A seminar report on

ADIABATIC DEMAGNETIZATION REFRIGERATOR

By

ABHINAV TICKOO

B2210871 4169

(Examination no.) (Roll no.)

Under the guidance of

PROF. A.A.NENE

MECHANICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT

AISSMS’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
PUNE-01
This is to certify that the seminar entitled ADIABATIC DEMAGNETIZATION
REFRIGERATOR submitted by ABHINAV TICKOO. Examination No. B2210871 for
the partial fulfillment towards the award of the degree of BE (Mechanical Engineering)
of University of Pune , Pune , is approved.

(Guide) (Head of the Deptt.)

(Examiner)
 ABSTRACT

The demand for obtaining the lowest possible temperatures has always been there
in the field of space technology and a lot of research has been done in this field.
Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR) is one possible answer to that.

This seminar report is an effort to explain in brief about the principle and working
of ADR and also some of its applications.

The starting few pages explain the concept of ADR and the principle behind it,
the middle portion of the report deals with the constructional details of ADR and its
working cycle and the latter part puts forward the concept of Advanced ADR.

The report concludes with the limitations of ADR and the problems that have
been faced in the full-fledged implementation of this technology and the future work that
needs to be done to overcome the same.
 INDEX

1. Introduction 1
2. Principle 2
3. Physical Background 3
4. Constructional details 5
5. Operating cycle 7
6. Salt Pill 11
7. Heat Switch 13
8. Uses 14
9. Limitations 15
10.Advanced ADR 16
11.Advantages 18
12.Future work 19
 INTRODUCTION

The refrigerators that we use in our kitchens cool continuously. No matter when we put
anything warm inside, the refrigerator will immediately start cooling it down. All the heat
that the refrigerator absorbs from the object it's cooling is dumped straight into the room.
Likewise, any heat that leaks in through the insulation goes right back out. (Normally we
don't think about the heat being dumped into the room, because there's not that much of
it. But into the room it goes, because energy cannot be destroyed.)

The ADR does not run continuously. It stores the heat that it absorbs; both heat from
cooling warm objects and heat that leaks in. The part of the ADR that stores the heat is
called the "salt pill". It's a block of a paramagnetic (i.e. weakly magnetic) substance.
Often, the material is one of the general classes of materials called "salts", which includes
table salt as well as many other chemicals. The salt pill for the XRS ADR, for example, is
made of the salt ferric ammonium sulfate. The salt pill may be shaped like a pill, but it
doesn't have to be. The salt pill for the XRS ADR is a long, narrow cylinder.

The low temperature ADR's that we use cannot dump the heat into the room. They need a
much colder heat sink to dump the heat. For example, the XRS ADR dumps its heat into
a liquid helium bath at 1.3 Kelvin (1.3 degrees above absolute zero.)
Principles Of The ADR, In Brief

An ADR works by first using a large magnet to align the magnetic poles (spins) of
all the molecules in a block of salt (called the salt pill). The salt pill is then
connected to a liquid helium bath via a "heat switch", allowing it to cool to the
temperature of the liquid helium (about 1.5 Kelvin). Once it has reached equilibrium
with the helium, the heat switch is opened, so that heat can no longer flow between
the salt pill and the helium.

Once the heat switch is open, the magnetic field is slowly reduced nearly to zero,
allowing the spins of the salt molecules to flop around in random directions. This
absorbs heat from the salt pill, cooling it.

By carefully adjusting the strength of the magnetic field, the temperature of the salt
pill can be kept constant for many hours. In the case of the ADR used in XRS, the
temperature can be maintained for over 30 hours. Eventually the spins are all
completely random and no more heat can be absorbed. Then the magnetic field is
increased, heating up the salt pill, and the cycle is repeated.
Physical Background: Paramagnetic Materials

What sets the ADR apart from other refrigerators is the way it stores heat energy. Some
refrigerators use a circulating gas. The gas absorbs heat at one point of its circuit, and
then flows to another point in the circuit where it dumps the heat. Some refrigerators use
a liquid, which evaporates as it absorbs heat, then condenses elsewhere in the circuit as it
dumps heat.

The ADR stores heat in the disorder of magnetic moments of the molecules in a
paramagnetic substance. In a paramagnetic substance, each molecule has a tiny magnetic
moment. The magnetic moment arises from the angular momentum of the electrons in the
molecule. Each electron has an orbital angular momentum (resulting from its orbital state
within the molecule) as well as an intrinsic spin angular momentum. In most types of
molecules, the angular moment of the various electrons cancel out to zero. In
paramagnetic substances, however, each molecule has a certain nonzero electronic
angular momentum.

Those electrons with their orbital and spin angular momentum are the microscopic
equivalents of the coils of wire in an electromagnet. Thus, in a paramagnetic substance,
each molecule acts as a tiny electromagnet.

D With no applied magnetic field, the magnetic moments are randomly

oriented, as shown in this diagram of a small piece of a paramagnetic substance. As you
can easily see, the magnetic moments in this diagram have a high degree of disorder, and
thus high entropy.
 D The amount of energy required to knock a molecular magnetic moment
out of alignment is proportional to the applied magnetic field. Thus, for a low applied
magnetic field, the energy of random thermal vibrations is enough to knock many
magnetic moments out of alignment, as shown in this diagram of a paramagnetic
substance with a weak applied field. The magnetic moments in this diagram are more
ordered than those in the first diagram. Thus, this group of magnetic moments has lower
entropy than those in the first diagram.

D With a strong enough applied field, virtually all the magnetic moments
are forced into alignment with the field, as shown in this diagram. As you can easily see,
the magnetic moments in this diagram have a high degree of order, and thus a low value
of entropy.

When the magnetic field starts at a high value, enough to align most of the magnetic
moments, and then drops to a low value, many of the magnetic moments drop out of
alignment with the field. As described above, the magnetic moments absorb thermal
energy as they move out of alignment with the field. In absorbing the thermal energy, the
magnetic moments cool the paramagnetic substance. In other words, as the field drops,
the entropy of random thermal vibrations is transformed into the entropy of random
magnetic moment alignment.

When the magnetic field increases again, the magnetic moments drop back into
alignment with the field. As they drop into aligned states, they give up the energy they
absorbed. The energy then appears as heat energy of the substance. In other words, as the
field increases, the entropy of random magnetic moment alignment is transformed into
the entropy of heat energy.
 The ability of a paramagnetic substance to absorb heat energy and transform it into
disorder of magnetic moments is the basic principle of the ADR.

Constructional Details of XRS Adiabatic Demagnetization

Refrigerator (ADR)

.Here is a list of all the items labelled in this cutaway drawing, clockwise from upper left.

Calorimeters
Calorimeters are sensors, which measure heat input. This ADR was designed to
cool calorimeters for the X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS) instrument. These
 calorimeters measure the energy of x-ray photons by measuring the heat energy
deposited when the photons are absorbed. The instrument will be used to measure
x-rays coming from distant astronomical objects.

Heat Switch
The heat switch is used to allow heat to be dumped periodically to the helium bath
(not shown.) The main components are: external shell (the brown cutaway part);
getter chamber and connecting tube (off the left end); and the interleaved copper
end pieces (the yellowish, reddish pieces that almost touch.)
Thermal Bus
The thermal busses (shown here in yellow) are copper rods that connect the
calorimeters (which need to be cooled) with the salt pill (where the cooling action
takes place.)
Salt Pill
The salt pill is where the cooling action takes place. The pill (actually a cylinder)
is made of ferric ammonium alum (FAA), also called ferric ammonium sulfate.
FAA was chosen to give good cooling power in the temperature range where this
ADR will operate. (Other ADR's use other materials.) When in use, the salt pill
end of the ADR is slid into a super-conducting magnet. Changing the applied
magnetic field causes the salt pill to cool or heat.
Suspension
The outer structure of the ADR consists of metal rings and tubes, which allow the
ADR to fit securely within the super-conducting magnet. (The magnet is not
shown in this drawing.) The salt pill is suspended within this rigid outer structure
by means of Kevlar cords. (Kevlar is a DuPont trademark.) Kevlar is strong
enough to hold the salt pill in place during the stress of launch, but has low
thermal conductivity so that not much heat leaks into the salt pill through the
suspension. The ends of the Kevlar lines are attached to bolts (shown in blue.) By
turning the bolts, technicians can tighten or loosen the cords.
Heat Switch Shell
 The brown part with the cutaway upper edge is the shell of the heat switch. The
shell is a cylinder. It is made of Vespel, a polyamide material, which provides
high strength with low thermal conductivity. (Vespel is a DuPont trademark.)

The Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator:

A Cyclic Magnetic Cooler
The Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR) is a cyclic cooling system. It
alternates between two states.
 In the operating state, it cools down and absorbs heat. However, an ADR could
cool anything that needed to be cooled to its operating temperature. (The XRS
ADR operates at 65 milliKelvin that is 0.065 degrees above absolute zero.)
 In the recycling state, the ADR warms up and dumps heat into a heat sink. In the
XRS instrument, the heat sink is a bath of liquid helium.

D
 Temperature and Entropy Cycle

This diagram shows how the temperature and entropy of the salt pill vary through the
cycle. The vertical axis of the graph is entropy divided by the universal gas constant, R,
and is therefore unit less. The horizontal axis is temperature in degrees Kelvin (that is,
absolute temperature.)

The green curve near the bottom shows the entropy of the pill at high field. The blue
curve higher in the graph shows entropy at zero field. At any temperature, the zero-field
entropy is higher than the high field entropy. The zero-field entropy includes both the
entropy of random thermal motion (heat energy) as well as the entropy of the disordered
magnetic moments. The high field entropy includes only the thermal randomness, since
the field lines up all the magnetic moments.

The lines between the two curves show ADR cycles, an "ideal" cycle, which is shown as
a rectangle, and a "non-ideal" cycle, which extends along a curved line to higher
temperatures and which overlaps the full-field curve for some distance. The stages of the
ideal cycle are labelled 1 through 4 on the graph. Here are descriptions of those stages:

1. Rapid Cool down

 Entropy: Constant
 Temperature: Dropping Fast
 Heat Switch: Off
 Magnetic Field: Dropping Fast
 As operators turn down the magnetic field, the magnetic moments misalign. As
they misalign, they convert entropy of random thermal vibrations into entropy of
random alignments of the magnetic moments. That is, as the moments absorb heat
energy and thus cool the salt pill. Because the cool down is rapid (only a few
minutes in the XRS ADR), there is not time for a significant amount of heat to
flow into the salt pill. Thus, the entropy of the pill is essentially constant as the
temperature drops.

2. Slow Cooling

 Entropy: Increasing Slowly

 Temperature: Constant
 Heat Switch: Off
 Magnetic Field: Dropping Slowly
 Once the salt pill reaches operating temperature, operators stop the rapid drop of
the magnetic field. If they then held the field constant, the salt pill would
gradually warm over a period of several hours as heat slowly leaked in from the
surroundings. Instead, the operators slowly drop the magnetic field, allowing the
molecular magnetic moments to slowly absorb the heat energy that leaks in. In the
XRS ADR, this constant temperature, slow cooling phase lasts several hours. (The
rapid cool down only lasts a few minutes.)
3. Warm up

 Entropy: Constant
 Temperature: Increasing Rapidly
 Heat Switch: Off
 Magnetic Field: Increasing Rapidly
 When the magnetic field reaches zero, operators must dump the stored heat. They
first increase the magnetic field (rapidly, so as not to waste time.) As the field
increases, the molecular magnetic moments fall into alignment with the field. The
entropy they stored as randomness of alignment becomes entropy of random
thermal motion. That is, as the magnetic moments align, they heat the salt pill by
dumping energy into it.

4. Dumping Heat

 Entropy: Decreasing
 Temperature: Constant
 Heat Switch: On
 Magnetic Field: Constant, High
 When the salt pill becomes warmer than the heat sink, operators turn on the heat
switch. Heat now flows from the salt pill to the heat sink. (In the XRS ADR, the
heat sink is a bath of liquid helium at 1.3 K.) As heat flows from the salt pill, its
entropy drops. After dumping heat, the operators turn off the heat switch and start
the cycle again.
SALT PILL:

The above drawing depicts the salt pill in cross section. The salt pill consists of 1600 gold
(99.999% pure) wires strung between 2 circular stainless steel perforated grid plates. The
wires are arranged into bundles of 200 wires each. 4 of the bundles are silver soldered
into gold plated copper rods called front-end assembly rods, or FEA rods. The other 4
bundles are each separately silver soldered into a gold plated copper plug called the heat
switch base. The rods and heat switch base are brazed into stainless steel sleeves, which
are then welded into the stainless steel end cap. The rods are shown extending to the left
of the salt pill. The heat switch base is shown at the middle of the cap at the left end of
the salt pill, and is attached to the inner wire bundles. The spacing of the grid plate holes
is .055 inches. As the wires are strung between the grid plates, they must alternate
between a wire from the heat switch base and a wire from an FEA rod. This is to keep the
heat transfer to and from the salt crystal uniform. After the wires are strung, the assembly
is annealed for 2 days at 350 Celsius. This is to bring the conductivity of the wires up
after the working action of stringing them between the grids. After annealing, the wires
are attached to the right hand grid plate using sty cast epoxy, and the excess wire is
trimmed. The final welding is then performed on the end cap to attach and seal the rods
and heat switch plate. The assembly is then inserted into a stainless steel can, and the
seam is welded. Finally, the other end cap is welded onto the can, making it hermetically
sealed, except for the presence of the 2 fill tubes, 1 shown at the extreme right of the
drawing. The can is then given 2 stages of plating. First, the can is plated with copper
strips running the length of the can from the heat switch plate at the top, to near the center
of the bottom end cap. This is to allow the stainless steel to change temperature faster
when the salt pill is changing temperature. The stainless steel is a poor thermal conductor
in comparison to the salt, copper and gold which comprise the rest of the salt pill. Then
the can is given a layer of gold plating, which covers the entire outside of the can and
protects the copper strips from oxidation, and accidental contact with the caustic solution
used to grow the salt. At this time, a salt crystal is built up inside the can. The can is
oriented with the FEA rods down. The rods are attached to a thermoelectric cooling
device using copper braids. A solution of ferric ammonium iron dehydrates and 7%
sulfuric acid in de-ionized water is injected into the can. The depleted solution is
withdrawn after 6 hours, and the can is rinsed with de-ionized water to prevent crystals
from forming high up on the wires, and new solution is then injected into the can. This
cycle is repeated every 6 hours until the crystal has grown up to the upper grid plate. The
washings are performed to prevent the crystal from forming fluid filled voids within the
body of the crystal. These voids could occur if the crystals on the wires were allowed to
grow and close off the top before the lower crystals could form, and this would prevent
the depleted solution from being removed. Once the crystal is grown, the fill tubes are cut
off and end caps are welded on. The salt pill is then totally hermetically sealed. The
hermetic seal is essential because the enclosed salt will dehydrate over time if exposed to
outside air. This would render the salt pill inoperative. In addition, the salt pill must be
kept below 39 C. This is because the salt will begin to melt at that temperature, also
rendering the salt pill inoperative.
 Gas Gap Heat Switch

The gas gap heat switch allows us to control the flow of heat. When we need to exhaust
heat from the ADR to the helium bath, we turn the switch on. When the transfer of heat to
the bath is finished, we turn the heat switch off.

To turn the switch on, we flood the gap between the end pieces with helium. Heat can
then flow from one end piece, through the helium, to the other end piece, and then out of
the switch. The helium is stored in a getter of zeolite. Zeolite is also called "molecular
sieve". Zeolite, like activated charcoal, can adsorb large quantities of gasses. The zeolite
is held in a small circular chamber. (You can see that chamber on top of the assembled
switch, in the photo, below.) When we heat the getter, the helium vaporizes and flows
through the small capillary that connects the getter to the rest of the heat switch.
 The Uses of an ADR in Space

The Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR) has been used routinely in the
laboratory for cooling to temperatures below the temperature of liquid helium.
Astronomers are now developing sensors for x-ray and infrared astronomy, which will
operate in this temperature range. Since these sensors are more sensitive than their higher
temperature predecessors, cryogenic engineers are now hard at work on the systems to
cool them in orbit.

X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS):

an Example of Helium and ADR Technology

Introduction: XRS, the ADR, and Liquid Helium Cooling

The X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS) is an instrument designed to study x-rays emitted by

black holes and other exotic astronomical objects. The first one was destroyed in a launch
attempt from the Kagoshima Space Center in Japan in February 2000. A replacement is
now being built, scheduled for launch in 2005.

XRS shows how liquid helium cooling and an ADR can work together as part of a
satellite cooling system. XRS is also interesting for another reason. Because the volume
of liquid helium was so small, the system included some unusual design features. These
features were intended to lengthen the lifetime of the liquid helium coolant supply by
reducing the need for cooling.

To work properly, the x-ray astronomy sensors in XRS needed to be cooled to sixty
thousandths of a degree above absolute zero. For this temperature range, we chose an
Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR). The ADR has been used in laboratories
on the ground for years, and is thus a well-established technology.

Another commonly used laboratory cooler for this temperature range is the liquid helium
dilution refrigerator. For satellite use, the ADR has 2 important advantages over the
dilution refrigerator. First, the ADR is more efficient. Efficiency is important in a
satellite, where electric power and all other resources are strictly limited. Second, the
dilution refrigerator requires a complicated internal plumbing system. This plumbing
would be difficult to adapt for a satellite. In one part of the plumbing, a lighter liquid
floats on top of a heavier liquid. It would be difficult to design a replacement for this part
of the system which would work in zero gravity.

All the really low temperature-cooling systems have one thing in common. Unlike the
refrigerator in your kitchen, none of these systems will work at room temperature. They
all must be cooled to low temperatures in order to produce the even lower temperatures
that we are aiming for. The XRS ADR was cooled by a tank of liquid helium at 1.3
Kelvin (1.3 degrees above absolute zero.

The Standard ADR: Limitations

The ADR must warm up periodically to dump stored heat into the "warm" end
temperature sink. During the warm part of the cycle, the whole ADR, including whatever
sensors it may be cooling, is warm. One reason that the XRS ADR can have such a long
cold part of the cycle (over a day) is that the "warm" heat sink is at a low temperature --
only 1.3 Kelvin. If the temperature of the "warm" heat sink were raised, then the cold part
of the ADR's cycle would shrink, and the warm part would lengthen.

In other words, the performance of the ADR decreases as the "warm" heat sink is raised.
This decrease in performance makes it difficult to use a mechanical cooler as the "warm"
heat sink. Mechanical coolers small enough for satellite use, at present, can cool down
only as far as 6 to 8 Kelvin. An ADR operating with a cold temperature of 60 milliKelvin
and a heat sink temperature of 6 to 8 Kelvin would have to warm up much more
frequently than the XRS ADR would.

Despite this drawback, it would be convenient to use a mechanical cooler instead of a

liquid helium bath. The liquid helium bath slowly evaporates, until it is completely gone.
A mechanical cooler, especially a highly reliable one, has no such limit on its cooling
life.
The Advanced ADR

One purpose of the advanced ADR is to combine the high performance of the XRS ADR
with the convenience of a mechanical cooler. The advanced ADR is not just one ADR,
it's a group. The design uses a series of simple, standard ADR's (each with one salt pill)
to bridge the temperature gap between the sensors (at, say 60 milliKelvin) and the
mechanical cooler (at 6 to 8 Kelvin.) Each standard ADR would have a relatively small
temperature drop across it, and thus would be able to remain cold for a long time.

Schematic

Here is a schematic diagram of one possible advanced ADR. The ADR shown has 3 salt
pills, a hot end salt pill, a cold end salt pill, and a middle salt pill. Each salt pill has its
own magnet, which controls the temperature in that pill. Between the salt pills are heat
switches and Kevlar supports. The upper two magnets in this design are shown
surrounded by magnetic shielding, to prevent the magnetic fields from interfering with
other equipment.

The Advanced Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator is a multistage Adiabatic

Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR). This figure shows a schematic view of one
example of an advanced ADR. The advanced ADR shown is a 3-stage ADR. Each of the
 3 stages is labelled with a temperature or temperature range, which it might have, in a
real advanced ADR. Each salt pill is centered within its own magnet coil.

At the far left end is the object that the ADR is supposed to cool. It's labelled "the
detector stage" because we expect that the advanced ADR will mostly be used to cool
detectors, that is, sensors, designed by astronomers. The detector stage is connected
directly to the cold end salt pill. The pill is labelled with a temperature .05 Kelvin. The
cold end salt pill is labelled "Continuous stage".

The low-end salt pill is connected through a heat switch and a Kevlar suspension to the
middle salt pill. The middle salt pill temperature varies from .045 Kelvin to 1 Kelvin. The
middle salt pill is connected through a heat switch and a Kevlar suspension to the hot end
salt pill. The hot end salt pill temperature varies from .9 Kelvin to 6 Kelvin. The hot end
salt pill is connected through a heat switch to a mechanical cryocooler at 6 Kelvin.

The schematic shows a ferromagnetic shield around the middle and hot end salt pills

The Cycle

 We start the cycle with all the heat switches turned off. The Cold End Stage has
been absorbing heat from the payload. It needs to dump some of the accumulated
heat.
 The Mid Stage has cooled to slightly colder than the Cold End Stage. The switch
connecting the mid and Cold End Stages turns on. Heat flows from the Cold End
Stage to the slightly cooler Mid Stage. When enough heat has transferred, the heat
switch turns off.
 We now must warm up the Mid Stage so it can dump the transferred heat to the
Hot End Stage. We do this by increasing the magnetic field produced by the Mid
Stage Magnet. The Mid Stage Salt Pill heats up.
 The heat switch connecting the mid and Warm End Stages turns on. Heat flows
from the Mid Stage to the Hot End Stage.
 When enough heat has transferred, the heat switch turns off. The magnetic field
drops.
  We now must warm up the Hot End Stage so that it can dump the transferred heat
to the heat sink. So, we turn up the field of the Hot End Stage Magnet. The Hot
End Stage Salt Pill warms up.
 The heat switch connecting the Hot End Stage to the heat sink turns on. Heat
flows from the Hot End Stage to the heat sink. When enough heat has flowed, the
heat switch turns off. The magnetic field drops. The cycle can begin again.

Advantages of the Advanced ADR

Greater Temperature Range

There's a limit to the temperature range of a single stage ADR, that is, the range
between the coldest temperature it can reach and the temperature of its "hot" end
heat sink. That limit is set by the properties of the salt pill material. A multi-stage
ADR can have a greater temperature range because it can use a series of salt pills
of different materials with overlapping temperature ranges.
Mechanical Cooler as Heat Sink
A multi-stage Advanced ADR could have a "hot" end temperature as high as 10
Kelvin -- high enough to use a mechanical cooler as heat sink -- while still
cooling down to milliKelvin temperatures. By contrast, the single-stage XRS
ADR had such a low high-end temperature, 1.3 Kelvin, that the only heat sink it
could use was a bath of liquid helium -- a bath that evaporates away as it cools.
Continuous Cooling
A single-stage ADR must shut down periodically to warm up and dump its load of
stored heat into the heat sink. In an Advanced ADR, the end stage could be cooled
periodically by a slightly colder stage. Thus, the end stage of an Advanced ADR
could provide continuous cooling.
Lower Weight
The Advanced ADR could be lower in weight than a long hold time one-stage
ADR. The salt pill of a long hold time one-stage ADR needs to be large enough to
absorb a large amount of heat energy. The salt pills of a continuous ADR can be
much smaller, since they can be cycled frequently without interrupting the
cooling.
Future Work

Work is now underway at the Cryogenics Branch to choose the proper materials and
designs for the advanced ADR. Some of the issues that must be decided are:

 Proper materials for the salt pills of the simple ADR's that combine to make up
the advanced ADR. Materials must be chosen based on the operating temperature
ranges.
 Best types of heat switches to use between the simple ADR's. Each heat switch
must be able to turn "on" to allow the each ADR to exhaust heat to the one above
it in the chain. The heat switch must then turn "off" to prevent heat from flowing
backwards.
 Most suitable type of magnetic shielding. Since the ADR is a magnetic cooler, it
produces magnetic fields, which need to be shielded to keep them away from
other equipment.
 Workable magnet design for use at the 6 to 8 Kelvin cold end temperature of a
suitable mechanical cooler. This may involve use of high temperature
superconductors.
References

1. "The HAWC and SAFIRE adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators", Jim Tuttle,

Peter Shirron, Michael DiPirro, Michael Jackson, Jason Behr, Koji Kamiya, Brent
Warner, Evan Kunes, Tom Hait, Cryogenics 41, p.781, (2002).
2. "Design of a Spaceworthy Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator", A. T.
Serlemitsos, M. SanSebastian and E. Kunes, Cryogenics 32, p.117, (1992).

3. "Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator for Space Use", A. T. Serlemitsos, B. A.

Warner, S. Castles and S. R. Breon, Advances in Cryogenics, Vol. 35B, p. 1431-1437
(Plenum Press, New York, 1990).

4. "Design of an Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator for Studies in

Astrophysics", S. H. Castles, Refrigeration for Cryogenic Sensors, NASA Conference
Publication 2287, 389 (1983).

5. "Getter Pumped Gas Gap Heat Switch", S. H. Castles, NASA Tech Brief, Vol 5,
3, p.359 (1980).