c1-2 THE NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FEEDS

This part provides details of the feeds that are commonly given to animals, including their main nutrient content and
factors that need to be taken into account when they are used in animal diets.
Vegetables - form the basis of the diet for the most part of farm animals
ex. grass and fodder/forage crops – for herbivores
seeds (cereal graines, legumes beans..) and by-products – for pigs and poultry
In order to supply food to animals throughout the year, forages and straws need to be harvested at the appropriate time
and conserved for feeding during the winter, when forage growth has declined. In some parts of the world, forages
produced in the rainy season need to be conserved for feeding during the dry period.
In recent years, the most popular method of conservation of grass has been as silage - ensilage process and nutritive
value of the product are more gainful/profitabil,avantajos.
The other major method of conservation of forages is by drying, either naturally in the field as hay or straw or artificially
dried grass or lucerne.
For ruminants, forages alone are not sufficient to achieve the levels of production required, and for monogastric animals,
such as pigs and poultry, most forages are not appropriate since their digestion relies on microbial fermentation in the gut.
In these situations, concentrated sources of nutrients are required.
The concentrated sources of energy are cereals grains and – in dry matter – roots and tubers (or derivates..).
Many energy and protein crops are grown primarily for human consumption, but during their processing result some
important by-products that are used as animal feeds – like cereal bran or soya / sun-flower / rape(colza)/ peanuts meal,
gluten meal or DDGS (Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles), molasses .

We use in animal feefing also protein feeds, both plant- and animal-derived (also microbial… ex. yeast or algae), and
some special products such as synthetic amino acids and non-protein nitrogen sources.
In addition to the main foods considered above, other materials are often added to the diets of animals in order to offer
nutrients (like minerals or vitamins - usually in form of premixes, but also direct sources of calcium, phosphor or sodium)
or to enhance the efficiency of nutrient use or modify conditions in the gut so that they are beneficial to the animal or to
prevent/improve animal halth or to improve some product quality characteristics - like the feed additives
CLASSIFICATION of FEEDS
Fodders / Forages / Roughages Concentrates Supplements Compound feeds
Voluminous, bulky
less energy per kg more energy or/and protein / kg one or more mash / pelleted / broken
rich in water or in crude fiber less water and crude fiber
grass and forage crops – fresh cereal graines legume beans minerals mixtures
silages bran, meals By-products meals vitamins
hay, strow, cobs fats, sugar By-products animal feed additives complete
fresh root and tubers roots/tubers in DM microbial health products specials

GRASS AND FORAGE CROPS Content: 1 Pastures and grazing animals

2 Grasses
3 Legumes
4 Other forages used as fresh crop– cereals, brassica plants, beet tops
1. Pastures and grazing animals
From a nutritional point of view, the simplest pastures are those created by sowing a single species of pasture plant,
which may be a grass such as Italian ryegrass or a legume such as lucerne (alfalfa). These pastures have a limited life
(1–4 years) and are described as temporary pastures. Sown permanent pastures normally include several species of both
grasses and legumes. Natural grasslands have an even greater spread of species, which will include herbs and shrubs
(some of which may be regarded as weeds).
The most important groups of plants are Gramineae and Legumes (Leguminoseae)
Usually are called grasses the species of the perennial Gramineae, and annual = cereals but are used also some
biannual – ex. sorghum. Similarly, are used perennial legumes – like luzerne/alfalfa or clover; usually for seeds are
cultivated annual legumes – ex. soya, green peas, lupin.. Also are used like forages other plants – ex. rape, sun-flower,
beets and tubers etc.
The nutrition of the grazing animal is different from that of housed livestock, for several reasons.
In the first place, its diet is variable. As indicated above, the variability may be due to the botanical composition of
pastures. There is also variability over time, for different species may grow at different times of the year, and even a
single species will change in composition and nutritive value as it grows to maturity.
Secondly important feature of the grazing is that animals spend time and energy in harvesting its food. Thus, a cow
consuming 15 kg of dry matter a day from a pasture yielding 1000 kg of dry matter per hectare must harvest an area of
2
150 m per day with a mowing apparatus only 0.1 m wide. The diet of the grazing animal is therefore difficult to evaluate;
moreover, even if its nutritive value is known, the opportunities for correcting its deficiencies may be limited.
 At its best, pasture herbage is a food of high nutritive value for ruminants. For example, young, leafy herbage from a
perennial ryegrass pasture may contain 12 MJ of metabolisable energy and 200 g crude protein (or 0.8-1 UFL and around
100 g PDI) per kilogram of DM, and be eaten in quantities sufficient for the needs of a dairy cow for maintenance and the
production of 25 kg of milk per day. Unfortunately, the nutritive value of herbage often falls far below its optimum; soil and
climate may be unsuitable for growing the most nutritious pasture plants, and the grazing management system employed
may fail to ensure that herbage is consistently grazed at the stage of growth when its nutritive value is at its highest. In
many grazing situations, the herbage barely supplies the maintenance needs of the animal. Achieving the optimal
nutrition of grazing animals is a continuing challenge for nutritional scientists and farmers.

2 Grasses
In cold and temperate climates, grass starts to grow in the spring when soil temperatures reach 4–6 °C.
From then on, the pattern of growth is very much the same, irrespective of species or cultivar. There is a rapid
production of leaf, followed by an increase in the growth of the stem, leading to the ultimate emergence of the flowering
head and, finally, to the formation of the seed. As the grass grows, the concentration of DM in the crop increases;
also in relation with the plant age/ stage of growth, increase crude fiber and decrease protein content.
In hot climates, soil temperature is likely to be high enough to allow grass growth throughout the year, but growth is
commonly restricted by lack of water. Where the climate is characterised by defined wet and dry seasons, grass growth is
very rapid during a warm wet season, but as the soil dries out the herbage matures and dies, leaving a feed resource that
is sometimes described as ‘standing hay’. Even in wetter conditions, plants in deep shade at the base of the sward may
die, thus giving senescent herbage of inferior nutritive value.
The rate at which grass grows is dependent upon the environment, the nutrients available and the amount of leaf within
the sward that is intercepting light. Immediately after harvesting there is a period of slow regrowth, followed by an
accelerated rate and finally a period of decreasing growth as the herbage matures. As grass swards increase in leaf area,
the photosynthetic capacity of successive newly expanded leaves is progressively reduced because of the increasing
shade in which they develop. The rate at which regrowth occurs depends upon the maturity of the crop at the time of
harvesting. If the grass is young and leafy, it recovers more quickly and starts regrowth earlier than when mature herbage
is harvested. Typical growth rates for temperate pastures in the spring are 40–100 kg DM per hectare per day.
Chemical composition
The composition of the dry matter of pasture grass is very variable; for example, the crude protein content may range
from as little as 30 g/kg in very mature herbage to over 300 g/kg in young, heavily fertilised grass. The fibre content is,
broadly, related inversely to the crude protein content, and the acid-detergent fibre (ADF) may range from 200 g/kg to
over 450 g/kg in very mature moorland species of grasses.
The moisture content of grass is of particular importance when a crop is being harvested for conservation; it is high in
very young material, usually 750–850 g/kg, and falls to about 650 g/kg as the plants mature.Weather conditions, however,
greatly influence the moisture content.
The composition of the dry matter is dependent on the relative proportions of cell walls and cell contents. The cell walls
consist of cellulose and hemicelluloses, reinforced with lignin. The cellulose content is generally within the range of 200–
300 g/kg DM and that of hemicelluloses may vary from 100 g/kg to 300 g/kg DM. The concentrations of both these
polysaccharide components increase with maturity; so also does that of lignin, which reduces the digestibility of the
polysaccharides.
The cell contents include the water-soluble carbohydrates and much of the protein. The water-soluble carbohydrates of
grasses include fructans and the sugars glucose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose and stachyose.
Proteins are the main nitrogenous compounds in herbage, with true protein accounting for about 80 per cent of total N.
The non-protein nitrogenous fraction of herbage varies with the physiological state of the plant. Generally, the more
favourable the growth conditions, the higher is the non-protein nitrogen content and the total nitrogen value, and as the
plants mature the contents of both decrease. The main components of the non-protein nitrogen fraction are amino acids,
and amides; nitrates may also be present, and these may be toxic for grazing animals.
The lipid content of grasses, determined as the ether extract fraction, is relatively low and rarely exceeds 60 g/kg DM.
The mineral content of pasture is very variable, depending upon the species, stage of growth, soil type, cultivation
conditions and fertiliser application; values of the normal range in content of some essential elements is given in Tables.
Green herbage is an exceptionally rich source of β-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, and the dry matter of the young
green crop may contain as much as 550 mg/kg. Herbage of this type supplies about 100 times the vitamin A requirement
of a grazing cow when eaten in normal quantities.
It has generally been considered that growing plants do not contain vitamin D, although precursors (egosterol) are
usually present. Most green forage crops are good sources of vitamin E and of many of the B vitamins, especially
riboflavin.

Factors influencing the nutritive value of herbage

Stage of growth
Stage of growth is the most important factor influencing the composition and nutritive value of pasture herbage. As
plants grow there is a greater need for fibrous tissues to maintain their structure, and therefore the main structural
carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicelluloses) and lignin increase, and the concentration of protein decreases; there is
therefore an inverse relationship between the protein and fibre contents in a given species, although this relationship can
be upset by the application of nitrogenous fertilisers.
 The digestibility of the organic matter is one of the main factors determining the nutritive value of forage; this may be as
high as 0.85 in young spring pasture grass and as low as 0.45 in winter forage. The basic determinant of forage
digestibility is the plant anatomy. Plant cell contents, being mainly soluble carbohydrates and proteins, are almost
completely digestible, but cell walls vary in digestibility according to their degree of reinforcement with lignin
and their fiber(cellulose) content. Thus, digestibility decreases as plants increase in maturity, but the relationship
is complicated by there being a spring period of up to a month during which the herbage digestibility remains fairly
constant. This period has been described as the ‘plateau’. The end of this period is associated in some plant species with
ear emergence, after which digestibility of organic matter may decrease abruptly, affecting the nutritive value.
Digestibility of grasses is also influenced by leaf/stem ratios. Techniques involving fermentation in vitro have enabled
the digestibility of different fractions of plants to be determined. In very young grass the stem is more digestible than the
leaf, but whereas with advancing maturity the digestibility of the leaf fraction decreases very slowly, that of the stem
fraction falls rapidly. As plants mature, the stem comprises an increasing proportion of the total herbage and has a much
greater influence on the digestibility (in order to decrease) of the whole plant than the leaf.
The decrease in digestibility with stage of growth is also reflected in the metabolisable and net energy values of
grasses. The low net energy value of mature herbage is not only due to a low organic matter digestibility but is also
associated with a high concentration of cellulose
Soils, fertilisers and weather
The type of soil may influence the composition of the pasture, especially its mineral content. Plants normally react to a
mineral deficiency in the soil either by limiting their growth or by reducing the concentration of the element in their tissues,
or more usually by both. In addition, deficiencies of mineral elements may affect the utilisation of herbage; thus, in sheep,
sulphur deficiency reduces the digestibility of herbage. The most common mineral deficiencies of grass herbage are those
of phosphorus, magnesium, copper and cobalt.
The application of nitrogenous fertilisers increases leaf area and rate of photosynthesis. As a consequence, the crude
protein content, and frequently the amide and nitrate contents, are increased. Fertilisers may also affect, indirectly, the
nutritive value of a sward by altering the botanical composition. For example, while heavy dressings of nitrogen
encourage growth of grasses and at the same time depress clover growth.
Grazing system
In many traditional grazing systems, animals are kept on the same area of pasture throughout the year (continuous
grazing). In such systems, the ideal ‘stocking rate’ (i.e. animals per unit area) is one that maintains a perfect balance
between the growth of new herbage and its harvesting by animals. In practice, if the rate of growth exceeds the rate of
harvesting, herbage accumulates and matures, thus reducing the nutritive value of the material on offer. However, an
increase in the amount of herbage on offer allows the animals to graze selectively, and they are able to compensate to
some extent for the general fall in nutritive value by selecting plants, or parts of plants, that are higher in nutritive value
than the rest. For example, leaf may be selected in preference to stem. Both under- and overgrazing of pastures may
change their botanical composition and therefore the nutritive value of their herbage.
Pastures are not necessarily harvested by grazing. In some areas, grass may be cut by machine and transported to
housed animals.This practice of ‘zero grazing’ allows greater control over the diet of grass-fed livestock. (but + costs…)

Nutritional disorders associated with grasses

Nitrate poisoning
As mentioned earlier, nitrate can accumulate in grasses. Nitrate per se is relatively non-toxic to animals. The toxic effect
in ruminants is caused by the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the rumen. Nitrite, but not nitrate, oxidises the ferrous iron of
haemoglobin to the ferric state, producing a brown pigment, methaemoglobin, which is incapable of transporting oxygen
to the body tissues. Toxic signs include trembling, staggering, rapid respiration and death.
It has been reported that toxicity may occur in animals grazing herbage containing more than 0.7 g nitrate-N/kg DM (2.8
g NO3), although the lethal concentration is much higher than this. Some authorities have quoted a lethal figure for
nitrate-N of 2.2 g/kg DM, whereas others have suggested a value far in excess of this.
Nitrate is sometimes less toxic if the diet also contains soluble carbohydrates. The nitrate content of grasses varies with
species, variety and manuring, although the amount present is generally directly related to the crude protein content.
Cereal grasses, maize and weeds such as thistles and docks may also contain toxic concentrations of nitrate.
Mycotoxicoses
Several related disorders of grazing animals have as their primary cause the invasion of grasses by fungi, which produce
substances known as mycotoxins. The condition known as ‘ryegrass staggers’/clătina occurs in ruminants and horses
grazing perennial ryegrass in North America and (occasionally) Europe. Affected animals are uncoordinated and may
collapse, although mortality is low. The fungus involved, Acremonium loliae, produces the neurotoxic alkaloid lolitrem B.
An ergot alkaloid, ergovaline, is also produced by the fungus Acremonium coenophialum, which infects the grass tall
fescue/păiuș. Ergovaline causes the condition known as ‘fescue foot’, in which grazing animals become lame and develop
gangrene at their extremities owing to vasoconstriction. The last mycotoxin to be considered is sporidesmin; this is
produced by the fungus Pithomyces chartarum, which grows in the pasture litter.
Control of these mycotoxicoses is based on the use of fungicides on pasture, on the selection of resistant plants and
animals, and on the modification of grazing practices to avoid consumption of infected herbage (e.g. avoiding the grazing
of infected dead plant material close to the ground).
3 Legumes
Pasture and field crop legumes
The family Leguminoseae contains about 18000 species, which are valued for their ability to grow in a symbiotic
relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and for their drought resistance. The commonest legumes found in pastures are
the clovers (Trifolium spp.), the main representatives being red clover (T. pratense) and white clover (T. repens) in the
cooler and wetter regions such as Europe.
Nutritionally, the clovers are superior to grasses in protein and mineral content (particularly calcium), and their nutritive
value falls less with age. Sheep and cattle offered red/white clover as fresh forage consumed 20 per cent more dry matter
than from grass of the same metabolisable energy content.
Lucerne / alfalfa (Medicago sativa) also occurs in pastures, but like many other legumes it is more commonly grown
on its own. It is found in warm temperate areas and in many tropical and subtropical countries. The protein content is
comparatively high and declines only slowly with maturity
Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) is a legume of less economic importance than lucerne, and in the UK it is confined to a
few main areas in the south. In common with most green forages, the leaf is richer than the stem in crude protein, ether
extract and minerals, especially calcium. Changes that occur in the composition of the plant are due mainly to variation in
stem composition and leaf/stem ratio.
Peas (Pisum sativum), beans (Vicia faba) and vetches (Vicia sativa) are sometimes grown as green fodder crops.
When cut at the early flowering stage, they are similar in nutritive value to other legumes
The recommended stages of growth for green crop legumes to be consumed are Pre-bud, In-bud and Early flower.
The DM content is between 15-25% (pre-bud – flowering stage). Energy is 0.8-1.0 UFL / kg of DM (alfalfa-clover)
The crude protein content in the dry matter may vary from 240 g/kg at the in-bud stage to 140 g/kg at full flower.
Corresponding crude fibre values at similar stages of growth may be 140 g/kg and 270 g/kg DM (and over after...)
Nutritional disorders associated with legumes
A disorder that is frequently encountered in cattle and sheep grazing on legume-dominated pastures is bloat. The
most serious problems are associated with clovers and lucerne. The primary cause of bloat is the retention of the
fermentation gases in rumen, in a stable foam (frothy bloat), preventing their elimination by eructation. Soluble leaf
proteins are thought to play the major role in the formation of the foam. Sainfoin are unlikely to cause bloat, probably
because of the tannins content and their ability to precipitate soluble proteins. Bloat can be treated by administration of
vegetable oils or chemical surfactants,
A large number of species of plants are known to contain compounds that have oestrogenic activity. Pasture plants
containing these phytoestrogens are mainly of the species Trifolium subterraneum (subterranean clover), T. pratense (red
clover), Medicago sativa (lucerne) and M. truncatula (barrel medic).The oestrogens in Trifolium sp. are mainly
isoflavones, whereas those in Medicago sp. are usually coumestans.
Naturally occurring isoflavones and coumestans have relatively weak oestrogenic activity, but this activity can be
increased as a result of metabolism in the rumen. For example, T. repens (white clover), are normally non-oestrogenic but
when infected with fungi can produce high concentrations of coumestan.
The consumption of oestrogenic pasture plants by sheep leads to severe infertility and postnatal death in lambs. Cattle
grazing oestrogenic pastures do not appear to suffer the severe infertility problems that affect sheep.

4. Other forages used as green crop

Cereals - the whole plant (corn, barley, rye, sorghum..)
Cereals are sometimes grown as green forage crops, either alone or mixed with legumes. The forage is rich in water
(around 20%) and carbohydrates (energy - around 0.9 UFL /kgDM) and low in protein, its nutritive value depending mainly
on the stage of growth when harvested. The crude protein content of the cereal at the grazing stage is generally within
the range of 60–120 g/kg DM.
Brassicas
The genus Brassica comprises some 40 species, of which the following are of agricultural importance: kales, cabbages,
rapes, turnips and swedes.
All brassicas, whether grown as forage, root or oilseed crops, contain goitrogenic substances, like thiocyanate type,
which interferes with the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland and whose effects can be overcome by increasing the
iodine content of the diet. All animals grazing on forage brassicas may develop goitre to some extent, but the most
serious effects are found in lambs born to ewes that have grazed on brassicas during pregnancy; these lambs may be
born dead or deformed.
Green tops/ coletele cu frunze
Mangel /fodder beet, sugar beet and turnip/napi may all be used for feeding farm animals. Care is required when feeding
with fodder / sugar beet tops, since they contain a toxic ingredient that may lead to extensive distress/suferinta and, in
extreme cases, death. The risk appears to be reduced by allowing the leaves to wilt. The toxicity has been attributed to
oxalic acid and its salts, which are supposed to be reduced or removed by wilting/ofilire. A recent study casts some doubt
on this theory, since the oxalate content of the leaves is practically unaffected by wilting - so It is possible that the toxic
substances are not oxalates but other factors that are destroyed during wilting.
Bibliography:
I.M. Pop , 2019/20. Animal nutrition - course notes. USAMV Iasi
P. McDonalds and col. – Animal nutrition. Seventh Edition. Pearson Ed., London U.K. www.pearsoned.co.uk
L. Delteil and col., 2004 – Nutrition et alimentation des animaux d’elevage. EducAgri Ed., Dijon, France
INRA. 2007. Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Besoins des animaux. Valeurs des aliments. Quae Ed. France
D.Sauvant and col. 2002 – Tables of composition and nutritional value of feed materials. Pigs, poultry, cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits,
horses and fish. INRA Ed. France