Electronic Measurement

First Semester – 2nd Year

Chapter 3: Transducers
Dr. Galal Abdelaal
 Transducer Classification
1. Mechanical Transducers.
2. Thermal Transducers.

Rotary Encoder
 It is an electrotechnical device that coverts the angular position of a shaft to an analog or
digital code.

 The encoder feedback signal is sent to the system that controls the speed, position, and
direction of rotating shaft.
Rotary Encoder
Encoder Types

1. Incremental Encoders.

- Sliding Contact Method.

- Magnetic (Reluctance Method).

2. Incremental Optical Encoders.

3. Absolute Optical Encoders.

 Incremental Optical Encoder

 An incremental encoder provides a specified amount

of pulses in one rotation of the encoder.

 The output may be a single train of pulses (an “A”

channel) to determine the rotation speed.

 Two train of pulses (an “A” and “B” channels) are

offset in order to determine rotation speed and
direction of rotation.

 Pulse train (A): occurs when the light pass through slot A.

 Pulse train (B): occurs when the light pass through slot B.
 Incremental Optical Encoder

 If channel A pulse occurs before the pulse of channel B, the motor shaft rotate in the
clockwise direction.

 If channel B pulse occurs before the pulse of channel A, the motor shaft rotate in the
counter clockwise direction.
 Incremental Optical Encoder

 Three train of pulses (an “A”, “B” and “C”

channels) are offset in order to determine rotation
speed, direction of rotation and detect each single
revolution.

 The channel (Z) will provide a one pulse per

revolution.

 The resolution can be determined by the number of

holes on disc.
 Incremental Optical Encoder Limitation
 The high resolution (high accuracy) can be obtained by drill a hundreds of holes in the
wheel but this will reduce the strength of encoder wheel.

Overcome
 The modern encoder wheel is made of glass that etched with chemical process to
produce alternating opaque segments. These modern encoder can provide a high
resolution

Incremental Optical Encoder disadvantage

 Need a home switch to calibrate the encoder to actual location of home reference point in
case of the power loss occurs. When the power is restored the encoder can not define its
exact position.

Overcome

 Using absolute optical encoder.

 Absolute Optical Encoder

 This type of encoders uses a multiple tracks and

outputs which are readout in parallel to produce a binary
representation of the angular shaft input position.

 This type will have a light source and receiver for every
ring on the encoder wheel.

 Limited to measurement of single revolution.

 Provide an output with a unique code pattern

represented each position.

 This encoder use the natural binary code, gray code.

Absolute Optical Encoder
 Absolute Optical Encoder Codes

to avoid this

using gray encoding

 In this type the contacts produces a  The transition from one sector to
standard binary code. another causes only a change in one
contact state.
 If the disc stopped between to
adjacent sectors its impossible to
determine the angle of the shaft.
 Incremental Magnetic Encoder

 Magnetic pickup: contains the permanent magnet and

the sensing element.

 The rotating desk rotates the gear tooth that disturbed

the flux emitted by the permanent magnet cause the flux
expand and collapse, the sensing element sensed the
change in field and generates pulse or digital signal.

Advantages

 Low cost.
 No signal decay due to the unreliable light source.
 Encoder

Example 1:

An optical encoder has 120 slot on its disc. The speed of the shaft on which the rotor is
mounted is 1500 rpm. Determine the frequency of the output pulses.
 Encoder Applications
 Satellite position system.
 Printers.
 Servo plotters.
 Machine-tools.
Thermal Transducer

1. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD).

2. Thermistor.
3. Thermocouple.
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change
in its temperature. The correlation is

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼0 ∆𝑇
where Rt : resistance at temperature T
R0 : resistance at temperature T0
∆T : (T - T0 )
𝜶𝟎 : change in resistance per degree
of temperature at T0
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

 It has a resistor element connected to a

Wheatstone bridge. As the temperature
changes the resistance of the RTD coil
changes which is detected at the
Wheatstone bridge.

 As the RTD is a resistance, there is an power loss (I2 R) dissipated by the device itself that
cause slight heating effect this is called self-heating of the RTD device. This effect cause an
error in reading.
𝑃
∆𝑇 =
𝑃𝐷
where
∆T : temperature rise because of self-heating in ˚C
R : power dissipated in RTD from the circuit in W
PD : dissipation constant of the RTD in W/˚C
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Example 2:

An RTD has 𝜶𝟎 = 0.005 /˚C, RRTD = 500 ꭥ, and a dissipation constant of PD = 30 mW/˚C at
20˚C. The RTD is used in a bridge circuit as shown in figure, with R1 = R2 = 500 ꭥ and a
variable resistance R3 used to null the bridge. If the supply is 10 V and RTD is placed in
0˚C, find the accurate value of R3 to null the bridge taking into account the effect of self-
heating of RTD.
 RTD Applications
 Metal furnace
 Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
 Food processing
 Stoves and grills
 Textile production
 Plastics processing
 Petrochemical processing
 Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
 Exhaust gas temperature measurement
 Thermistor
 Depends on the behavior of semiconductor resistance versus temperature. When
temperature of the material increases the molecules begin to vibrate and produce energy
and release free electrons.

 As the temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to

move increases which results in more current in the material and reduced resistance.

 Finally, the resistance of a semiconductor material

decreasing from large value at low temperature to
smaller resistance at high temperature (nonlinear
inverse characteristic).
 Thermistor

Example 3:

A thermistor used to monitor room temperature. It has a resistance of 3.5 kꭥ at 20˚C with
slope of -10% /˚C. The dissipation constant PD = 5 mW/˚C. Its proposed to use the
thermistor in the circuit shown in figure to provide a voltage of 5 V at 20˚C. Evaluate the
effect of self-heating.
 Thermistor Applications
 Monitor the oil temperature inside engines
 Modern digital thermostats
 Monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
 Monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
 Maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing industry equipment
 Control the operations of home appliances such as toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators,
freezers, hair dryers, etc.
 Thermocouple

 When temperature difference is maintained across a given material, the vibration of atoms
and motion of electrons is affected so that a difference in potential exists across the
material.

 This potential difference is related to the electrons in the hotter end have more thermal
energy than those in the cooler end and thus tend to drift toward the cooler end.

 This drift varies for different metals at the same temperature because of differences in their
thermal conductivities which called Seebeck effect.
 Thermocouple

 Finally, thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature (flow of continuous current).

 The Seebeck voltage is a function of junction temperature and composition of two metals.

 Now how to use it in measurement …… ?

 Thermocouple

 The measurement junction TM is exposed to the environment whose temperature is to be

measured. This junction is formed of two different materials A and B.

 Two other junctions are formed from a common material C (reference junction TR) which is
connected to measurement device.

 The reference junctions are held at known temperature and the voltage can be calculated
as
𝜺 = 𝜶 (𝑻𝑴 − 𝑻𝑹 )
 Thermocouple

 The reference junctions must be held at same temperature. In most industrial environment
this is would be difficult.

 Thus, the reference junction moved in remote location through extinction wires.
 Thermocouple Applications
 Monitor temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron
and aluminum industry
 Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and
petroleum refineries
 Testing of heating appliance safety
 Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces
 Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
Thanks for
Listening with
great patience
Dr. Galal Abdelaal 2021-2022