q4. The afferent pathways
contain ______ neurons.
B Motor

C Connectors

D None of the above

 Autonomic Nervous System (PNS)
Sympathetic Division
“fight-or-flight system”
Gets the body ready to deal with the stressful
situation (anger, fear, extreme joy).
Pupil dilation, increases heart rate, heavy
breathing, decreases digestive functions of
stomach, pancreas and intestines, inhibits
bladder contractions.
The adrenal glands are stimulated to release
certain stress-related chemicals.
Parasympathetic Division
“eat-drink-and-rest” system
returns the body to normal functioning
after a stressful situation ends.
Also responsible for day-to-day functions of
the body like regular heartbeat, normal
breathing and digestion.
Pupil contraction, slows heartrate and
breathing, increases digestive functions of
stomach, pancreas and intestines, allows
bladder contractions.
Signals to the adrenal glands stop.
 A True
Q5. The parasympathetic
division of the ANS allows the
body to restore all the energy B False
that was burnt.
 A True
Q5. The parasympathetic
division of the ANS allows the
body to restore all the energy B False
that was burnt.
 A Yes
Q6. All the bodily systems
like heart rate, digestion,
breathing are stimulated B No
when sympathetic nervous
system is at work.
 A Yes
Q6. All the bodily systems
like heart rate, digestion,
breathing are stimulated B No
when sympathetic nervous
system is at work.
 A Sympathetic
Q7. Rahul just had an
accident, which of the
following systems would be B Parasympathetic
active now?

C Somatic

D Central
 A Sympathetic
Q7. Rahul just had an
accident, which of the
following systems would be B Parasympathetic
active now?

C Somatic

D Central
 A (ii), (iv)
Q8. Which of the following
is/are not the reactions that
occur during the
B (i), (iii), (iv)
parasympathetic activation?
i) Dried saliva
ii) Increased digestive
functions C (iii), (v)
iii) Dilated pupil
iv) Contracted pupil
v) Increased heartrate D (i), (iii), (v)
 A (ii), (iv)
Q8. Which of the following
is/are not the reactions that
occur during the
B (i), (iii), (iv)
parasympathetic activation?
i) Dried saliva
ii) Increased digestive
functions C (iii), (v)
iii) Dilated pupil
iv) Contracted pupil
v) Increased heartrate D (i), (iii), (v)
Q9: Match the following:
(a) Parasympathetic (i) maintains body functions under ordinary
conditions
(b) Somatic (ii) transmits information to and from the CNS
(c) Peripheral (iii) afferent and efferent pathways
(d) Sympathetic (iv) expend energy in times of stress
OPTIONS:
A) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
C) a(i), b(iii), c(ii), d(iv)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)
Q9: Match the following:
(a) Parasympathetic (i) maintains body functions under ordinary
conditions
(b) Somatic (ii) transmits information to and from the CNS
(c) Peripheral (iii) afferent and efferent pathways
(d) Sympathetic (iv) expend energy in times of stress
OPTIONS:
A) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
C) a(i), b(iii), c(ii), d(iv)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)
 A Positive, positive
Q10. The inside charge of the
cell is ____ during action
potential and ____during B Negative, Positive
resting potential.

C Negative, Negative

D Positive, Negative
 A Positive, positive
Q10. The inside charge of the
cell is ____ during action
potential and ____during B Negative, Positive
resting potential.

C Negative, Negative

D Positive, Negative
 Continue your
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Let's crack it….!!

Referral Code: AASTHA10

AASTHA ANGRISH
➢ NTA NET PSYCHOLOGY (DEC 19)
➢ Research Scholar
➢ Referral Code: AASTHA10
 Topic

Structure and
Functions of Brain
Brain: Structure and Functions
 The Forebrain

➢ located towards the top and front of the brain.

➢ It comprises the:-

Cerebral Cortex,
Basal Ganglia,
Limbic System (septum, amygdala, hippocampus),
Thalamus
Hypothalamus.
Cerebral Cortex: plays important role in cognition
 Outer layer of the left and right hemisphere.

 The human cerebral cortex enables us to think. Because of it, we can

plan, coordinate thoughts and actions, perceive visual and sound

patterns, and use language. Without it, we would not be human.
 The surface of the cerebral cortex is grayish (gray matter) because it

primarily comprises the grayish neural-cell bodies that process the

information that the brain receives and sends.
The Basal Ganglia
collections of neurons crucial to motor functioning.
Deficits can result in tremors, involuntary movements, changes in posture,
slowness of movement.
Plays important role in Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.
 A Forebrain
Q1. Which of the following
systems regulates the motor
functions of the body? B Cerebral Cortex

C Basal Ganglia

D None of the above

 A Forebrain
Q1. Which of the following
systems regulates the motor
functions of the body? B Cerebral Cortex

C Basal Ganglia

D None of the above

The Limbic System: Septum, Amygdala and Hippocampus
 Involved in emotion, memory, learning and motivation.

 Humans have more developed limbic system, therefore it allows us to

suppress instinctive response and help to adapt our behaviors flexibly in

response to the changing environment.

Septum: involved in anger and fear.

Amygdala: fear responses and memories of fear.
Information from senses goes to amygdala before the upper part of the
brain is even involved, so that people can respond to danger very quickly.
 A Regulates emotions
Q2. Which of the following is
not a function of limbic
system? B Regulates fear memories

C Suppress instinctual
response

D None of the above

 A Regulates emotions
Q2. Which of the following is
not a function of limbic
system? B Regulates fear memories

C Suppress instinctual
response

D None of the above

Amygdala: involved in fear responses, memories of fear, emotionally
charged memories.
 Information from senses goes to amygdala before the upper part of the

brain is even involved, so that people can respond to danger very quickly.
 Damage or removal can result in maladaptive lack of fear. Could lead to

‘Kluver-Bucy Syndrome’.
 Amygdala and Autism- Autism involves dysfunction of amygdala leading

to social impairment (difficulty in evaluating people’s trustworthiness or

recognizing emotions in faces.
Hippocampus: essential role in memory formation especially
declarative memory.
 important role in learning and for seeing relations among items learned.

 Spatial memory- hippocampus keeps track of where things are and how

these things are spatially related to each other. ‘What is Where’

 Damage or removal leads to inability to form new memories.

 Korsakoff’s syndrome- type of anterograde amnesia, unable to form new

memories+ apathy+ tremors+ paralysis of eye controlling muscles. Causes

can be lack of thiamine (vitamin B-1) in the brain, excessive alcohol use,
dietary deficiencies, eating disorders.
Q3: Match the following:
(a) Memory formation (i) Amygdala
(b) Emotionally charged memories (ii) Hippocampus
(c) Cerebellum (iii) Cognition

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(iii), c(ii)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iii)
C) a(i), b(ii), c(ii)
D) a(iii), b(ii), c(i)
Q3: Match the following:
(a) Memory formation (i) Amygdala
(b) Emotionally charged memories (ii) Hippocampus
(c) Cerebellum (iii) Cognition

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(iii), c(ii)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iii)
C) a(i), b(ii), c(ii)
D) a(iii), b(ii), c(i)
Q4: Match the following:
(a) Kluver-Brucy Syndrome (i) damage to Amygdala
(b) Huntington’s Disease (ii) damage to Hippocampus
(c) Korsakoff’s syndrome (iii) damage to Basal Ganglia

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i)
D) a(i), b(iii), c(ii)
Q4: Match the following:
(a) Kluver-Brucy Syndrome (i) damage to Amygdala
(b) Huntington’s Disease (ii) damage to Hippocampus
(c) Korsakoff’s syndrome (iii) damage to Basal Ganglia

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i)
D) a(i), b(iii), c(ii)
Thalamus: Relay station for sensory information
 Transmits information to the correct regions of the cerebral cortex

through projection fibers that extend from the thalamus to specific

regions of the cortex’
 comprises several nuclei (groups of neurons) that receive specific kinds of

sensory information and project that information to specific regions of

the cerebral cortex.
 Schizophrenia- abnormalities in the thalamus result in difficulties in

filtering stimuli and focusing attention, which in turn can explain why
people suffering from schizophrenia experience symptoms such as
hallucinations and delusions.
Hypothalamus: controls the survival behaviors (fighting, fleeing,
feeding, mating).
 Controls the endocrine system especially the pituitary glands.

 Regulates autonomous nervous system (appetite, thirst, temperature

regulation)
 Interacts with limbic systems, thus influences emotions and reactions to

stress.
 Important role in sleep.

 Narcolepsy- dysfunction in hypothalamus can lead to Narcolepsy (person

falls asleep often and at unpredictable times)

 A Septum
Q5. _____ is known as the
relay station of brain.
B Cerebral Cortex

C Hypothalamus

D Thalamus
 A Septum
Q5. _____ is known as the
relay station of brain.
B Cerebral Cortex

C Hypothalamus

D Thalamus
 The Midbrain
➢ Controls eye movement and coordination.

➢ It comprises:

Superior Colliculi- involved in vision

Inferior Colliculi- involved in hearing
Reticular Activating System: controls consciousness (sleep, awake, alert).
 It also extends to the hindbrain

 It lets a mother hear her baby cry in the night, even though she might

sleep through other noises.

 When a person is driving and someone suddenly pulls out in front of the

vehicle, it is the RAS that brings that driver to full attention.

 The Hindbrain
➢ It comprises the medulla oblongata, pons and cerebellum

Medulla: controls life sustaining functions like heartbeat, breathing,

swallowing, digestion.
 Sensory nerves from the left and right sides of the body cross over in

medulla and thus, information from the left side of the body goes to the
right side of the brain and vice-versa.

Pons: Pons means ‘bridge’ and pons is the bridge that passes signal from
one part of the brain to another.
 Also contains a portion of RAS, therefore it also influences sleep, arousal

and dreaming.
 A Hypothalamus, Medulla
Q6: Survival behaviors are
controlled by ____ whereas
life-sustaining functions are B RAS, Pons
controlled by ____.

C Medulla, RAS

D Thalamus, Hypothalamus
 A Hypothalamus, Medulla
Q6: Survival behaviors are
controlled by ____ whereas
life-sustaining functions are B RAS, Pons
controlled by ____.

C Medulla, RAS

D Thalamus, Hypothalamus
Cerebellum: essential to balance and coordination
 Controls all involuntary, rapid, fine motor movements. (People can sit

upright because the cerebellum controls all the muscles needed to keep
them from falling out of the chair).
 Coordinates voluntary movements that have to happen in rapid

succession such as walking, skating, dancing, playing a musical

instrument and even the movements of speech.
 Because of the cerebellum, people don’t have to consciously think about

their posture and balance.

 Learned reflexes, skills and habits are stored here, therefore Classical

conditioning takes place in cerebellum.

 Spinocerebellar degeneration: dysfunction in cerebellum where the

person suffers from tremors, unsteady walk, slurred speech, muscle

weakness and is unable to walk, stand or even get a spoon to his own
mouth
 A Pons
Q7. Classical conditioning is
related to which part of the
hindbrain? B Medulla

C Cerebellum

D None of the above

 A Pons
Q7. Classical conditioning is
related to which part of the
hindbrain? B Medulla

C Cerebellum

D None of the above

 Continue your
learning on
Unacademy
Let's crack it….!!

Referral Code: AASTHA10

AASTHA ANGRISH
➢ NTA NET PSYCHOLOGY (DEC 19)
➢ Research Scholar
➢ Referral Code: AASTHA10
 Topic
Hemispheric
Specialization,
Cerebral Lobes and
Association Areas
The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres: left and right.
Corpus callosum: is a thick band of neurons that connects the right and
left cerebral hemispheres.
It allows both the hemispheres to communicate with each other. Once
information has reached one hemisphere, the corpus callosum transfers
it to the other hemisphere.
 A Protecting the cerebral
hemispheres
Q1. Which of the following
is/are not he function/s of
corpus callosum? B Connecting the
hemispheres

Helping the
C hemispheres to
communicate with each
other

D None of the above

 A Protecting the cerebral
hemispheres
Q1. Which of the following
is/are not he function/s of
corpus callosum? B Connecting the
hemispheres

Helping the
C hemispheres to
communicate with each
other

D None of the above

 Hemispheric Specialization
LEFT HEMISPHERE RIGHT HEMISPHERE

Sensory stimulus and motor control of right Sensory stimulus and motor control of left side
side of body of body
Spoken language Non verbal

Written language Visual-spatial perception, 3-D forms

Reading Pattern recognition, facial recognition

Mathematical and scientific calculations Music and artistic processing (creativity)

Logical and analytic thought processes Emotional thought, Imagination, intuition,

insight
Analysis of detail Processes the whole
 A Right Hemisphere
Q2. The processing of 3-D
form takes place in which part
of the brain? B Left hemisphere

C Corpus callosum

D Medulla
 A Right Hemisphere
Q2. The processing of 3-D
form takes place in which part
of the brain? B Left hemisphere

C Corpus callosum

D Medulla
 A Left, Right
Q3. ____ cerebral
hemispheres processes the
picture as a whole whereas B Right, Right
____ cerebral hemisphere
focuses on the details.
C Right, Left

D None of the above

 A Left, Right
Q3. ____ cerebral
hemispheres processes the
picture as a whole whereas B Right, Right
____ cerebral hemisphere
focuses on the details.
C Right, Left

D None of the above

Contralateral transmission: transmission of information to the
opposite side of the brain.

Bilateral transmission: transmission of information to both the sides of

the brain. Ex- vision and hearing

Ipsilateral transmission: information transmitted to only one side of

the brain. Ex- taste and olfaction
 Cerebral Lobes

➢ Each hemisphere can be divided into four sections known as the ‘lobes’.
 CEREBRAL LOCATION FUNCTIONS
LOBES
FRONTAL LOBE Front and top of each Higher Mental Processes,
(prefrontal, medial hemisphere Decision Making, Planning,
prefrontal, orbitofrontal Personality, Memory Storage,
cortex)
Language, Fluent Speech
PARIETAL LOBE Top and back of each Skin and internal body
(somatosensory cortex) hemisphere receptors for Touch, Taste,
Temperature, Smell, Pain,
Body Position and
Consciousness, Attention
OCCIPITAL LOBE Rear and bottom of each Vision
(primary visual cortex, hemisphere
visual association area)
TEMPORAL LOBE Behind the temples in Hearing, Understanding
(primary auditory cortex, each hemisphere Language, Retention of visual
auditory association area) memories
The Frontal Lobe
• toward the front of the brain, is associated with motor processing
and higher thought processes, such as abstract reasoning, problem
solving, planning, and judgment.
• It tends to be involved when sequences of thoughts or actions are
called for. It is critical in producing speech.
• The prefrontal cortex, the region toward the front of the frontal
lobe, is involved in complex motor control and tasks that require
integration of information over time.
The Parietal Lobe
• at the upper back portion of the brain, is associated with
somatosensory processing.
• It receives inputs from the neurons regarding touch, pain,
temperature sense, and limb position when you are perceiving space
and your relationship to it—how you are situated relative to the
space you are occupying
• Involved in consciousness and paying attention. If you are paying
attention to what you are reading, your parietal lobe is activated.
The Occipital Lobe
• associated with visual processing.
• contains numerous visual areas, each specialized to analyze specific
aspects of a scene, including color, motion, location, and form.
• The visual association cortex is also found in temporal and parietal
lobe which means a person with damage in occipital lobe can still see
objects and describe them in physical terms.
The Temporal Lobe
• directly under your temples, is associated with auditory processing
and comprehending language.
• It is also involved in retention of visual memories.
• The temporal lobe also matches new things you see to what you
have retained in visual memory.
Q4: Match the following:
(a) Parietal Lobe (i) front
(b) Frontal Lobe (ii) top
(c) Temporal Lobe (iii) at the back
(d) Occipital Lobe (iv) behind the temples

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv)
D) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
Q4: Match the following:
(a) Parietal Lobe (i) front
(b) Frontal Lobe (ii) top
(c) Temporal Lobe (iii) at the back
(d) Occipital Lobe (iv) behind the temples

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv)
D) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
 A Corpus callosum
Q5. The higher mental
processes are controlled by
________ B Parietal Lobe

C Temporal Lobe

D Frontal Lobe
 A Corpus callosum
Q5. The higher mental
processes are controlled by
________ B Parietal Lobe

C Temporal Lobe

D Frontal Lobe
 Frontal Lobe, Parietal
A
Lobe
Q6. _____ regulates the
function of language
comprehension and _____ B Parietal Lobe, Temporal
regulates the speech fluency. Lobe

C Temporal Lobe, Frontal

Lobe

D None of the above

 Frontal Lobe, Parietal
A
Lobe
Q6. _____ regulates the
function of language
comprehension and _____ B Parietal Lobe, Temporal
regulates the speech fluency. Lobe

C Temporal Lobe, Frontal

Lobe

D None of the above

 Association areas of the Cortex
➢ Areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and

interpretation of information, as well as higher mental functioning.

Broca’s Area
• Location: Left Frontal Lobe (In a small portion of the population, this
area is in the right frontal lobe.)
• Function: production of speech allowing a person to speak smoothly
and fluently.
• It is called Broca’s area after nineteenth-century neurologist Paul
Broca, who first studied people with damage to this area.
Broca’s Aphasia
• Damage to Broca’s area causes a person to be unable to get words
out in a smooth, connected fashion. People with this condition
• may know exactly what they want to say and understand what they
hear others say, but they cannot control the actual production of
their own words.
• Speech is halting and words are often mispronounced, such as saying
“cot” instead of “clock” or “non” instead of “nine.” Some words may
be left out entirely, such as “the” or “for.”
• (Stuttering is a somewhat different problem in getting words
started, rather than mispronouncing them or leaving them out, but
may also be related to Broca’s area.)
Wernicke’s Area
• Location: Left Temporal lobe
• Function: Understanding meaning of words and Comprehending
Language
• named after the physiologist Carl Wernicke, who first studied
problems arising from damage in this location.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
• A person with Wernicke’s aphasia would be able to speak fluently
and pronounce words correctly, but the words would be the wrong
ones entirely. ‘Right idea, wrong word’
• trouble understanding what the people around saying.
• For example, a person with Wernicke’s aphasia may say “I drive a
glass of water”, when actually he is trying to say “I want a glass of
water.”
 A Occipital Lobe
Q7. Broca’s area is located in
____ lobe of the brain.
B Parietal Lobe

C Temporal Lobe

D Frontal Lobe
 A Occipital Lobe
Q7. Broca’s area is located in
____ lobe of the brain.
B Parietal Lobe

C Temporal Lobe

D Frontal Lobe
 A Production
Q8. Wernicke’s aphasia leads
to problem in _____ of
language. B Fluency

C Comprehension

D None of the above

 A Production
Q8. Wernicke’s aphasia leads
to problem in _____ of
language. B Fluency

C Comprehension

D None of the above

 Continue your
learning on
Unacademy
Let's crack it….!!

Referral Code: AASTHA10

AASTHA ANGRISH
➢ NTA NET PSYCHOLOGY (DEC 19)
➢ Research Scholar
➢ Referral Code: AASTHA10
 Topic

Non-Invasive Methods
of Physiological
Psychology
 Non-Invasive Methods
Non-Invasive methods: techniques which do not involve any invasion
(entry) in the body through insertion of medical instruments.

➢ Electrical Recordings:
 Electroencephalography (EEG)
 Event-Related Potential (ERP)

 Neuroimaging Techniques:
 Static Imaging
 Metabolic Imaging
Static Imaging
 Angiography
 Computed Tomography (CT scan)
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Metabolic Imaging
 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
 Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Q1: Match the following:
(a) Metabolic Imaging (i) Electroencephalogram (EEG)
(b) Static Imaging (ii) Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
(c) Electrical Recordings (iii) Computed Tomography (CT)

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(i)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i),
Q1: Match the following:
(a) Metabolic Imaging (i) Electroencephalogram (EEG)
(b) Static Imaging (ii) Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
(c) Electrical Recordings (iii) Computed Tomography (CT)

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(i)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i),
Electrical Recordings: The transmission of signals in the brain occurs
through electrical potentials. This activity appears in the forms of waves
of various widths (frequencies) and heights (intensities), when recorded.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• EEGs are recordings of the electrical frequencies and intensities of the
living brain, typically recorded over relatively long periods.
• Electrodes are placed at various points along the surface of the scalp
and the electrical activity of the underlying brain areas is recorded.
• Uses: activity of Deep Sleep, Dreaming, Seizures, Epilepsy
Electrodes Electrical Activity
 Event-Related Potential (ERP)
• EEG based technique
• Multiple presentations of a stimulus are measured (e.g., 100) during an
EEG which are then averaged to have the ERP.
• In EEG records, there is too much “noise”- that is, irrelevant electrical
activity going on in the brain, ERPs cancel out the effects of noise by
averaging out activity that is not task-related.
• Uses: Selective Attention, Language Processing, Lie Detection
 A Selective attention
Q2. One of the major
drawbacks of EEG is ____
B Electrical Frequencies

Averaging the multiple

C representations

D Noise
 A Selective attention
Q2. One of the major
drawbacks of EEG is ____
B Electrical Frequencies

Averaging the multiple

C representations

D Noise
 Static Imaging: Still Pictures of the Brain
(focus on the Brain structure)
Angiography
• Based on X-ray techniques.
• Examines the brain blood flow.
• When the brain is active, it needs energy, which is transported to the
brain in the form of oxygen and glucose through blood.
• A dye is injected into an artery that leads to the brain and then X-ray
image is taken.
• Uses: detect strokes (disruption of blood flow due to blockage of arteries
through foreign substance); Aneurysms (abnormal ballooning of an
artery); Arteriosclerosis (hardening of arteries making them inflexible
and narrow).

Angiography
 A Demyelinating disorder
Q3: Which of the following
is/are not the characteristics
of Multiple Sclerosis? B Autoimmune disease

C Unknown cause

D None of the above

 A Demyelinating disorder
Q3: Which of the following
is/are not the characteristics
of Multiple Sclerosis? B Autoimmune disease

C Unknown cause

D None of the above

 A Stroke
Q4: In which disorder the
arteries become harder,
inflexible and narrow? B Aneurysms

C Arteriosclerosis

D None of the above

 A Stroke
Q4: In which disorder the
arteries become harder,
inflexible and narrow? B Aneurysms

C Arteriosclerosis

D None of the above

 Computed Tomography (CT scan)
• Based on X-ray techniques
• Brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain.
• Multiple X-ray images of the brain are taken with the help of radiation
from different vantage points, when combined gives a 3-D image.
• Uses: Tumors, Injuries, Abnormal Brain Structure, Skull fracture,
Locating metal inside the body (bullets, surgical clips), Damage
resulting from strokes or tumors.
• Limitation: Does not show very small details
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Provides high-resolution 3-D images of the structure of the living
brain, thus providing much more detail than CT scan.
• Strong magnetic field is passed through the brain of the patient. A
scanner detects various patterns of electromagnetic changes in the
atoms of the brain. These molecular changes are analysed by a
computer to produce a 3-D picture of the brain.
• Uses: detection of lesions
• Limitation: does not provide much information about physiological
processes.
 A True
Q5: MRI scan does not
provide detailed image than
the CT scan. B False
 A True
Q5: MRI scan does not
provide detailed image than
the CT scan. B False
 A CT scan
Q6: Which among the
following is/are not the X-ray
based technique? B MRI scan

C Angiography

D None of the above

 A CT scan
Q6: Which among the
following is/are not the X-ray
based technique? B MRI scan

C Angiography

D None of the above

Metabolic Imaging: relies on changes that take place within the
brain as a result of increased consumption of glucose and oxygen in
active areas of the brain. (focus on the Brain Function)

Positron Emission Tomography Scan (PET)

• Measures inflation in oxygen consumption in active brain areas
during particular kinds of information processing.
• Participants are given a mildly radioactive form of oxygen that emits
positrons.
• Changes in the concentration of positrons in targeted areas of the
brain are measured.
• Measures the physiological functioning of the brain activity.
• Uses: diagnosis of disorders of cognitive decline like Alzheimer’s.
 A Function, Structure
Q7: Static imaging techniques
focus on the ____ whereas
metabolic imaging techniques B Function, Physiology
focus on the ____ of the
brain.
C Structure, Anatomy

D Anatomy, Physiology
 A Function, Structure
Q7: Static imaging techniques
focus on the ____ whereas
metabolic imaging techniques B Function, Physiology
focus on the ____ of the
brain.
C Structure, Anatomy

D Anatomy, Physiology
 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
• Based on MRI method.
• Uses magnetic fields to construct a detailed representation in 3-D
levels of activity in various parts of the brain at a given moment in
time.
• Uses the inflated oxygen consumption to construct images of brain
activity.
• Does not require the use of radioactive particles, like PET scans.
• The participant performs a task while placed inside an MRI machine.
• measurements can be taken for activity lasting for fractions of a
second.
• fMRI creates a magnetic field that induces changes in the particles of
oxygen atoms. Shortly after a brain area has been active, a reduced
amount of oxygen is detectable in that area. This observation forms
the basis for fMRI measurements.
• Uses: vision, memory, attention, schizophrenia, epilepsy
• Limitation: expensive in terms of time and money
 A Detailed 3-D image
Q8: Which among the
following is not the
differentiating feature B Function, Physiology
between MRI and fMRI?

C Performance of Task

D None of the above

 A Detailed 3-D image
Q8: Which among the
following is not the
differentiating feature B Function, Physiology
between MRI and fMRI?

C Performance of Task

D None of the above

 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
• Magnetic pulses are applied to the cortex using special copper wire
coils that are positioned over the head.
• The resulting magnetic fields stimulate neurons in the targeted areas
of the cortex.
 Repetitive TMS (rTMS)
• Pulses are administered in a repetitive manner which result in longer-
lasting stimulation.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS)

• Uses scalp electrodes to pass a very low amplitude direct current to
the brain to change the excitability of cortical neurons directly below
the electrodes.
• Both tDCS and rTMS are being evaluated as research tools in studies
of cognition such as memory retrieval, decision making and disorders
like PTSD, depression.

Q9: Assertion: Transcranial
Direct Current Stimulation is
same as the
electroconvulsive therapy.
Reason: Electroconvulsive
therapy uses high levels of
current through the entire
brain.
Both A and R are correct, R is
A
the correct explanation for A
Both A and R are correct, R is
B
not the correct explanation for A
C A is correct, R is incorrect
D R is correct, A is incorrect

Q9: Assertion: Transcranial
Direct Current Stimulation is
same as the
electroconvulsive therapy.
Reason: Electroconvulsive
therapy uses high levels of
current through the entire
brain.
Both A and R are correct, R is
A
the correct explanation for A
Both A and R are correct, R is
B
not the correct explanation for A
C A is correct, R is incorrect
D R is correct, A is incorrect
 Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
• Measures activity of the brain from outside the head by picking up
magnetic fields emitted by changes in brain activity.
• Allows localization of brain signals so that it is possible to know what
different parts of the brain are doing at different times.
• One of the most precise measuring methods
• Uses: detection of pathological structures, Phantom limb pain
Q10: Match the following:
(a) Mild radioactive O2 induced (i) TMS
(b) Localization of Brain (ii) Angiography
(c) Neuron stimulation (iii) MEG scan
(d) Artery injected with dye (iv) PET scan

OPTIONS:
A) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv)
D) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
Q10: Match the following:
(a) Mild radioactive O2 induced (i) TMS
(b) Localization of Brain (ii) Angiography
(c) Neuron stimulation (iii) MEG scan
(d) Artery injected with dye (iv) PET scan

OPTIONS:
A) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv)
D) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
 Continue your
learning on
Unacademy
Let's crack it….!!

Referral Code: AASTHA10

AASTHA ANGRISH
➢ NTA NET PSYCHOLOGY (DEC 19)
➢ Research Scholar
➢ Referral Code: AASTHA10
 Topic
Invasive Methods of
Physiological
Psychology
 Invasive Methods
Invasive methods: techniques which invades (enters) the body by
cutting or puncturing the skin by inserting medical instruments into
the body.
 Invasive techniques are typically only used after all other less

intrusive treatments have been shown to be ineffective or whose

side effects have been deemed undesirable.
 commonly employed in biopsychological studies of laboratory

animals.
1. Stereotaxic Surgery
2. Lesion Methods
 Aspiration Lesion
 Radio-Frequency Lesion
 Knife Cuts
 Cryogenic Blockade
3. Invasive Electrophysiological Recording Methods
 Intracellular Unit Recording
 Extracellular Recording
 Multiple Unit Recording
5. Chemical Methods
 A True
Q1. Invasive methods of
physiological psychology
often require a deliberate B False
incision in the skin.
 A True
Q1. Invasive methods of
physiological psychology
often require a deliberate B False
incision in the skin.
 Stereotaxic Surgery
 Stereotaxic surgery is the first step in many biopsychological
experiments.
 Stereotaxic surgery is the means by which experimental devices are

precisely positioned in the depths of the brain.

 Two things are required in stereotaxic surgery: an atlas to provide

directions to the target site and an instrument for getting there.

 The stereotaxic instrument has two parts: a head holder, which firmly

holds each subject’s brain in the prescribed position and orientation;

and an electrode holder, which holds the device to be inserted
 Lesion Methods
Lesion: area where body tissue has been damaged.
Lesioning: surgically removing or damaging part of the brain to observe
resulting functional deficits.
In animals, researchers will deliberately damage a part of the brain,
after which, they test the animal to see what has happened to its
abilities.
In such an experiment, once the test animal is anesthetized and given
medication for pain, an electrode, which is a thin wire insulated
everywhere but at its tip, is surgically inserted into the brain. An
electrical current strong enough to kill off the target neurons is sent
through the tip of the wire.
 Anatomical deficit,
A
surgical reduction
Q2. Lesion methods are used
to study the ________ of the
brain area through _______ of Functional deficits,
B
the target area. surgical enhancement

C Functional deficits,
surgical damage

D None of the above

 Anatomical deficit,
A
surgical reduction
Q2. Lesion methods are used
to study the ________ of the
brain area through _______ of Functional deficits,
B
the target area. surgical enhancement

Functional deficits,
C
surgical damage

D None of the above

1. Aspiration Lesions: lesion is made in an area of cortical tissue that is
accessible to the eyes and instruments of the surgeon.
 The tissue is removed by suction through a fine tipped handheld glass

pipette.
 Because the underlying white matter is slightly more resistant to

suction than the cortical tissue itself, a skilled surgeon can delicately
peel off the layers of cortical tissue from the surface of the brain,
leaving the underlying white matter and major blood vessels
undamaged.
2. Radio-Frequency Lesions: Small subcortical lesions are made by
passing high-frequency current through the target tissue from the tip of
a stereotaxically positioned electrode.
 The heat from the current destroys the tissue.

 The size and shape of the lesion are determined by the duration and

intensity of the current and the configuration of the electrode tip.

3. Knife Cuts: Sectioning (cutting) is used to eliminate nerve conduction.

A tiny, well-placed cut can unambiguously accomplish this task without
producing extensive damage to surrounding tissue.
4. Cryogenic Blockade:
 A coolant is pumped through an implanted cryoprobe, neurons near

the tip are cooled until they stop firing.

 The temperature is maintained above the freezing level, so there is no

structural damage.
 Then, when the tissue is allowed to warm up, normal neural activity

returns.
A cryogenic blockade is functionally similar to a lesion in that it
eliminates the contribution of a particular area of the brain to the
ongoing behavior of the subject. This is why cryogenic blockades are
sometimes referred to as reversible lesions.
Q3: Match the following:
(a) Knife-cut Lesion
(b) Aspiration Lesion
(c) Cryogenic Lesion
(d) Radio-frequency Lesion
(i) Sectioning
(ii) tissue damage through suction
(iii) Reversible Lesion
(iv) Tissue damage through heat

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv)
D) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
Q3: Match the following:
(a) Knife-cut Lesion
(b) Aspiration Lesion
(c) Cryogenic Lesion
(d) Radio-frequency Lesion
(i) Sectioning
(ii) tissue damage through suction
(iii) Reversible Lesion
(iv) Tissue damage through heat

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv)
D) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
Limitation:
It should be obvious that researchers cannot destroy areas of brains in
living human beings. One method they can use is to study and test
people who already have brain damage.
However, this is not an ideal way to study the brain. No two case studies
of humans are likely to present damage in exactly the same area of the
brain, nor would the cases involve exactly the same amount of damage.
 A Negative
Q. During the action potential,
the outside charge of the cell
is ____ B Positive

C Neutral

D None of the above

 A Negative
Q4. During the action
potential, the outside charge
of the cell is ____ B Positive

C Neutral

D None of the above

 Invasive Electrophysiological Recording Methods

1. Intracellular Unit Recording: uses an electrode inserted into living

tissue of a single neuron to measure measure the voltage change across
the membrane during action potentials.
 provides a moment-by-moment record of the fluctuations in one

neurons membrane potential.

2. Extracellular Unit Recording: uses an electrode inserted into living
tissue to measure electrical activity coming from adjacent cells.
 simultaneous recordings of extracellular signals from up to about 100

neurons can be done by analyzing the correlations among the signals

picked up through several different electrodes implanted in the same
general area.
3. Multiple Unit Recording: picks up many action potentials.
 the electrode tip is much larger than that of a microelectrode; thus, it

picks up signals from many neurons.

 The many action potentials picked up by the electrode are fed into an

integrating circuit, which adds them together.

The effects of surgical, electrolytic, and cryogenic lesions are frequently

difficult to interpret because they affect all neurons in the target area.
 Chemical Methods
 Making selective lesions by injecting neurotoxins (neural poisons)

that have an affinity for certain components of the nervous system.

 There are many selective neurotoxins.

 For example, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) destroys only those

neurons that release the norepinephrine or dopamine, and leaves
other neurons at the injection site undamaged.
Q5: Match the following:
(a) Intracellular Unit Recording (i) Action Potential
(b) Cryogenic Blockade (ii) Neurotoxins
(c) Chemical Method (iii) Atlas
(d) Sterotaxic surgery (iv) Coolant

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv)
D) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
Q5: Match the following:
(a) Intracellular Unit Recording (i) Action Potential
(b) Cryogenic Blockade (ii) Neurotoxins
(c) Chemical Method (iii) Atlas
(d) Sterotaxic surgery (iv) Coolant

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii)
C) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv)
D) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
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AASTHA ANGRISH
➢ NTA NET PSYCHOLOGY (DEC 19)
➢ Research Scholar
➢ Referral Code: AASTHA10
 Topic

Chromosomal
Anomalies and
Endocrine Glands
DNA
 Deoxyribonucleic acid

 special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism.

ANIMES
 Organic structures that contain the genetic codes for building the

proteins that makeup organic life (muscle, hair coloring, skin etc) .
 control the life of each cell.

GENETICS
 Genetics is the science of inherited traits
CHROMOSOMES
 Rod-shaped structures

 Tightly wound strand of DNA

 Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell (23 from mother’s egg, 23

from father’s sperm).

 Autosomes: 22 chromosomal pairs that determine the most
characteristics of an individual.
 Sex Chromosomes: Last chromosomal pair or the 23rd pair which

determines the sex an individual

two X shaped chromosomes = Female
one X and one Y = Male
 A Chromosomes
Q1. ____ determines the most
features of a person.
B Sex chromosomes

C Autosomes

D None of the above

 A Chromosomes
Q1. ____ determines the most
features of a person.
B Sex chromosomes

C Autosomes

D None of the above

 A 23
Q2. How many chromosomes
does the humans have in
each cell? B 22

C 46

D 45
 A 23
Q2. How many chromosomes
does the humans have in
each cell? B 22

C 46

D 45
GENE
 A section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements

(animes).
 Located on chromosomes

 Dominant gene: gene that actively control the expression of a trait.

• always expressed in observable trait.

 Recessive gene: gene that is less active in controlling the expression of

a trait. It is only expressed in observable trait when paired with an

identical gene.
 Chromosomal Anomalies

 Chromosomal abnormalities, chromosomal disorders, chromosomal

aberration or chromosomal mutation

 Inheritance of extra genetic material or deletion of important genetic

material.
DOWN SYNDROME
 Autosome anomaly

 An extra chromosome in 21st pair: Trisomy 21

 Flattened nasal bridge, protruding tongue, small ears, almond shaped,

wide-set eyes, larger head, unusual fingerprints and toeprints, short

stature, intellectual and learning disability, increased risk of organ
failure later in life.
KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME
 Sex chromosome anomaly

 An extra X in 23rd pair of sex chromosome: XXY

 A male with XXY chromosomes

 Produce a male with reduced masculine characteristics like enlarged

breasts, high pitched voice, obesity, excessive height.

TURNER’S SYNDROME
 Sex chromosome anomaly

 The 23rd pair of sex chromosome is missing an X: XO

 Female with XO chromosome

 Monosomy X

 Produce a female having very short height, short neck, broad chest,

infertility and underdeveloped sex organs.

 High risk of ovarian cancer
 A Turner’s Syndrome
Q3. Trisomy 21 is the disorder
known as _____
B Klinefelter’s Syndrome

C Down Syndrome

D None of the above

 A Turner’s Syndrome
Q3. Trisomy 21 is the disorder
known as _____
B Klinefelter’s Syndrome

C Down Syndrome

D None of the above

 A An extra X in 23rd pair of
chromosome
Q4. Which among the
following is not a
characteristic of Turner’s B Found in females
syndrome?

C Missing X in 23rd pair of

chromosome

D Sex chromosome mutation

 A An extra X in 23rd pair of
chromosome
Q4. Which among the
following is not a
characteristic of Turner’s B Found in females
syndrome?

C Missing X in 23rd pair of

chromosome

D Sex chromosome mutation

 Endocrine Glands
 glands are organs in the body that secrete chemicals.

 Some glands, such as salivary glands and sweat glands, secrete their

chemicals onto the body’s tissues through tiny tubes, or ducts. This
kind of gland affects the functioning of the body but doesn’t really
affect behavior.
 Other glands, called endocrine glands, have no ducts and secrete

their chemicals directly into the bloodstream.

 The chemicals secreted by this type of gland are called hormones.
Endocrine Glands
 A Body tissue
Q5. The endocrine glands
secrete the hormones directly
into the _____ . B Ducts

C Blood stream

D None of the above

 A Body tissue
Q5. The endocrine glands
secrete the hormones directly
into the _____ . B Ducts

C Blood stream

D None of the above

PITUITARY GLAND
 The pituitary gland is located in the brain itself, just below the

hypothalamus.
 The hypothalamus controls the glandular system by influencing the

pituitary. That is because the pituitary gland is the master gland, the
one that controls or influences all of the other endocrine glands.
 Oxytocin: controls aspects of pregnancy and is involved in a variety of

ways with both reproduction and parental behavior.

• stimulates contractions of the uterus in childbirth.
• injections of oxytocin are frequently used to induce or speed up labor
and delivery.
• responsible for the milk letdown reflex, which involves contraction of
the mammary gland cells to release milk for the nursing infant.
 Vasopressin: The hormone that controls levels of water in our body

and it essentially acts an antidiuretic, helping the body to conserve

water.
 Growth Hormone: controls and regulates the increase in size as

children grow from infancy to adulthood.

 There are also hormones that stimulate the gonads (ovaries and

testes) to release female or male sex hormones, which in turn

influence the development and functioning of the reproductive
organs, development of secondary sex characteristics in puberty, and
reproductive behaviour.
Q6: Match the following:
(a) Growth hormone (i) Pregnancy
(b) Oxytocin (ii) Antidiuretic
(c) Vasopressin (iii) Postnatal growth

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(i)
C) a(iii), b(i), c(ii)
Q6: Match the following:
(a) Growth hormone (i) Pregnancy
(b) Oxytocin (ii) Antidiuretic
(c) Vasopressin (iii) Postnatal growth

OPTIONS:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(i)
C) a(iii), b(i), c(ii)
PINEAL GLAND
 The pineal gland is also located in the brain, near the back, directly

above the brain stem.

 plays an important role in several biological rhythms.

 secretes a hormone called melatonin, which helps track day length

(and seasons) and regulates the sleep–wake cycle..

 In some animals, this influences seasonal behaviors such as breeding

and molting.
THYROID GLAND
 The thyroid gland is located inside the neck

 secretes thyroxin that regulate metabolism(how fast the body burns

its available energy).

 Also related to growth and plays a crucial role in body and brain

development.
PANCREAS
 The pancreas controls the level of blood sugar in the body by

secreting insulin and glucagon.

 If the pancreas secretes too little insulin, it results in diabetes.

 If it secretes too much insulin, it results in hypoglycemia, or low blood

sugar, which causes a person to feel hungry all the time and often
become overweight as a result.
 A Diabetes, Hypoglycemia
Q7. Excess secretion of
insulin results in _____
whereas too little secretion B Hypoglycemia, Diabetes
results in ____

C Hypoglycemia, Low
blood sugar

D None of the above

 A Diabetes, Hypoglycemia
Q7. Excess secretion of
insulin results in _____
whereas too little secretion B Hypoglycemia, Diabetes
results in ____

C Hypoglycemia, Low
blood sugar

D None of the above

ADRENAL GLANDS
 Everyone has two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney.

 adrenal means “to or on the kidney.”

 Each adrenal gland is actually divided into two sections,

1. Adrenal Medulla: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine, when

people are under stress, and aids in sympathetic arousal.

2. Adrenal Cortex: produces over 30 different hormones called
corticoids (also called steroids) that regulate salt intake, help initiate
and control stress reactions, and also provide a source of sex
hormones in addition to those provided by the gonads.
One of the most important of these adrenal hormones is cortisol,
released when the body experiences stress, both physical stress (such as
illness, surgery, or extreme heat or cold) and psychological stress (such
as an emotional upset).
Cortisol is important in the release of glucose into the bloodstream
during stress, providing energy for the brain itself, and the release of
fatty acids from the fat cells that provide the muscles with energy.
GONADES
 The gonads are the sex glands, including the ovaries in the female and

the testes in the male.

 They secrete hormones that regulate sexual behavior and
reproduction.
 A Pituitary
Q8. Andrew has always been
thin. In fact, he often seems
to be able to eat whatever he B Thyroid
wants without gaining weight.
The doctor told his parents
that Andrew’s __________
gland is the cause of his fast C Adrenal

metabolism.

D Pancreas
 A Pituitary
Q8. Andrew has always been
thin. In fact, he often seems
to be able to eat whatever he B Thyroid
wants without gaining weight.
The doctor told his parents
that Andrew’s __________
gland is the cause of his fast C Adrenal

metabolism.

D Pancreas
 A Adrenal Glands
Q9. During the sympathetic
arousal, _______ would be
activated. B Adrenal Cortex

C Adrenal Medulla

D None of the above

 A Adrenal Glands
Q9. During the sympathetic
arousal, _______ would be
activated. B Adrenal Cortex

C Adrenal Medulla

D None of the above

 A True
Q10: Cortisol releases
glucose into the bloodstream
during stress, providing B False
energy for the brain, and
releases fatty acids from the
fat cells that provide energy
to the muscles.
.
 A True
Q10: Cortisol releases
glucose into the bloodstream
during stress, providing B False
energy for the brain, and
releases fatty acids from the
fat cells that provide energy
to the muscles.
.
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