Elec

Electricity and
Magnetism
1st Class
November, 10 2013
University of Sulaimani
School of Science
Physics Department
Contents
Contents i
List of Figures iv
1 Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Historical Development of Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Conductors and Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Comparison Between Coulomb’s Law and Newton’s Gravitation Force 4
2 Electric field and Gauss Law 11

2.1 Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 The Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Electric Field of point charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Electric field of continuous charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Electric field lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Electric dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Introductions to Gauss Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 The Flux of a vector field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 Flux of electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.10 Gauss law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.11 Gauss law and Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.12 Application of Gauss law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Electric Potential Energy and Potential 25

3.1 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Electric Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Potential Energy of a System of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Calculating Electric Potential (V ) from Electric Field (E) ~ . . . . . . 29
3.6 Potential due to Point Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.7 Potential Due to a Collection of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
~ from the Potential (V) . . . . . .
3.8 Calculating the Field (E) . . . . . . 32
3.9 Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
i
Contents ii
4 Electrical material and capacitance 35

4.1 Types of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 A Conductor in an Electric Field Static Condition . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 A Conductor in an Electric Field (Dynamic Conductor) . . . . . . . . 36
4.4 Current Density and Draft Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 Ohmic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.6 Analogy between Current and Heat Flow(optional) . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.7 Resistance and Temperature Variation of Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.8 An insulator in an electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.9 A Model for Electrical Conduction (Ohm’s Law A Microscope View) 41
5 Capacitance 43
5.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3 Calculating the Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.4 Connection of Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.5 Energy Storage in an Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.6 Capacitor with Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6 Direct Current Circuit (DC Circuit) 49

6.1 Electric Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.2 Conservation of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.3 Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4 Analysis of Circuits: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.5 Potential difference in a Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.6 Internal Resistance of Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.7 Resistor in Series and Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.8 Energy Transfers in an Electric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.9 RC Circuit (Capacitor Charging) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.10 Charging Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.11 Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.12 Discharging a Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7 The Magnetic Field 65

7.1 Magnetic Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.2 Magnetism and Moving Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.3 Magnetic Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.4 The magnetic Force On a Moving Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.5 Combining Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.6 The Magnetic Field due to moving charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.7 The Magnetic Field of Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.8 The Magnetic field of Straight Line Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.9 The Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Charge . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.10 Amper’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.11 Faraday’s Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Contents iii
8 Inductance 82
8.1 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.2 Calculation The Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.3 The Inductance of a Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.4 LR Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
A Typefaces Used 87
B 88
B.1 Physical Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
B.2 Prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
List of Figures
1.1 Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Uniform Line of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Ring of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2 Uniform line of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Uniform Ring of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Electric Field Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Field of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Electric Dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8 Gauss law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.9 Gauss law and Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.10 Application of Gauss law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.11 Infinite sheet of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.12 Spherical shell of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1 Electric Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.2 Work in Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Potential Energy of a System of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 Electric Potential from Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5 A collection of point charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6 Electric Field from the Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7 Different path Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.8 Sphere Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.9 Sheet Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.10 Equipotential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.1 A Conductor in an Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.2 Electric Static Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Charge or Current passing through surface A. The direction of the ~i
and ~j are opposite to the motion of e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Current Density ~j and Draft Speed vd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 Ohmic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
iv
List of Figures v
4.6 Slab of Insulating materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.7 Dipole in the insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.8 Charge drift speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2 Parallel plate capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3 Spherical capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Capacitor connected in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5 Capacitors connected in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.6 Capacitors with Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.1 Electric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6.2 Conservation of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.3 Electromotive force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.4 Kirchhoff’s second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.5 Potential difference in a Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.6 Internal Resistance of Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.7 Resistors in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.8 Resistors in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.9 Energy Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.10 Capacitor Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

7.2 A compass shows that a magnetic field surrounds a current carrying
wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.3 Magnetic Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.5 A compass shows that a magnetic field surrounds a current carrying
wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.6 Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.7 The Magnetic Field due to moving charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.8 The field at point 2 is 1/4 of the field at point 1, because point 2 is
twice as far from the charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.9 The Magnetic field of Straight Line Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.10 A flexible wire passes between the poles of a magnet. (a) There is no
current in the wire. (b) A current is established in the wire, (c) The
current is reversed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.11 A close-up view of a length L of the wire of Fig. 7.10 The current
direction is upward, which means that electrons drift downward. A
magnetic Held emerges from the plane of the figure, so that the wire
is deflected to the right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.12 The magnetic force acting on a directed wire segment L ~ that makes
an angle φ with a magnetic field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
List of Figures vi
7.13 (a) In applying Ampere’s law, we integrate around a closed loop. The
integral is determined by the net current that passes through the sur-
face bounded by the loop. (b) The surface bounded bythe loop has
been stretched upward. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.14 A circular Amperian loop used to find B ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.15 Along straight wire carries a (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.16 The magnetic field calculated for the wire shown in Fig. 33-22. Note
that the largest field occurs at the surface of the wire. . . . . . . . . . 79
7.17 The ammeter A deflects, indicating a current in the circuit, when the
magnet is moving with respect to the coil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.18 The ammeter A deflects momentarily when switch S is closed or opened.
No physical motion of the coils is involved. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.19 The magnetic field TS’ through an area A gives a magnetic flux
through the surface. The element of area dA is represented by a
vector.The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the
rate at which the magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with
time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.1 An arbitrary inductor, represented as a solenoid. The current i estab-

lishes a magnetic Held B.~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.2 An LR circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8.3 The variation with time of (a) ∆VR , the potential difference across
the resistor in the circuit of Fig. (8.2), and (b) ∆VL , the potential
difference across the inductor in that circuit The curves are drawn for
R = 2000Ω, L = 4.0H, and ε = 10V . The inductive time constant τL
is 2 ms; successive intervals equal to τL are marked by the triangles
along the horizontal axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.4 Same as Fig. (8.3) forthe circuit of Fig. (8.2) with the switch thrown
to b after it has been ata for along time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Chapter 1
Electric Charge and Coulomb’s

Law
1.1 Introduction
Theories of Electrification
Ano. of theories have been put forward to explain electrification by friction. The
modern electron theory satisfactorily explains electrification by friction.
1. Two-fluid theory:
According to this theory, it’s assumed that all bodies possess equal amount
of two kinds of electrical fluid +ve and -ve and hence the body is electrically
neutral. When a body is rubbed with another, there is transference of some
amount of one kind of this electrical fluid, from one body to the other, and the
body which gains has excess of that fluid and the other less than its normal
value. Suppose a certain amount of +ve fluid is transferred from a body A to
B, then A has less of +ve fluid and B has more of +ve fluid. Thus A is -ve
charged and B is +ve.
2. One-fluid theory:
According to Franklin, this theory assumes that every body has a certain
amount of electrical fluid in normal state. If two bodies are rubbed, there is
transference of this electrical fluid from one body to the other, the one gaining
this fluid is said to be +ve charged and the one losing is said to be -ve.
3. Modern electron theory:
Every atom consist of a nucleus, consisting of proton(+ve) particles and neu-
trons (n) (uncharged particle). The electrons (-ve) charge particles revolve
round the nucleus in various orbits. The number of proton is equal to the
number of electron and the magnitude of charge is the same on both, the atom
is electrically neutral. When two bodies are rubbed there is transference of
electron in an outermost orbits from one body to the other and the body which
loses the electron will be +ve charge and the other which gain electron is -ve
charged.
1
1.2. Historical Development of Electromagnetism 2
Coulomb in MKS units can be defined as the amount of charge that flows through
a conductor in 1 sec when the current in 1 Ampere flow through it.
In this subject we deal with electromagnetism nature of materials and the source
of materials and the source of electric force and field. Electromagnetic forces are re-
sponsible for the structure of atoms and for the binding energy of atoms in molecules
and solids, many properties of materials and electromagnetic in nature such us the
elasticity of solids and surface tension of liquids. The spring force of friction all orig-
inates with the electromagnetic force between atoms. Then it is very important to
study the details of this branch of physics. You turn on the light switch, then you
conduct the wire to the electrical loop so the energy is transferred to the electrons
in the filament of light bulb, which transfer the electrical energy in to visible light,
entering a command on computer keyboard and pushing the channel select on the
TV remote control. The common factors in these operations are that they all depend
on the forces that describes as electric or magnetic to control and direct the flow of
energy.
1.2 Historical Development of Electromagnetism

600(BC) Detection of electric and magnetic materials (Greeks).
1600(AD) Electric and magnetic attraction (Gilbert).
1785 Force between electric charges (Coulombs)
1800 Invention of battery (Volte).
1820 Current deflects magnetic compass (Oersted)
1825 Magnetic field caused by current (Ampere).
1827 Electric conduction (Ohm).
1829 Electric motors (Henry)
1831 Current induced by magnetic field (Faraday).
1864 Equations of electromagnetism (Maxwell).
1887 Electromagnetic waves (Hertz).
1897 Discovery of electron (Thomson).
1905 Special theory of relativity (Einstein).
1945 Quantum electromagnetics.
1.3 Electric Charge

Charge is a technical term and it is not easy to define it, so we can understand
it through its behaviors and properties, further more electric charge might be dis-
cussed in terms of electrons cannot be the basis for definition since these particles are
supposed to be intrinsically charged themselves, since we cannot state what charge
actually is we can take or assume it as a fundamental quantity in the same that
mass, length and time as these terms have no direct definition. So we can take some
experiment to better understanding of electric charge. Let us charge a glass rod by
rubbing on end of it with silk charges transformed from a glass rod to silk and then
suspend it from thread ; as in fig (1.1) if we place a similar charged glass rod nearly
1.4. Conductors and Insulators 3
we find that the two roads repel one another as shown in fig (1.1a). However if we
(a) Repulsion (b) Attraction
Figure 1.1: Electric Charge
place a charged plastic negatively by rubbing with far near by the glass rod. The tow
rods attract each other as shown in fig (1.1b). So we can conclude that the electric
charges shown the following properties charged of the same sign repel one another
and charges of opposed sign attract one another , also electric charge can be described
as the source of electric field (positive charge) , and sink of electric field (negative
charge ). Finally electric charge is quantized that is electric charge is always exists
only or quantities that are integers multiples of certain elementary quantity of charge
(e: electron charge) that is: q = ne n = 0, ±1, ±2, and ± 3 . . . .
Where:
e = 1.62 × 10(−19) C
1.4 Conductors and Insulators

Materials are commonly classified based on the ability of electrons to follow through
them. Electrons can move relatively freely. We can call the materials conductors.
Electrons in the conductor’s deposits at one location in the material can easily move
throughout the material. A conducting material such as copper generally contain
loosely bound electrons that can easily be detached, leaving a positively charged ion
when copper atoms come together to form solid copper these loosely bound electrons
do not remain attract to individuals atoms but become free to wonder through the
material . These types of electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons.
In other materials can hardly flow at all and they are strongly attached to their
atoms, or electrons deposited at one location. They will remain at that location.
1.5. Coulomb’s Law 4
These materials are named insulators.
1.5 Coulomb’s Law

So far in previous section we established that there are two types of electric charge
and that exert forces on each other. It is now our goal to understand the nature of
this force. Experiment by Coulomb showed that the electrical force exerted by one
charged body on the depends directly of the product of the magnitudes of the two
charges (q1 and q2) and inversely on the square of their separation (i.e. the distance
between them as shown in fig (1.2) :
Figure 1.2: Coulomb’s Law
|q1 ||q2 |
F ∝ (1.1)
r2
Here (F) is the magnitude of the force that acts on each of the two charges q1 and
q2 and (r) is the distance between them.
1.6 Comparison Between Coulomb’s Law and New-

ton’s Gravitation Force
q1 q2
Fe = K Coulomb’s force
r2
m1 m2
Fg = G Gravitational force.
r2
From the above two equations we can note that the charge (q) in Coulomb’s low
plays the same role as mass (m) in gravitational force , and both of them are inverse
square distance between two charges or two masses . But they are differ in that
gravitational forces are always attractive while coulomb’s force on electrostatic forces
can be repulsive or attractive depending on whether of two charges have the same
or opposite signs. Also electrostatic force is much bigger than gravitational force in
magnitude. The force on each charge due to the other acts along the line connecting
the charges the force exerted by q1 on q2 even through the magnitude of the charges
may be different. To turn the above proportionality in to one equation, we introduce
a constant of proportionality (K), which named coulomb’s constant, then:
|q1 q2 |
|F | = k (1.2)
r2
1.6. Comparison Between Coulomb’s Law and Newton’s Gravitation Force 5
Where:
K = 1/4πo = 9 × 109 N.m2 /C 2
o : is permittivity of force space and equals (8.85×10−12 c2 /N.m2 ). This equation

is holds only when the size of charges is very small compare to the distance between
them.
• Continues charge distribution:

Suppose a continues charge over a certain geometrical shape , Coulomb’s low
cannot used directly, because the charge distributed uniformly can used the
concept of charge density (it is the same over all shape). Then we divide the
shape in to infinitesimal elements and the problem can be solved by (integral)
to find the force of total shape.
• The charge rod:

In this case we have (charge per unit length λ). And element is given as in fig.
λ = q/l or dq = λdl
• The charge disk::

Charge per unit area σ = q/A
dq = σdA
• The charge shape:

V olume charge density = (Charge per unit volume)
q
ρ= dq = ρdV
V
Examples
I Uniform Line of Charges:

Consider figure shows line of charges, and then we
have line charge density (λ). Then element (dq) of
length (dz) is a portion of this line. The test charge
(q0 ) located at a distance (r) from the element
1 qo dq
dF =
4πo r2
Figure 1.3: Uniform Line of
Charges
We have two components of (dF ) in the direction of (y and z axis) and we
have no components of force on x-axis then (dFx = 0). From symmetry also
(Fz ) is equal to zero since for each element above the (origin) we have the same
below on (−z axis ) then they cancel each other. The only component of (dF )
is (dFy ) from figure (1.3):
q y y
dq = λdz ,r = y2 + z2 and cos θ = =√ 2
r y + z2
1 qo λdz
dFy = df cos θ = cos θ
4πo (y 2 + z 2 )
Z Z
1 qo λdz y
Fy = dFy = 2 2
q
4πo (y + z ) (y 2 + z 2 )
From the figure

z
tan θ = ⇒ z = y tan θ
y
dz = y sec2 θdθ
r
sec θ = ⇒ r = y sec θ
y
λqo Z θo y sec2 θ
∴ Fy = cos θdθ
4πo −θo y 2 sec2 θ
λqo Z θo 2qo λ
Fy = cos θdθ = sin θo
y4πo −θo y
z l/2
sin θo = =q
r y 2 + l2 /4
But q = λl
1 qqo
Fy = q (1.3)
4πo y (y 2 + l2 /4)
Special case:
When the point charge is at a very large distance from the line of charge that
is y l
Then:
l2 /4 is much smaller than y in the dominator of equation 1.3
q q
y (y 2 + l2 /4) ≈ y (y 2 ) = y.y = y 2
Equ. 1.3 become:

1 qqo
Fy = Interpret it physically
4πo y 2
II Ring of Charges:
Fig (1.4)shows a thin ring of charge of radius (R),
carrying a uniformly distributed charge (q), so that
it’s linear charge density is (λ = q/2πr). The force
exerted on a positive test charge q0 only has the
(z component) the other two components of force
(Fx and Fy ) are zero. The specified element of
the ring has length (Rdφ). Giving from the whole
circumference of the circle is 2πR then dφ is the
element of 2π one complete circle. The element
carries a charge (dq = λRdφ)
Z Z Z
1 qo dq
Fz = dFz = dF cos θ = cos θ
4πo r2
√
r= z 2 + R2
z z
cos θ = = √ 2 Figure 1.4: Ring of Charges
r z + R2
dq = λds
Z
1 qo λds z
Fz = 2 2
√
4πo z + R z + R2
2
Z 2πR
1 qo λz 1 qo λz
Fz = (3/2)
ds = (2πR − 0)
4πo (z 2 + R2 ) 0 4πo (z 2 + R2 )(3/2)
1 qo λz
= (2π)
4πo (z + R2 )(3/2)
2
Now putting (q/2πR) instead of (λ) in above equation:

1 qqo z
Fz = (1.4)
4πo (z + R2 )(3/2)
2
Special case:
If the point charges (qo ) is placed too far from the ring then (z R) then (R) is
much smaller compare to (z) we can ignore (R) that is:

(3/2)
z 2 + R2 ≈ (z 2 )(3/2)
1 qqo z
Fz =
4πo (z 2 (3/2) )
1 qqo
Fz = (1.5)
4πo z 2
Vector from the Coulomb’s law:

Force being a vector has directional properties as well ,
in the case of Coulomb’s force law the direction of force is
determined by the relative sign of the two interacted electric
charges . Consider in the fig (1.5) shown below, suppose we
have tow point charges q1 and q2 separated by distance(~r12 ).
The Coulomb’s force in a vector form written as
1 q1 q2
F~12 = r̂12
4πo r~ 212
Figure 1.5: Coulomb’s law
Where (F~12 ) is the electrostatic force exerted by
(q1 ) on (q2 ) and r̂12 is the unit vector in the direction of ~r12 :
which is displacement vector) and unit vector here is given by:
~r12 (vector)
r̂12 =
r12 (magnitude of vector~r12 )
Also the force exerted by charge particle (q2 ) on (q1 ) is given by:
1 q 1 q2
F~21 = r̂21
4πo r~ 221
The vector from of Coulomb’s law is useful because it carries with in it the direc-
tional information about (F~ ) and whether the force is attractive or repulsive. When
we have more than two charges the total charge on each charge would be found by
taking the (vector sum) of forces due to each charges: for example:
Force on the (q1 ): F~1 = F~21 + F~31 + F~41 + · · ·
Where (F~21 ) is the force on particle (1) by particle (2), (F~31 ) is the force on particle
(1) by (3) and so on, the above equation is the mathematical representation of the
(principle of superposition).
Example 1: The average distance in the hydrogen atom is 5.3 × 10−11 m
1. What is the magnitude of the average electrostatic force between them .
2. What is the magnitude of the average gravitational force between them
3. Compare between the two forces.
Since proton carries the same charge of electron but in opposite sign. Then
Solution
1.
−19 2
1 e2 9 (−1.6 × 10 c)
Fe = = 9×10 = −8.2×10−8 N (the force is attraction)
4πo r 2
(5.3 × 10 m)2
−11
2.
−31
me mp −11 9.1 × 10 × 1.67 × 10−27
Fg = G = 6.67 × 10 = 3.6 × 10−47 N
r2 (5.31 × 10−11 )2
3. Gravitational force is weaker than the electrostatic force by a factor of about

1039 .
Example 2: Find the electric force acted by charge of (+3.7µc) on the other charge
of (−1.2µc) where the distance between them is (1.5cm) also specify the nature of
force and the force exerted by the second charge on the first one.
|q1 ||q2 |
F12 = K 2
r12
3.7 × 10−6 c × 1.2 × 10−6 c

F12 = 9 × 109 (N.m2 )/c2
(0.015)2
The force is attraction in nature
F~12 = −F~21
Thus the force exerts by (q2 ) on (q1 ) that is (F21 )
is equal in magnitude to that exerts by (q1 ) on (q2 )
(that is F12 ) opposite direction F~21 = −F~21
Example 3: The nucleus of an iron atom has a radius of about 4 × 10−15 m and
contains 26 protons. Determine the electrostatic force between two protons if they
are separated by a distance of one radius. Discuss your result.
−19 2
1 e2 e2 9 (1.62 × 10 )
F = = K = 9 × 10 −15
= 14N
4πo r 2 r 2 (4 × 10 ) 2
This is a large repulsive electrostatic force , acting on a single proton , so it is must

be balanced the attractive nuclear force that binds the nucleus together . this force
is known as (strong nuclear force).
Example 4: Calculate the electrostatic force between two charged bodies of (100µc)
and (0.03µc) in the mica medium where relative permittivity of mica is equal to (6)
.where relative the two charges are separated by (0.03m).
From coulomb’s low:
q1 q2
F =K
r2
From the equation we note that permittivity of mica is (6) times than that of free
space (o ) that is:

r = =⇒ = r × o
o
= 6 × 8.85 × 10−12 c2 /N.m2
1 100 × 10−6 × 0.03 × 10−3

F = ×
4π6 × 8.85 × 10−12 (0.03)2
Example 5: Find the electrostatic force due to other two charges on (q1 ) from fig
below ,if you know q1 = −1.2µc ,q2 = +3.7µc,q3 = −2.3µc ,r12 = 15cm ,r13 = 10cm
,and θ = 32◦ At first we may find the magnitude of (F21 ) and (F31 )
1 |q1 ||q2 |
F21 = 2
4πo r21
1.2 × 10−6 × 3.7 × 10−6
= 9 × 109 = 1.77N
(0.15)2
This is the force exerted by (q2 ) on (q1 ). The force exerted by (q3 )on (q1 )is:
1 |q1 ||q3 |
F31 = 2
4πo r31
1.2 × 10−6 × 2.3 × 10−6
= 9 × 109 = 2.48N
(0.1)2
The component of the resultant force (F~1 ) acting on (q1 ) lies on the (x and y axis)
are determined by:
F1 x = F21 x + F31 x
= F21 + F31 sin θ = 1.77 + 2.48 sin 32 = 3.08N
F1 y = F21 y + F31 y
= 0 + (−F31 cos θ) = 0 + (−2.48 cos 32) = −2.10N
The magnitude of the resultant force is given by:
q q
|F | = (F1 x)2 + (F1 y)2 = (3.08)2 + (2.1)2 = 3.73N
and its direction is:
F1 y
φ = tan−1 = tan−1 âĄą(−0.682)
F1 x
φ = −34◦
Chapter 2
Electric field and Gauss Law
2.1 Field
We can understand the concept of field through some examples, as it has no direct
definition so field is a physical term which the value at any point at coordinate
system. For example the temperature ha a definite value of every point in the room
which you are sitting, that is the temperature has value mathematically represents
as; T (x, y, z).
2.2 The Electric Field

Electric field can be introduction as an intermediate action between the charges, or
charged bodies as in this diagram:
Charge Field Charge

That is the first charge states up an electric field on the second charge which inter-
acts with the electric field of the first charge. So our problem is to determine the
interaction between the charges, which reduces to following two problems:
1. Calculating the electric field established by the first at every point in space.
2. Calculating the force that the field exerts on the second charge placed at a
particular point in space.
~
The electric field Eassociated with a certain collection of charge in terms of force F~
exerts on a positive test charge (qo ) at a particular point can be written as:
~
~ = F
E (2.1)
qo
∴ F~ = qo E
~
Or
~ = 1 q
E (2.2)
4πo r2
11
2.3. Electric Field of point charge 12
Figure 2.1: Electric Field
Example: An electron (q = −e) placed near a charged body experience a force in

the +y direction of magnitudes (3.6 × 10−8 N )
1. Find the (E) at the location of electron.
2. What would be the force exerted by same charged body on alpha particle
(q=+2e) placed at the same location.
Solution
1. Using equation 2.1

Fy +3.6 × 10−8
Ey = = −19
= −2.25 × 1011 N/c
q −1.62 × 10
The electric field as in the negative (y) direction it is mean that the charged
body is negative.
2. Using the same equation:
Fy = qE = 2(+1.62 × 10−19 )(−2.25 × 1011 N/C) = −7.2 × 10−8 N
It means that the electrostatic force is attraction in the negative y-direction
2.3 Electric Field of point charge

Let a particle charge (test charge q0 ) be placed a distance (r) from point charge (q)
.the magnitude of the force acting on(q0 ) . The magnitude of the force acting on (q0 )
is given by Coulomb’s law:
1 qo |q|
F =
4πo r2
F 1 |q|
E= = (2.3)
qo 4πo r2
The direction of Electric Field (E)~ is the same as the direction of (F~ ) pointing
~ of a group of
outward if (q) is positive and in ward if (q) is negative. To find (E)
point charges:
~ n ) due to due to each charge (n) at the given point (as if it were
1. Calculate (E
only charge percent).
2.4. Electric field of continuous charge distribution 13
2. Add these separately calculated Fields (vectorially) to find the resultant field
~ at the point. In equation form:
(E)
~ =E
E ~1 + E
~2 + E
~3 + · · · (2.4)
N
~ = ~n
X
E E (n = 1, 2, 3, · · · N ) (2.5)
n=1
Example: Fig(2.1) shows a charge (q0 ) of +1.5µC and charge (q2 ) of +2.3µC the
first charge (q1 ) is at the origin of x-axis and the second is at the position X = L ,
where L = 13 cm , at what point along x-axis the electric field is zero?
Solution
The point must lie between the two charges, because only in this region, the forces
exerted by (q1 and q2 ) on a test charge (q0 ) opposes each other.
E~ 1 is the electric field due to q1 .
E~ 2 is the electric filed due to q2 .
Where E ~ 1 =E
~2
1 q1 1 q2 q1 q2
= ⇒ 2 =
4πo x 2 4πo (L − x)2 x (L − x)2
Where (x) is the coordinate of point (p) that is the position of (p) , then solving
above equation lead to:
L
x= s (how?)
q2
(1 ± )
q1
Substituting numerical value we get:
x = 5.8cm or x = −54.6cm the first one is true.
2.4 Electric field of continuous charge distribution

As mentioned in previous chapter, we can divide the charge distribution in to in-
finitesimal elements of charge (dq) [dq:here treated as point charge], experiencing
charge element dq as λdl line charge density, σdA surface charge density and ρdV
volume charge density , and in this situation electric field (E) is given by:
Z
1 dq
E= dE , dE = (2.6)
4πo r2
In Cartesian coordinate system, the components of electric field represented by:
Z
Ex = dE x
Z
Ey = dE y
Z
Ez = dE z
2.4. Electric field of continuous charge distribution 14
I- Uniform line of charge:

Consider a line of charge (thin rod) of length (L)
having uniform charge density (λ = q/L), where
(q) is the total charge carries by the road as in fig
(2.2). We wish to find E at point (p) Ex = 0 and
Ez = 0 , because of the same reason mentioned in
the electric force for the line of charge.
The only component of (E) ~ is Ey
1 dq
dE =
4πo r2
Figure 2.2: Uniform line of charge
1 dq
∴ dEy = dE cos
4πo r2
dq = λdz
y y Z
dx ±x
r2 = y 2 + z 2 , cos θ = = √ 2 2
, q = 2√ 2 (2.7)
r y +z (x2 ± a2 )3 a x ± a2
Z l/2
Z
1 λydz
Ey = dEy =
−l/2 4πo (y + z 2 )(3/2)
2
Z l/2
Z
1 dz
dEy = λy (2.8)
4πo −l/2 (y + z 2 )(3/2)
2
Carrying out this integral we get:

1 λl
Ey = q (2.9)
4πo (y (y 2 + l2 /4))
Special case: If (p) is at a very long distance from the rod that is y l ,
then the equation 2.9 can be written as:
1 q
Ey = (2.10)
4πo y 2
Where (q = λl). While if (p) is very close to the line of charge and the rod is
too long that is (l y) then:
q q
y 2 + l2 /4 ≈ l2 /4 = l/2
1 q λl
∴ Ey = =
4πo y l/2 4πo y l/2
λ
Ey = (2.11)
2πo y
l/2
1 z λ l
∴ Ey = λy 2 √ 2 = s
4πo y y + z2 −l/2
4πo l2
y2 +
4
2.5. Electric field lines 15
II- Uniform ring of charge:

Consider a ring of charge carrying line charge den-
sity (λ = q/(2πR)) with radius (R) to find the
electric filed at point (p) we have only (z) compo-
nent of (E) the element (dq) we specified has length
(Rdφ) then (dq = λRdφ)
1 dq
∴ dEz = dE cos θ = cos θ
4πo r2
z z
r 2 = z 2 + R2 , cos θ ==√ 2
r z + R2
1 λRdφ z
∴ dEz = 2 2
√
4πo (z + R ) z + R22
Z 2π
Z
1 λRz Figure 2.3: Uniform Ring of
Ez = dEz = dφ
4πo (z 2 + R2 )(3/2) 0 Charge
1 λRz
Ez =
2o (z + R2 )(3/2)
2
λ Rz (q/2πR) Rz
Ez = 2 2 (3/2)
=
2o (z + R ) 2o (z + R2 )(3/2)
2
1 qz
Ez = (2.12)
4πo (z + R2 )(3/2)
2
What happen if (p) is at very long distance form the ring (H.W).
2.5 Electric field lines

The concept of the electric field was introduced in the early
19th century by Michael Faraday. The development a graph-
ical representation of electric field lines, named as lines of
force. Figure (2.4) shows the electric field lines representing
a uniform field. Note that the lines are parallel and equally
spaced while in the other fig shows lines representing a non-
uniform field, and the lines have the following properties.
The tangent to the electric field lines passing through any
point in space gives the direction of the electric field at that
point. Figure 2.4: Electric Field Lines
The direction of the electric filed at point is vertically upward tangent to the field
lines; the electric field in this case has this direction at every point. But in non-
uniform field the electric field has different direction at points (p1 and p2 ), in each
case tangent to the electric field line passing through the point. The electric field
lines curved such that they starts on positive charges and ends on negative charges.
Figure (2.5) represents the field lines for an isolated positive point charge (or small
2.6. Electric dipoles 16
sphere of positive charge) and isolated negative charge the lines points outward and
inward respectively. One final property of electric field lines is that: "The magnitude
(a) Positive (b) Negative
Figure 2.5: Field of Charge
of electric field at any point is proportional to the number of field lines per unit cross
- sectional area perpendicular to the lines".
2.6 Electric dipoles
Electric dipole is the configuration of two equal and op-

posite charges separated by a distance. The product of
the magnitude of charge (q) to the separation (d) between
charges defined as electric dipole moment:
p = qd (2.13)
The natural examples of electric dipole are NaCl, which

gives solvent property to water.
Figure 2.6: Electric Dipoles
~ of the dipole at point p in fig, the magnitude of
To calculate the electric field (E)
~ + and E
(E ~ − ) are equal at point (p). The total electric field is the vector sum:
~ =E
E ~+ + E
~−
~+ = E
~− = 1 q 1 q
E 2
=
4πo r 4πo x + (d/2)2
2
~ is equal to zero because (E

The x component of total (E) ~+ = E
~ − ), so that (E
~ + sin θ −
~ ~
E− sin θ = 0) the total (E) has only z − component:
~ + cos θ − E
E ~ − cos θ = 2E
~ + cos θ
~+ = E
As E ~ − From the fig (2.6) we can write:
d/2
cos θ = q
x2 + (d/2)2
2.7. Introductions to Gauss Law 17
Then we conclude that from the previous results:

1 q d/2
E = 2. 2 2
q
4πo [x + (d/2) ] x2 + (d/2)2
1 qd
E=
4πo [x2 + (d2 /4)]3/2
1 p
E= (2.14)
4πo [x2 + (d2 /4)]3/2
2.7 Introductions to Gauss Law

Gausses law provides as with alternating way to calculate electric field. It is equiva-
lent to coulomb’s law for point charges, which means that everything we have done so
far using coulomb’s law could also be done if we had started with Gauss law instead.
There are some reasons make someone to use Gausses law instead of coulomb’s
law such as, it offers much simpler way to calculate electric field, by using Gausses
law we can develop a system of equations for all electromagnetic phenomena that
illustrate more clearly the relationship between electric and magnetic field. Also
Gauss law is the basic equation in electromagnetic.
2.8 The Flux of a vector field

The word flux comes from a Latin word meaning "to flow", it can consider the flux
of vector field to be a measure of flow or penetration of the field vectors through on
imaginary fixed element of surface in the field. Imagine a system of fluid in which
we represent the flow by specifying the velocity vector at each point. And the flux
can be defined as:
• Perpendicular:
φ| = vA (m3 /s)
θ = 0, cos θ = 1
Where v is the magnitude of the velocity at the location of the loop. For the
purpose of introducing Gauss law; it’s convenient the flux as a measure of the
number of field lines passing through the loop.
• Inclined surface:
~ = vA cos θ
|φ| = ~v .A
• parallel surface:
~ = vA cos θ
|φ| = ~v .A
φ = 90, φ = 0
Flux of a Uniform E:
Consider a flat area A perpendicular to a uniform electric field E Fig(2.7a).
φE = EA
2.8. The Flux of a vector field 18
Increasing the A means that more lines of E~ pass through the A, increasing the flux:
~ and therefore more line of the field
strong field means more clodely passed lines of E
magnitude E and the A. If A is not perpendicular to E ~ Fig(2.7b), then fewer field
lines passing through A, then
φE = EA cos θ
~ ⊥ A, We can rewrite
Since E cos θ is the components of E
φE = E⊥ A
Then we can write the electric flux as

~ A
φE = E. ~
~ by using a unit
for a uniform E. We can represent the direction of a vector area A
vector n̂⊥ to the area
A~ = An̂
• Closed surface:
~
X
φ= ~v .A (2.15)
(a) Perpendicular Surface (b) Inclined Surface

θ = 90, φE = 0 φE = EA cos θ
(c) Parallel Surface

θ = 0, φE = E.~ A
~ = EA
Figure 2.7: Vector Field

2.9. Flux of electric field 19
Example:
The closed surface of fig below, which

shows a volume enclosed by five surfaces
(1, 2, and 3) which are parallel to the
surfaces, with (4 and 5) which are par-
allel to the line of field.
Using
~ 1 + ~v .A
φ = ~v .A ~ 2 + ~v .A
~ 3 + ~v .A
~ 4 + ~v .A
~5
But A2 , A3 andA4 are ⊥ to v, then φ = 0

the angle between v and A1 are 180◦
∴ φ = −vA1 + vA3 cos θ
However from geometry of figure A1 = A3 cos θ ⇒ φ = zero.

We conclude that the φ through the
closed surface is zero (that is the total φ
entered the surface is equivalent to those
leaved the surface).
~ 2 = vA2 cos 90 = zero
~v .A
~ 4 = vA4 cos 90 = zero
~v .A
~ 5 = vA5 cos 90 = zero
~v .A
For surface (3) the flux passes through inclined plane, then:
~ 3 = vA3 cos θ
~v .A
∴ The total flux becomes:

φ = −vA1 + vA3 cos θ
However, from geometry of fig, we can see that (A3 cos θ = A1 ) because if we divide
A3 for two components, the vertical component will overlap (A1 ).
∴ φ = −vA1 + vA1 = zero
From this result we conclude that the flux through the closed surface is zero (that is
the total fluid entered the surface is equivalent to those leaved the surface).
2.9 Flux of electric field

If we assume the field lines of charges at rest instead of velocity of fluid, then equation
2.15 can be written as:
~ A~
X
φE = E. (2.16)
2.9. Flux of electric field 20
As was the case with the velocity flux, the flux φE can be considered as a measure
of the number of lines of the electric field that passes through a surface. The exact
definition of electric flux, is that replacing the summation by the closed integral.
I
φE = ~ A
E.d ~ (2.17)
The surface integral indicates that the surface is to be divided into infinitesimal el-
ements each of area (dA) and that the scalar quantity E.d ~ A ~ is to be evaluated for
each element and summed over the entire surface.
Example
A closed cylindrical of radius (R) is immersed in a
~
uniform electric field (E)as shown in fig the cylin-
der axes being parallel to the field, what is (φE ) for
this closed surface. The flux (φE ) can be written
as the sum of three terms, and given an integral
over (a, b, c) thus:
I
φE = ~
E.dA
Z Z Z
φE = ~ A
E.d ~1 + ~ A
E.d ~2 + ~ A
E.d ~3
Z Z Z
= EdA cos θ1 + EdA cos θ2 + EdA cos θ3
For the left cap the angle (θ1 = 180◦ ), for the right cap (θ3 = 0◦ ), and finally for the
surface (wall) of the cylinder (θ2 = 90◦ ), then above equation becomes:
Z Z
φE = E −dA + 0 + E dA = −EA + 0 + EA = zero
~ enters the surface (cylinder) is

This result expected, because the lines of field (E)
equal to those emerge at the right cap.
2.10. Gauss law 21
2.10 Gauss law
The relationship between the total electric flux through an

enclosed surface and the net charge (q) enclosed by the
surface Gauss law gives the relationship between φ through
a closed surface and the net q enclosed by the surface is
always valid, but we can use this relationship to deduce the
electric field at point in space only if the geometry of the
charge and the surface has a high degree of symmetry.
Gauss law, which relates the total φE through the surface
to the net q enclosed by the surface, can be stated as:
q
o φE = q or φE =
o
Figure 2.8: Gauss law
From equation 2.17 we can write:
I
o ~ A
E.d ~=q (2.18)
Which states that "the surface integral of the vector field (E) through a closed surface
is equal to the net charge (q) enclosed by that surface (s)" From fig (2.8) the lines of
force (and thus of electric field) of a dipole, four closed Gaussian surfaces have been
drown. On surface (s1 ) the electric field is everywhere outward (+q) from the surface,
~ A)
then (E.d ~ is positive always on s1 . When we evaluate the integral of equation 2.18
over the entire closed (s1 ) we get positive result. On surface (s2 ) the situation is
inverse that is we have the entering electric field everywhere, so the result of integral
is negative over closed surface enclosed the negative net charge (i.e the lines of force
enters the surface is more than that leaves the surface). On surface s3 , the lines of
electric field and surface are parallel to each other, or the surface encloses on charge
H
at all, so according to Gauss law ( EdA ~ ~ = 0/o ), then the result of integral is zero.
Surface s4 also enclosed no net charge; since we assumed the two charges are equal
in magnitude once again the total flux through the surface should be zero.
2.11 Gauss law and Coulomb’s law

Coulomb’s law can be deduced from Gauss law and symmetry consideration s. To
do so, let us apply Gauss law to an isolated positive charge (q) as in fig (2.9).
I
o ~ A
E.d ~=q
Although Gauss law holds for any surface whatever, we choose a spherical surface of
radius (r) centered on the point charge form symmetry, E ~ must be perpendicular to
~ and dA
the surface, so the angle between (E) ~ is equal to zero anywhere, that is
I
o EdA cos θ = q
2.12. Application of Gauss law 22
I
o EdA cos 0◦ = q
I
o EdA = q
Because E has the same value for all points on
the surface, then:
I
o E dA = q
The integral is the total surface area of the sphere

(4πr2 ), thus:
o E(4πr2 ) = q
1 q Figure 2.9: Gauss law and
∴E=
4πo r2 Coulomb’s law
2.12 Application of Gauss law

Gauss law can be used to calculate E~ if the symmetry of charge distribution is high.
On example of this calculation (the field of point charge) has already been discussed
in previous section.
• Infinite line of charge:
Fig (2.10) shows a section of an infinite line of charge of con-

stant positive linear charge density (charge per unit length
λ). The problem therefore has cylindrical symmetry, and so
a Gaussian surface we choose a circular cylinder of radius
(r) and length (h) closed at each end by caps. The electric
field through surface is given by:
I
o ~ A
E.d ~=q
I
o ~ A
E.d ~ = λh
I
o EdA cos θ = λh
I
o EdA cos 0 = λh
Figure 2.10: Application of Gauss
law
I
o EdA = λh
o E(2πrh) = λh
λ
E= + E(of caps)
2πo r
But we note that the angle between E ~ and dA
~ of caps is equal to (90◦ ), so we
have no flux passes through caps.
~ A
φcaps = E.d ~
φc = EdA cos 90
φc = zero
The electric field of on infinite charge can be written as
λ
E=
2πo r
• Infinite sheet of charge:
A portion of a thin, non-conducting infinite sheet of charge

with constant positive surface charge density σ (charge per
unit area). We calculate the E~ at point near the sheet .
A convenient Gauss surface is a closed cylinder of cross-
sectional area (A). From symmetry we have only electric
field through caps, because caps are perpendicular to the
~
flux of (E).
Figure 2.11: Infinite sheet of
charge
There is no contribution to the flux by the curved wall of the cylinder, because
~ are parallel to the cylinder wall. We assume that
the lines of electric field (E)
the end caps are equidistant from the sheet. From symmetry the field has the
same magnitude at the end caps. The flux through each cap is EA and is +ve
for both.
Then from Gauss law: I

o ~ A
E.d ~=q
o (EA + EA) = σA
2o EA = σA
σ
∴E= (2.19)
2o
Note that E is the same for all points on each side of the sheet.
• Spherical shell of charge:

Consider a spherical shell of charge (q) distributed uniformly as shown in fig
2.12. The shell is surrounded two spherical Gaussian surfaces, s1 and s2 Ap-
plying Gauss law to surface s1 , for which: r > R (r: radius of G. surface R:
radius of shell).
o Er (4πr2 ) = q
1 q
Er = (2.20)
4πo r2
This is the result of point charge. So that (the uniformly charged shell because like
a point charge for all points outside the shell). Applying Gauss law to the surface
s2 , for which r < R This is leads to:
E = 0 spherical shell r < R This result expected because Gauss surface here enclosed
no charge and because (E) has the same value everywhere on the surface, thus (the
electric field vanishes inside a uniform shell of charge) or: (A uniform spherical shell
of charge exerts no electrical force on a charged particle placed inside the shell).
Figure 2.12: Spherical

shell of charge
ïż£
Chapter 3
Electric Potential Energy and

Potential
3.1 Potential Energy

When an object moves from place to place under the influence of a force (for example
gravitational force) of another object, the work done by that force on the first object
depend only on the starting and finishing point, (it does not depend on the path
between the points) we describe this force as conservative force, and we know that
for conservative forces we could define (Potential energy).
The difference in potential energy (∆U ) of the system as the object moves from
its initial to its final position is equal to the negative of the work done by the force:
Z f
∆U = Uf − Ui = −Wif = − F~ .d~s (3.1)
i
Where Uf : potential at final position

Ui : potential at initial position
Wij : workdone
The electrostatic force is conservative, and therefore there is a potential energy as-
sociated with the configuration of a system in which electrostatic force. There is one
important property in which electrostatic force differs from the gravitational force:
the FG is always attractive; where as Fe can be attractive or repulsive (depending on
the relative signs of the charges). This different can be affect the sign of the U .
3.2 Electric Potential Energy

The electric force makes the potential difference in the
system, under the action of the force (F~ ). The charge
(q2 ) moves from point (a) to point (b) sunject to the force
due to another q1 at rest, then the work done here and
(F~ ) always parallel to (d~s) then (F.ds = F ds cos θ) then
Figure 3.1: Electric Po-
tential Energy
25
3.2. Electric Potential Energy 26
equation (3.1) becomes:

Z b Z rb
1 q 1 q2
∆U = − F~ .d~s = − .dr
a ra 4πo r2
1 1 1

Ub − Ua = ∆U = q 1 q2 − (3.2)
4πo rb ra
Hint: Taking the origin to be at location q1 .
This equation is valid whether the motion of (q2 ) is forward or away from (q1 ). If
q2 moves toward then rb < ra and ∆U > 0, that is the potential energy increases
if the charges moves closer together and vice versa when the charges have opposite
signs, so that q1 q2 is -ve in equ (3.2) then ∆U < 0 when the charges moves closer
together and ∆U > 0 when the charges move further a part. That is if q2 moves away
then rb > ra and ∆U < 0. Suppose q2 moves on the arc of a circle as shown in
figure (3.2), then in this situation (F~ ) is always perpendicular to d~s or d~r, that is
F~ .d~r = F dr cos 90 = 0 then no work done, and then
∆U = 0
• We can define the U at a single point (b) by choosing a reference (a).
• Often it is convenient to choose the reference point to correspond an infinite

separation between the charges, letting point (b) represent any point where
separation is (r) then (3.2) becomes:
1 q1 q2
U (r) = (3.3)
4πo r
U is +ve whenever q1 & q2 have the same sign,
corresponding to a repulsive force. This is true
if the initial point of moving charge is at very
large distance that is or the charge is not mov-
ing.
Example:
Tow proton in nucleus of U 238 atom 6 fm apart. What is
the potential energy with the electric force acting between
Figure 3.2: Work in Po-
them?
tential Energy
q1 = q2 = 1.62 × 10−19 C
1 q 1 q2 (1.62 × 10−19 C)2
U= = 9 × 109 = 3.8 × 10−14 J
4πo r 6 × 10−15 m
3.8 × 10−14
U= = 2.4 × 105 eV = 240 keV
1.6 × 10−19
Example:
Tow objects with (m1 = 0.022kg, q1 = 3.2µC) and the other (m2 = 0.0039kg,
q2 = 1.8µC) the initial distance between them is (4.6cm) what is the speed of object
3.3. Potential Energy of a System of Charge 27
2 when the separation between the objects becomes (2.3cm).

Because of system isolation, the total energy is constant, (energy is conserved)
Et = K + U
∆E = ∆K + ∆U
0 = ∆K + ∆U
∆K = −∆U
Ki = zero
∴ Kf = −∆U
q1 q2 1 1
−∆U = Ui − Uf = − ( − )
4πo rf ri
1 1
= −9 × 109 × (3.2 × 10−6 × 1.8 × 10−6 )( − ) = 113 J
0.023 0.046
Kf = −∆U = 113 J
1
Kf = m2 vf2
2
s s
2Kf 2 × 113
vf = = = 240 m/s
m2 0.0039
3.3 Potential Energy of a System of Charge

Suppose we have three charges separated by infinite dis-
tances from one another. In this configuration, U = 0.
We wish to find potential energy of the configuration that
results after three charges are brought closer to one an-
other. In first case we bring (q1 ) in this case (U = 0)
because the other two charges are infinite distance, af-
ter bringing the other two charges then the total electric
potential energy becomes:
1 q1 q 2 1 q 1 q3 1 q2 q3 Figure 3.3: Potential
U= + + (3.4) Energy of a System of
4πo r12 4πo r13 4πo r23
Charge
1 q 1 q2 q1 q3 q2 q3
U= ( + + )
4πo r12 r13 r23
From this result we conclude that, the electric potential energy of a system of fixed
point charges at rest is equal to the work done that must be done by an external
agent to assemble the system, bringing each charge in from infinite distance where
it is also at rest.
3.4. Electric Potential 28
Example:
In the system shown in figure assume that (r12 = r13 =
r23 = 12 cm and q1 = q, q2 = −4q, q3 = 2q, and q =
150 nC). Find the potential energy of system assume
that U=0, where charges are infinitely for apart. Using
equ.(3.4):
1 (+q)(−4q) (+q)(+2q) (−4q)(+2q)

U= ( + + )
4πo d d d
2
1 −10q 2 10(150 × 10−9 )
U= = 9 × 109 = −1.7 × 10−2 J = −17 mJ
4πo 12 0.12 m
The mines sign means that negative work would be done to make this system. And
(+17 mJ) of work or energy must be done to separate this system.
3.4 Electric Potential

Imagine a charge (q) fixed at the origin of a coordinate system. We take another
charge (qo ) which we call "test charge" and we move it from ra to rb under the
influence of force (F ). the change in potential energy (∆U ) given by equation (3.2),
the potential energy change is directly proportional to the size of the test charge (qo ).
The quantity (∆U /qo ) is independent of the size of test charge and it is characteristic
only of central charge (q).
∆U W
∆V = =−
qo qo
Ub − Ua
Vb − Va = (3.5)
qo
(∆V ) defines electric potential difference, to be electric potential energy per unit test
charge when the potential is taken to be zero at points that are infinitely far from
(q), the electric potential is given by:
U
V =
qo
Example:
An alpha particle (q = +2e) in a nuclear accelerator moves from a potential Va =
6.5 × 106 V to another potential of Vb = 0
1. What is the change in potential energy?
2. Assuming that no external forces act on the system, what is the change in
kinetic energy of particle?
Solution
~
3.5. Calculating Electric Potential (V ) from Electric Field (E) 29
1. ∆U = Ub − Ua = q(Vb − Va )
= 2(1.6 × 10−19 )(0 − 6.5 × 106 ) = −2.1 × 10−12 J
2. If no external force acts on the system then it means, mechanical energy (E =

U + K) that is (E) must remain constant (i.e. ∆E = 0) 0 = ∆K + ∆U
∆K = −∆U
∆K = 2.1 × 10−12 J
The α− particle gain a kinetic energy of 2.1 × 10−12 J
3.5 Calculating Electric Potential (V ) from Elec-

~
tric Field (E)
The connection between (V and E) follows directly from equation (3.5) (∆V =
−Wab /qo ) suppose we move a test charge (qo ) from point (a) to (b) in an electric field
(E). Calculating the work done (Wab ) by the electric force (F~ = qo E),
~ we obtain:
F~ .d~s ~ s
Rb Rb
W a qo E.d~
∆V = − =− =− a
qo qo qo
Z b
∆V = Vb − Va = − ~ s
E.d~ (3.6)
a
If electric field (E) is along direction of (ds) the in-

tegral will be positive, and potential difference will be
negative that is Vb < Va . The electric field would move
positively charged particle from a region of higher poten-
tial to a region of lower potential, or a negative charge
in opposite direction. If we assume that the difference in
potential between infinity and desired point (p), that is if
we choose the reference point to be at infinity and define
(V = 0) as the reference, then equation (3.6) gives the
potential at point (p).
Z p
Vp = − ~ s
E.d~ (3.7)
∞
Table show the interaction by using four different Figure 3.4: Electric
properties. When F~ & E ~ are vectors and U , V Potential from Electric
scalars. Field
3.6. Potential due to Point Charges 30
Example:
In figure shown a test charge (qo ) moves through a uniform
electric field (E) from (a) to (b) along the path (acb). Find
the potential difference between (a) and (b). for path ac we
have R∆V = Vc − Va = − ac E.d~
R
~ s
c
= − a Eds cos(π − θ)
L
= E cos θ ac ds = E cos θS, but cos θ =
R
S
The integral is the length of ac which is (L/cosθ) thus:
L
∆V = Vc − Va = E cos θ = EL
cosθ
Points b and c have the same potential, because E and ds
being at right angles for all points on the line cb. Thus:
∆V = Vb − Va = (Vb − Vc ) + (Vc − Va ) = 0 + EL = EL
This is the same result derived for direct path connecting a and b, a result is expected
because the potential difference between two points is independent of path between
them.
3.6 Potential due to Point Charges

Let us move a test charge (qo ) from point (a) to (b) in the vicinity of point charge
(q) as shown in fig (3.1) the potential difference here given by:
Ub − Ua q 1 1
Vb − Va = = ( − ) (3.8)
qo 4πo rb ra
If we assume that the test charge moves from infinity where (V = 0) then equation
(3.8) become
1 q
V = (3.9)
4πo r
Which gives the potential of point charge (q) at a distance (r) from it.
Example:
3.7. Potential Due to a Collection of Charge 31
What must be the magnitude of isolate positive point charge for the electric potential
at 15 cm from the charge to be (+120 V ) assume that V = 0 at infinity.
1 q
V =
4πo r
q = 4πo rV

q = 4π 8.85 × 10−12 (0.15) (120) = 2 × 10−9 C = 2 nC
3.7 Potential Due to a Collection of Charge

Suppose we have a collection of N point charges q1 , q2 ,
. . . .,qN located at various fixed points as shown figure
below. The potential at an arbitrary point (p) is the
parameter we want to found, the procedure is to calculate
potential (p) due to each point charge as the other are
not present (Super position principle) and there add the
resulting potentials to get the total,
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + · · · + VN
1 q1 1 q2 1 qN
= + + ··· +
4πo r1 4πo r2 4πo rN
Which can be written as? Figure 3.5: A collection
N
1 X qn
V = of point charges (3.10)
4πo n=1 rn
Example:
Find the potential at point (p) located at the center of the
square of point charges as shown in figure assume that the
distance between each two charges is (d = 1.3 cm) and the
magnitudes of charges are:
q1 = 12 nC, q2 = −24 nC, q3 = 31 nC, q4 = 17 nC
N
1 X qn
V =
4πo n=1 rn
1 q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
V =
4πo R
√
The distance of each charge from point (p) is (R = d/ 2)
(12 − 24 + 17 + 31) × 10−9

∴ V = 9 × 109 = 3.5 × 102 V
0.919
~ from the Potential (V)
3.8. Calculating the Field (E) 32
3.8 ~ from the Potential

Calculating the Field (E)
(V)
Electric field (E) can be calculated from electric potential
(V ), figure (3.6) shows (a) positive test charge (qo ) moves
from point a (where the potential is V ) to point (b) (po-
tential is V + ∆V ). In the process the electric potential
energy of qo changes by amount (∆U = qo ∆V ). In the
language of force, we would say that there is an electric
field E~ that exerts a force (F~ = qo E)
~ on the particle.
The work done by this force as the particle moves from
a to b is (W = FS ∆S = qo ES ∆S), where (ES and FS ) are
the components of (E ~ and F~ ) along (∆S) [we assume that
∆S is very small that we can regard the field and the force
remains constant in both magnitude and direction along
ab] the mechanical connection between the two equivalent
description is (W = −∆U ) then, Figure 3.6: Electric Field
from the Potential
qo Es ∆S = −qo ∆V
∆V
ES = −
∆S
In the limit of infinitesimal ∆S:
dV
ES = − (3.11)
dS
Instead of moving the test charge from a to b directly we move it along two different
paths, path acb take the charge along the x-axis from a to c and then along the
path from c to b, which has been chosen so that the potential has the same value
(V + ∆V ) everywhere between c and b. the work done by the electric field along cb
is zero. Because potential does not change, like the former case from a to c.
W = −∆U = Fx ∆x
= −qo ∆V = qo Ex ∆x
∆V
Ex = −
∆x
If we move particle on path a and b the work is (Fy ∆y =
qo Ey ∆y) along ad and zero along db (as the potential has
the same value V + ∆V ), then we obtain:
∆V
W = qo Ey ∆y = −qo V or Ey = −
∆y
Figure 3.7: Different

path Potentials
3.9. Equipotential Surfaces 33
If V (x, y, z) is known at all points in space , then we can find the components of
~
E by taking partial derivatives of V with respect to each coordinates
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − , Ey = − , EZ = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
3.9 Equipotential Surfaces

The potential due to point charge q = 1.11nC is (100 V )
at distance 0.1 m from the charge, because there is no di-
rectionality associated with potential its value is (100 V )
at that distance in any direction that is at any point of
the sphere of radius 0.1 m surrounding q the potential is
100 V , on second sphere of radius 0.2 m the potential ev-
erywhere has the value 50 V . A surface on which the po-
tential has the same value everywhere is called an equipo-
tential surface. No network is done by electric forces when
we move a test charge from any point on the same sur-
face because ∆V = 0. Even if the path moves off the Figure 3.8: Sphere
surface, no network is done as along as the path starts Equipotential Surfaces
and finishes on the equipotential surface. A family of
equipotential surfaces shown in figure (3.9) that might be
associated with a certain charge distribution. The work done by electric forces when
a charged particle moves along path 1 is zero because that path starts and ends on
the same equipotential surface. The work done along path 2 is zero for the same
reason. The work is not zero along paths 3 and 4, but it has the same value for all
or both these paths because they connect the same pair of equipotential surfaces.
That is paths 3 and 4 connect points with the same potential difference (VB −VA ),
the work done by electrostatic force is given by:
WAB = −qo (VB − VA )
Therefore we have two methods of calculating the E ~ for continuous charge distribu-
tion; one based on integrating Coulomb’s law and another based on difference the
potential V . If we know the pattern of equipotential surfaces for a particular charge
Figure 3.9: Sheet Equipotential Surfaces
distribution, we can find the field line by drawing perpendicular equipotential.

3.9. Equipotential Surfaces 34
Figure 3.10: Equipotential

Chapter 4
Electrical material and capacitance
4.1 Types of Material

Natural and artificially made material shows a wide range of electrical properties.
These properties are determined partly by the behavior of individual atoms or molecules
and partly by the interactions of atoms or molecules in the bulk material. The ability
of material to conduct electricity may also depend on the conditions of the material
such as its temperature and pressure.
Conductors are materials in which electric charges readily flow. In many metals,
each atom gives up one or more of its outer or valence electrons to the entire material,
and we often regard the electrons are free to move, and forming a "gas" with in the
material rather than belonging to any particular atom. These electrons are free to
move when on electron field as applied to the material.
In an insulator the electrons are bound rather tightly to the atoms and are not
free to move even under the electric fields that might be applied an insulator can
carry any distribution of electric charges on its surface or in its interior.
An insulating material can often be regarded as a collection of molecules that are
not easily ionized in this case the electrical properties may depend on the electric
dipole moment of the molecules. Materials in which the molecules dipole moments
are called polar.
Intermediate between insulators and conductors are semi-conductors. In these ma-
terials, perhaps one atom in 1010 to 1012 might contribute an electron to the flow of
electricity in the material (in contrast to a conductor, in which every atom typically
contributes an electron flow of electricity). Commonly semi-conductors are silicon
and germanium as well as many compounds.
Even the best conductors (Copper, Silver, and Gold) show a small definitely non zero
resistance to the flow of electricity. Under certain conditions, very low temperature
electric can flow through some materials with no resistance at all is called (super
conductivity).
35
4.2. A Conductor in an Electric Field Static Condition 36
4.2 A Conductor in an Electric Field Static Con-

dition
Figure 4.1: A Conductor in an Electric Field
Suppose we place a large rectangular slab of copper (conductor) in a uniform

electric field as shown in fig (4.1a). We can regard the copper as a "gas" of electrons
that are free to move in a copper irons in their fixed locations. The electric field
~ 0 ) exerts a force (F~ = −eE)
(E ~ on the electrons, which causes electrons to move in
opposite direction to the field, after electrons accumulated at the top of the slab,
there will be an internal electric field which try to cancel the external electric field
as shown in fig (4.1b). The two surfaces of the conductor setup an electric field E ~0
Inside the Cu the net electric field E ~ is (E
~r = E
~ 0 + E).
~ In terms of the vector sum
E = Eo − E 0 . Inside the Cu under static conditions, the net E must be zero, so we
conclude that the E 0 inside the Cu must be zero. The applied Eo must move just
enough electrons to the surface to set up an E 0 that the same magnitude as Eo , giving
a net field of zero inside the copper figure (4.1c).This is named static condition.
4.3 A Conductor in an Electric Field (Dynamic

Conductor)
Dynamic Constructed if there were a mechanism to re-
move electrons from the top of the slab, carry them
around an external path and re-inject the mat the bottom
of the slab as shown in fig (4.2) in this case there would
no build, up of charge on the top and bottom of the slab,
and electrostatic of the former situation cannot be ap-
plied while there would be a continuous loop of flowing
electrons, which is a simple relationship of an electric cir-
cuit, and the flow of electrons (or other charged particles)
is called an electric current.
In particular point in the interior of the material a
quantity of charge (dq) will pass through a small surface Figure 4.2: Electric
Static Condition
4.4. Current Density and Draft Speed 37
(cross-section) of area in time (dt) then:

dq
i= (4.1)
dt
The SI unit of current (1 Ampere = 1 C/sec)
The net charge passing through any surface is given by:
Z
q= idt
A related vector quantity is current density(~j)(current per

unit area):
i
j= (4.2)
A
The direction of ~j is defined to be the direction of the
flow of +ve charge fig (4.3). The current passing through
any surface: Figure 4.3: Charge or
Z Current passing through
i = ~j · dA~ (4.3) surface A. The direction
of the ~i and ~j are oppo-
site to the motion of e
4.4 Current Density and Draft Speed
As electron make their way through conductor Cu. They are accelerated by an elec-
tric field, which exerts a force (−eE)~ on the electrons. The electrons collide with the
ions of the lattice and transfer energy to them. The motion of individual electrons
is therefore very irregular, followed by a collision with an ion that might sent the
electrons in to motion in any direction. The net effect is a drift of electrons in a di-
rection opposite to applied field on the average, electrons can be described as moving
with a constant drift velocity (~vd ) as in fig (4.4). Consider the motion of electrons in
portion of the conductor of length (L). The electrons are moving with draft speed
(vd ), so they travel the length (L) at time (t = L/vd ).
The conductor has a cross-sectional area (A), so in the

time (t) all of the electrons in the volume (AL) will travel
through a surface at the right of the conductor. If the den-
sity of electrons (number per unit volume) is (n) then the
magnitude of the net charge passing through the surface is
(q = enAL) and the current density: Figure 4.4: Current Density ~j and
Draft Speed vd
q enAL
j= = = envd (4.4)
At AL/vd
In vector notation:
~j = −en~vd (4.5)
4.5. Ohmic Materials 38
The mines sign reminds us that the direction of the current density (~j) is opposite
to the motion of the electrons.
4.5 Ohmic Materials

~ applied on the conducting material rather than collections
When an electric field (E)
of electrons with ions, electrons are accelerated by the electric field, and so their drift
~ so it is reasonable that (~j) should be proportional to
velocity is proportional to (E),
~
(E) the proportionality constant between (~j and E) ~ is electrical conductivity (σ):
~
~j = σ E (4.6)
A large value of (σ) indicates that the material is good conductor of electric current,
the unit of (σ is simens per meter s/m, where, s = Ampere/volt), the inverse of
conductivity is named resistivity (ρ) that is:
1
ρ=
σ
~ = ρ~j
E (4.7)
Unit of ρ are Ω.m, where 1Ω = 1V olt/Ampere.
Note that 1 siemens = 1 Ampere/V olt
(a) Ohmic Conductor (b) Non Ohmic Conductor
Figure 4.5: Ohmic Materials
Here current density has the same direction as applied electric field, for ohmic
materials, if we plot (E against j) it gives a straight line whose slope is resistivity, and
(ρ) does not depend on the (E). These materials are known as ohmic material. And
they satisfy ohm’s law: "The resistivity (or conductivity) of a materials is independent
4.6. Analogy between Current and Heat Flow(optional) 39
of the magnitude and direction of the applied electric field".

From the relation between resistivity and resistance:
E ∆V /L ∆V
ρ= = , R=
j i/A i
A
ρ=R (4.8)
L
An equivalent statement of law is ohmic materials, "The resistance of an object is
independent of the magnitude or sign of the applied potential difference". While for
non-ohmic materials such as semi-conductor devices (diodes), the relation between
applied potential (∆V ) and current (i) is not linear while it shows characteristics.
4.6 Analogy between Current and Heat Flow(optional)

Consider a thin electrically conducting of thickness (∆x) and area A. Let a potential
difference (∆V ) be maintained between opposing faces. Then
∆V L
i= & R=ρ
R A
Then
∆V A∆V ∆V 1
= = = σA ; σ=
L ρ∆x ∆x ρ
ρ
A
But taking limiting case
dq dV
i= = −σA (4.9)
dt dx
the -ve sign indicates that +ve charge flows in the direction of decreasing V; that:
dq dV
is +ve when is -ve.
dt dx
The heat flow equation
dQ dT
= −kA (4.10)
dt dx
dT
Where k is the thermal conductivity corresponds to σ and , the temperature
dx
dV
gradient, corresponds to the potential gradient. Both heat and charge are carried
dx
by the free electrons in such metals.
4.7 Resistance and Temperature Variation of Re-

sistivity
Over a limited temperature range, the resistance of conductor varies approximately
linearly to the expression
ρ = ρ0 [1 + α (T − T0 )]
4.8. An insulator in an electric field 40
Where ρ is resistivity at temperature (T) and (ρ0 ) at (T0 ), and α is the temperature
coefficient of resistivity can be written as :
1 4ρ
α=
ρ0 4T
Where (4ρ = ρ − ρ0 ) and (4T = T − T0 ). Usually it expresses as variation of

resistance with temperature and given by:
R = R0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] (4.11)
4.8 An insulator in an electric field

As we mentioned in section (2.4) for conductor. Now consider what happened when
we applied an external electric field to an insulating material, that is we repeat the
experiment of fig (4.1). In an insulator the electrical charges are not free to mov.no
current results when an insulator in placed in an electric field, the electrons remains
freely locked to their atoms or molecules. Instead of moving charges through the ma-
terial all the electric filed can do in an insulator is to produce a slight rearrangement
of electric charges with in atoms, that is we never have (Dynamic conditions) as in
fig (4.1):
1. A collection of randomly oriented dipole atoms or molecules.

~ 0 ) aligns the dipoles.
2. An external electric filed (E
Fig (4.6) shows a slab of insulating material

that has been placed in an externally applied
electric field (E~ 0 ). As a result of the relation of
the dipole moments, there is an apparent sheet
of negative charge on the upper surface. These
two sheets of induced surface charge established
~
an electric field (É) in the insulator that opposite
field, as shown in fig (4.6). The net field inside
the insulator is
~ = E~o + E
E ~0
~o & E
because E ~ 0 are opposite Figure 4.6: Slab of Insulating ma-
terials
E = Eo − E 0
~
The effect of aligning the dipoles in the insulator is called (polarization) and (É) is
known as the polarized field. Here also we note whether the external filed strong the
condition remains static that is we does not see flow charge and current. The greater
~ o the greater is the torque on the dipoles, the greater in their degree of alignment,
E
4.9. A Model for Electrical Conduction (Ohm’s Law A Microscope View) 41
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.7: Dipole in the insulator
and the greater is polarization field. For many materials; which are called linear
materials
E 0 ∝ Eo
1
E = Eo
ke
Where ke called the dielectric constant of the material. The ke > 1
4.9 A Model for Electrical Conduction (Ohm’s Law

A Microscope View)
In this section we describe a classical model of electrical conduction in metals that
was first proposed by Paul Drude in 1900. We mentioned that in former section that
in the absence of electric field, the conduction electrons move in random directions
through the conductor and there is no current produced because of this randomness
(the situation is similar to the motion of gas molecules but when we apply an electric
field, the free electron drift slowly in opposite direction of the applied field fig (4.8)
with an average drift speed (vd ) much smaller than their average speed.
When the electric field applied the excess energy re-
quired by the electrons in last to the atoms of the con-
ductor when the electrons and atoms collide. The en-
ergy given up to the atoms their vibrational energy, and
this causes the temperature of the conductor to increase.
When free electron of mass (me ) and charge (q=-e) is sub-
jected to an field (E), it experiences a force (F = −eE).
Because this force is related to the acceleration of the law
(F = me a) Newton’s second las, we conclude that the
acceleration of the electron is ;
~
eE
~a = (4.12) Figure 4.8: Charge drift
me
speed
If vi is the initial velocity of electron at t=0 after collision,
4.9. A Model for Electrical Conduction (Ohm’s Law A Microscope View) 42
then at time (t) the velocity of electron is:
~
eE
vd = vi + ~at = 0 + t
me (4.13)
eE
vd = aτ = τ
m
We can write the above equation as:
~
eE
vd = τ (4.14)
me
Where (τ )(relaxation time) is average time interval between success collisions previ-
~
ously we deduced that (~j = σ E)
ne2 E
J = nevd = τ
me
From equation (4.6) comparing it, then we conclude that:
ne2 E
σ= T
me (4.15)
m
ρ= 2
ne τ
Chapter 5
Capacitance
5.1 Capacitors
A capacitor is a device that stores energy in an electrostatic filed. A capacitor can
draw energy relativity slowly (over several seconds) from the battery (source) and it
then can release the energy rapidly (with in milliseconds) through the load (bulb).
Capacitors are used to produce electric fields, such as the parallel-plate device that
gives the very nearly uniform electric field that deflects beams of electrons in a TV
or oscilloscope tube. In other application, the tuning of a radio or TV receiver is
usually done by varying the capacitance of the circuit.
5.2 Capacitance
A capacitor is said to be charged if its plates carry equal
and opposite charges (+q & −q). We can charge a capac-
itor by connecting one plate to the negative terminal as
shown in fig (5.1) and the battery "pumps" electrons form
the positive plate to negative plate. The potential differ-
ence ∆V = V+ − V− between the battery terminals is the
same potential difference that appears between the ca-
pacitor plates. When we charge a capacitor the quantity
of charge (q) that appears on capacitor is always directly
proportional difference (∆V ) between plates (q ∝ ∆V ).
The capacitance (C) is the constant of proportionality: Figure 5.1: Capacitors
q ∝ ∆V
q = C∆V (5.1)
The capacitance is geometrical factor that depend on the size, shape and separation
of the plates and on the material that occupies the space between thee plates (which
for now we assume vacuum). The capacitor does not depend on ∆V or q. The SI
unit of capacitance that follow from equation (5.1) is (coulomb/volt) which given the
name (Farad F).
43
5.3. Calculating the Capacitance 44
5.3 Calculating the Capacitance

To calculate the capacitance of a capacitor form its geometry we use the following
procedure.
1. We first find the electric field (E) in the region between the plates, using meth-
ods such as those described in chapter two.
2. When find the potential difference between the positive and negative plates by
integrating the electric field along any convenient path connecting the plates.
Z +
∆V = V+ − V− = − ~ · d~s
E
−
Z −
∆V = ~ · d~s
E (5.2)
+
3. The outcome of the above equation will involve the magnitude of the charge
(q) on the right hand side, then we can find C = q/∆V
The capacitance always positive number because we use absolute value of charge
(|q|). We now illustrate this method with several examples.
I A Parallel plate capacitor

Fig (5.2) shows a capacitor, that two flat plates
are very large comparing to the separation between
them (d) in order to neglect the edges effect. We
obtained electric filed for a single large sheet of
charge in chapter two (E = σ/2ε0 .
[h]
σ σ σ
E = E+ + E− = + = (5.3) Figure 5.2: Parallel plate capaci-
2ε0 2ε0 ε0
tor
then we can assume that the electric field of each positive and negative plates
has this magnitude, and the net electric field is the sum of the fields due to the
~ =E
two plates (E ~+ + E ~ − ), and these fields (E
~ + &E
~ − ) has the same direction.
Using (σ = q/A : charge per unit area), A is the surface area of each plate,
then put equation (4.4) in equation (5.2)
Z − Z −
q qd
∆V = Eds = ds =
+ ε0 A + ε0 A
From equation (5.1)
q q ε0 A
C= = = (5.4)
∆V qd/ε0 A d
5.4. Connection of Capacitors 45
II Spherical capacitor
Fig (5.3) shows a cross-section of a spherical capac-

itor in which the inner conductor is a solid sphere
of radius (a) and carries positive charge, while the
outer conductor is hollow sphere with inner radius
(b) form the symmetry and Gauss law. As men-
tioned in chapter two, the electric filed only exist
between two conductors where (a <r <b) and it’s
obtained to be:
Figure 5.3: Spherical capacitor
1 q
E= a<r<b
4πε0 r2
Substituting this expression for the electric field in to equ (5.2) and integrating
along the path form positive plate to negative plate:
Z − Z b
q dr q 1 1

∆V = Eds = 2
= −
+ a 4πε0 r 4πε0 a b
q b−a
∆V =
4πε0 ab
~ · d~s = Edscos 0 = Ed,
Here E dr = ds :
ab
∴ C = 4πε0 (5.5)
b−a
5.4 Connection of Capacitors

In analyzing electric circuits, it is often desirable to know the equivalent capacitance
of two or more capacitors that are connecting in a certain way:
1. Capacitor connected in parallel: Fig (5.4) shows two capacitors connected
in parallel, there are three properties that characterize a parallel connection of
circuit elements. In traveling form a to b, we take any of severe (two, in
this case) parallel paths, each of which does through only one of the parallel
elements.
When a battery of potential difference (∆V ) is connected across the combi-

nation (tht is one terminal of battery is connected to point a a nd the other
terminal to point b thus the same potential difference appears a cross each
element that is plates at point a are equipotential surfaces at point b with the
left-hand terminal of battery. The total charge delivered by the battery to
the combination is shared among the element, some charge "pumped" by the
battery ends up on C1 on some on C2 .
We can now find the equivalent capacitance Ceq that gives the same total capac-
itance between point a and b as in fig (4.11b). we assume a battery of potential
5.4. Connection of Capacitors 46
(a) Parallel capacitor (b) Equivalent capacitor
Figure 5.4: Capacitor connected in parallel
difference (∆V ) to be connected between points a and b for each capacitor we

can write:
q1 = C 1 V , q2 = C2 V (5.6)
The battery extracts charge (q) these charges are shared among the two ele-
ments:
q = q 1 + q2 (5.7)
In the second fig (4.11b) the total charge (q), must b transferred by the battery
to Ceq :
q = Ceq ∆V (5.8)
Combining these equations:
Ceq ∆V = C1 ∆V + C2 ∆V
∴ Ceq = C1 + C2 (5.9)
We extend eq (5.9) X
Ceq = Cn
n
2. Capacitors connected in series
Fig (5.5) shows two capacitors connected in series

the combination has properties:
Figure 5.5: Capacitors connected

in series
(a) If we travel form a to b, we must pass through all the circuit elements in
succession.
(b) When a battery is connected a cross the combination potential difference
(∆V ) of the battery equals the sum of (∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 ) potential
difference a cross (C1 andC2 )
5.5. Energy Storage in an Electric Field 47
(c) The charge (q) delivered to each element of series combination has the
same value:
q q
∆V1 = and ∆V2 = (5.10)
C1 C2
We seek the equivalent capacitance Ceq fig (4.11b) that we can replace the
combination, such that the battery would move the same amount of charge:
q
∆V =
Ceq
Then we conclude:
∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2
q q q
= +
Ceq C1 C2
1 1 1 1 X 1
= + or = (seriescombination) (5.11)
Ceq C1 C2 Ceq n Cn
5.5 Energy Storage in an Electric Field

An important use of capacitors is to store electrostatic energy in application rang-
ing from flash pump to laser system. In chapter (3) we showed that any charge
configuration has a certain electric potential energy (U) like on the capacitor as in
fig (5.1). Suppose a capacitor is already charged, and now we want to get energy
from it, consider at time (t) a charge (q)´ transferred from one plate to the other.
The potential difference ∆V́ between plates at that moment is (∆V = q́/C), if an
increment of charge (dq)´ is now transferred, the resulting small change (dU ) in the
electric potential energy is according to (∆V = ∆U /q0 ):
q́
dU = ∆V́ dq = dq́
C
If this process is continued until a total charge (q) has been transferred; the total
potential energy is: Z q
Z
q́
U = dU = dq́
0 C
q2 1
U= , or U = C(∆V )2 (5.12)
2C 2
5.6 Capacitor with Dielectric

A Dielectric is non-conducting material such as ruk glass, when dielectric is inserted
between the plate of capacitor the capacitance increase by dimensions factor (ke )
which is called the (dielectric constant)of the material, and it can be defined as the
ratio of external electric field (E0 ) to the induced polarization, to the induced this
5.6. Capacitor with Dielectric 48
loeal field (É) inside the material, and this loeal field (É) varies directly with external
field (E0 ) that is:
É ∝ Eo
1
∴ É = Eo (5.13)
ke
K always more than 1 Because E0 > É. Dielectric constant varies form one material
to another. Let us analyze how capacitance increases with putting these materials.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor without dielectric has a charge (q0 ) and capac-
itance (C0 ) the potential difference across the capacitor is (∆Vo = qo /Co ) as in fig
(5.6a), if we remove battery, and put voltmeter its of course read (∆Vo ). Now if we
insert a dielectric material between plates. As in fig (5.6b), the voltmeter indicate
voltages with and without the dielectric are relateby the factor K, and (q0 ) does not
change then we conclude:
∆V 0
∆V = , ∆V < ∆V 0 as K
K
Thus :
q0 qo qo
C= = = ke
∆V ∆V o ∆V o
ke
∴ C = ke C o (5.14)
That is by inserting dielectric material capacitance (C) increase by factor (ke ) than
unfilled capacitor of capacitance (C0 ), then we can write, capacitor of parallel plate
with dielectric material is:
εo A
C = ke (5.15)
d
The capacitance of any capacitor is increased by the same factor ke when a dielectric
Figure 5.6: Capacitors with Dielectrics
substance completeky fills the space between the plates.

Chapter 6
Direct Current Circuit (DC

Circuit)
6.1 Electric Current

So far in previous chapter we mentioned that cur-
rent produces as a result of charge usually (electrons)
flowing through a circuit. Fig (6.1) shows a simple
electric circuit a battery connected to a device which
may be a circuit element (resistor or capacitor) by
wire. The battery maintains the upper terminal at
potential V+, and lower terminal at potential we can
assume that the same potential difference will appear
on the device, the current set up as a result of charge
(electron flowing), as the battery works like a pump
makes the electrons to move from the positive ter-
minal to negative one, so the battery is not a source
of current or electrons, but makes electrons to move Figure 6.1: Electric Circuit
through the circuit one hence producing current, by some chemical reaction happens
inside a battery.
Also in metals the charge carries are electrons, in electrolyte or in gaseous con-
ducts they may also be positive or negative ions, or both. We need a convention
for(labeling) the direction of current because charge of opposite sign move in oppo-
site directions in a given field. A positive charge moving in one direction is equivalent
in nearly all external effect to a negative charge moving in the opposite direction.
Hence, for simplicity and algebraic consistency, we adopt the following convention:
The direction of current is the direction that positive charges would move, even if
the actual charge carries are negative.
49
6.2. Conservation of Charge 50
6.2 Conservation of Charge

The connection of battery to the device, in an electrical circuit, is similar to what
occur when you first turn on a garden hose connected to sprinkler. When the water
reach to sprinkle it emerge from the holes, but the size of water finally the same
as in the hose or entered the hose, the situation is the same in electrical circuit
the fluid flows faster when the pipes is small and vice versa. But the volume rate
(liter/second) remains constant, in the same way the electric current is the same for
all cross-sections of conductor, but current density (j = i/A) will change if cross-
sectional area changes, fig (6.2) shows a diagram of conservation of charge, in fig
(6.2a) the current passes through each device is the same as the current coming out
of the device. Fig (6.2b) shows another circuit in which the (i) travels in succession
Figure 6.2: Conservation of Charge
through their devices A, B and C. The iA = iB = iC . Fig (6.2b) is an example of

circuit elements connected in series.
Fig (6.2c) shows different. Here the i must divide to iA passing through device A,
and iB passing through device B. Then i = iA + iB . This is often called the junction
rule for analyzing circuits.
At any junction in an electric circuit, the total current entering the junction must
be equal to the total current leaving the junction.
6.3 Electromotive Force

An external energy source is required by most electric circuits to move charge through
the circuit. Therefore the circuit must include a device that makes potential difference
between two points, the circuit, just as circulating of fluid requires a (pump) to
be continuous, any device that performs this task is called "Electrical Source "
electromotive source (emf).
When a steady current is established in the circuit under influence of battery
(source) fig (6.3a) amount of charge (dq) passes through any cross-sectional of the
circuit in time (dt).
6.4. Analysis of Circuits: 51
In particular the negative charge enters the source of

emf at its high potential end and leaves at its low potential
end. The source must do an amount of work down the
positive charge carries to force them to go to the point of
higher potential, then the emf is given by:
dW
ε=
dq
The unit of emf is the (Joule/Coulomb) is the same as

the volt. Fig (6.3b) is the macroscopically analogy of the
former process fig (6.3a), the battery plays that carries
the balls to higher point that need energy to do this (it Figure 6.3: Electromo-
is impossible without energy providing) so the battery tive force
makes the work to transfer charge and this work done by
battery is a measure on its emf.
6.4 Analysis of Circuits:

In order to analyze any electrical circuit must find a procedure to obtain the current
and potential differences (voltage) in the circuit to do this we have two main rules
called Kirchhoff’s law.
First Rule:
At any junction in an electric circuit the total current entering the junction must be
equal to the total current leaving the junction. Which is the first law of Kirchhoff
or (junction rule) which was cleared through the previous section under the law of
conservation of charge.
Second Rule:
The algebraic sum of all difference in potential around a

complete circuit must be zero. To understand this law
which named (loop rule) let us examine the current di-
rection in fig(6.4) which consists of a single battery and
two resistors.
Let us travel around the circuit in a counter clock wise
direction. Strarting at point a, we first go through the
battery and find a potential difference of −. Next we go
through (R2 ), a direction opposite to current (i), so the Figure 6.4: Kirchhoff’s
potential increases and the potential difference is (+iR2 ). second law
Similarly the potential difference for (R1 ) is (+iR1 ), after
which we are back our starting point
− ε + iR2 + iR1 = 0 (6.1)

6.5. Potential difference in a Circuit 52
ε
i= (6.2)
R1 + R2
In clock wise direction
−iR1 − iR2 + ε = 0
ε (6.3)
i=
R1 + R2
The mines sign of current indicates that the real current has opposite direction.
6.5 Potential difference in a Circuit

Referring to the fig (6.4), you can travel any path through the circuit between two
points, and you get the same value of potential difference because path independence
is an essential part of our concept of potential.
Let us start at point (b) and move counter clockwise point (a) passing through
resistor R1. If Va and Vb the potentials at (a and b) respectively we have:
Vb + iR1 = Va
∆Vab = Va − Vb + iR1
Which tells us that 4Vab has magnitude (iR1 )

and the point (a) is at higher potential than point
(b), combining this last equation with equation
(6.2) yields:
R1
4Vab = ε (6.4)
R1 + R2
Let us recalculate 4Vab using a path starting
at (a) and going counter clockwise through the
source of emf to (b) we have: Figure 6.5: Potential difference in
a Circuit
Va − ε + iR2 = Vb
4Vab = Va − Vb = ε − iR2
Combining this last equation and combining with equation (6.2) we get same result
as former situation
ε
4Vab = ε − R2
R1 + R2
R2

4Vab = ε 1 −
R1 + R2
Or
R1
4Vab = ε
R1 + R2
Note that, as we should expect, ∆Vab + ∆Vbc = ε. The combination of resistors in
the circuit of fig (6.4) is called a voltage divider.
6.6. Internal Resistance of Source 53
6.6 Internal Resistance of Source

In contrast to ideal batteries, we have been considering
so far real batteries have an internal resistance, this resis-
tance is characteristic of materials of which the battery is
made internal resistance has some effect such as reducing
the terminal voltage of batteries and limiting the current
that can follow the circuit. Fig (6.6) shows a simple (loop
circuit) of battery and external resistance (R) the internal
resistance of battery given to be (r) , then the current (i) Figure 6.6: Internal Re-
through the circuit becomes: sistance of Source
ε
i= (6.5)
R+r
The potential difference between the battery terminals is :
4Vab = Va − Vb = − ir (6.6)
Using equation (6.5) we obtain:
R
4Vab = ε (6.7)
R+r
From this expression we see that the ∆Vab between the battery terminal is not a
constant, but depends on R, smaller R there by increasing the i the ∆Vab between
the battery terminals decrease. From fig (??) we see that ∆Vab = only if (r = 0) or
the external circuit is open (R = ∞)
Example
Two batteries are connected contrast with
external resistance (R = 6.4 Ω), to emf
source have emf and internal resistance given
by (ε1 = 3.5 V, r1 = 2 Ω, ε2 =
1.5 V, r2 = 1.2 Ω) Analyze the circuit, find
(i)
6.7 Resistor in Series and Parallel

Resistors often occur in circuit in various combinations, it is helpful to replace this
combination of resistors by a single equivalent resistor, whose value is chosen such
that the operation of the circuit is uncharged.
6.7. Resistor in Series and Parallel 54
(A) Resistor Connected in Parallel
Form this parallel combination we can travel

through the combination by crossing only one of
elements, the same potential difference 4V ap-
pears a cross each element, and the flow of charge
is shored among the elements.
Figure 6.7: Resistors in Parallel
Fig (6.7) shows two resistors connected in parallel we seek the equivalent resis-
tance between points (a) and (b). let us assume we connect a battery (or other
source of emf) that maintains a potential difference 4V between points a and
b. The potential difference across each resistor is 4V . The current through
each of the resistor (R1 and R2 ) are given by:
4V 4V
i1 = , i2 = (6.8)
R1 R2
According to the properties of a parallel circuit the total current (i) must be
shared among the branches, so:
i = i1 + i2 (6.9)
If we were to replace the parallel combinations by a single equivalent resistance

(Req ) the same total current (i) must flow (because the replacement must not
change the operation of the circuit) the current is then:
4V
i= (6.10)
Req
Substituting equations (6.8) and (6.10) in equation (6.9):
4V 4V 4V
= + + ...
Req R1 R2
1 1 1
= + + ... (6.11)
Req R1 R2
For more than two resistors
1 X 1
= (6.12)
RT n Rn
For simplicity for two parallel resistors:

R1 R2
RT =
R1 + R2
6.8. Energy Transfers in an Electric Circuit 55
(B) Resistors in Series

Figure 6.8: Resistors in Series
For series combination, travelling through combination we must travel through
all the elements in succession, then the potential difference is the sum of the
potential decreases across each element, and the same current is maintained in
each element.
Suppose a battery of potential difference (4V ) is connected across points a
and b in fig (6.8). a current (i) is setup in the combination and (potential
differences) a cross each resistors are:
4V1 = iR1 and 4V2 = iR2 (6.13)
The total potential difference is the sum of (4V1 & 4V2 )
4V = 4V1 + 4V2 (6.14)
By replacing (Req ) instead of (R1 and R2 )then the potential difference becomes:
4V = iReq (6.15)
From these equations:

iReq = iR1 + iR2
Req = R1 + R2 (6.16)
Extending this result a series

X
Req = Rn (series combination)
n
6.8 Energy Transfers in an Electric Circuit

From fig (6.9), there is a current (i) in the wire and potential difference (4Vab )
between terminals of the device.
Let us first consider the operation of the ideal battery (resistant less) which is
source of emf (ε) as the moves quantity of charge (dq) from its negative, its positive
terminal. It does work on the charge given by:
dW = εdq
The power delivered by the source of emf is determined by (the rate at the work
is being done) that is:
dW dq
Pemf = = = i (6.17)
dt dt
6.9. RC Circuit (Capacitor Charging) 56
This quantity given the rate at which an ideal source of

emf transfer energy to the rest of the circuit. Suppose the
circuit consists only of a source of emf and a resistor (R)
The potential difference between terminals a and b is
4VR = iR
As a quantity of charge (dq) moves through resistor from

a and b, it experiences a potential energy change (dU =
dq 4VR ), this energy must transferred to the resistor, so the
power transferred to the resistor (rate of energy transfer)
is: Figure 6.9: Energy Transfers
dU dq
PR = = 4VR = i4VR
dt dt
PR = i 2 R (6.18)
With (i = 4VR /R) we can also write:
(4VR )2
Pr =
R
This energy transfer to a resistor in a circuit is often known as (Joule Heating).
In real battery with internal resistance (r) the potential difference between the
battery terminals is (4Vbat = ε − ir) and the charge passing through the battery
gains potential energy (dU = dq 4Vbat = dq(ε − ir)), then the power delivered by
battery is:
dU
Pbat =
dt
dq (ε − ir)
Pbat = = εi − i2 i = Pemf − Pr (6.19)
dt
The energy available to the rest of the circuit is decreased by the Joule heating in
the internal resistance.
6.9 RC Circuit (Capacitor Charging)

The preceding sections dealt with circuit con-
tainer only resistors, in which the current did not
vary with time. Here we introduce a capacitor
which leads us to study time-varying current.
Suppose in fig (6.10) we charge a capacitor by
putting switch (s) at position (a). To find cur-
rent let us supply conservation of energy princi- Figure 6.10: Capacitor Charging
ples.
In time (dt) a charge (dq=idt) moves through wires and deposited on the posi-
tive plate of capacitor. The work (dW = εdq) done by the source, equal to internal
6.9. RC Circuit (Capacitor Charging) 57
energy (i2 Rdt) produced in resistor during time (dt) plus the increase of amount of
energy that stored in capacitor (U = q 2 /2C) then conservation of energy given by:

εdq = i2 Rdt + d q 2 /2C
εdq = i2 Rdt + 2q/2Cdq
εdq = i2 Rdt + q/Cdq
Dividing this equation by (dt):
dq dq
ε = i2 R + q/C
dt dt
2
εi = i R + q/Ci
ε = iR + q/C (6.20)
This equation follows loop rule (iR is the potential difference across resistor and
q/Cis the potential difference across capacitor)
ε − iR − q/C = 0
It can be written as:
dq q
ε=R + (6.21)
dt C
Rearranging this equation:
dq dt
=− (6.22)
q − εC RC
Integrating this equation, regarding conditions that (q=0 at time t=0) we can obtain:

q = Cε 1 − e−t/RC (6.23)
This is representing the total charge accumulating on the capacitor with time.
Differentiating equ (6.23) with respect to time:
dq ε
i= = e−t/RC (6.24)
dt R
This is representing current progress in (RC) circuit we note that the current is a
function of time. Analyzing potential difference varying with time (∆VR and ∆VC )
we can note following:
1. At t = 0 ∆VR = ε (the full potential difference appears across R)and ∆VC = 0
the capacitor is not charged .
2. At t → ∞ ∆VC → ε (the capacitor becomes fully charged) and ∆VR → 0
(the current stops flowing).
3. At all times ∆VR + ∆VC = ε.
The quantity governs these situations (RC) has unit of time and it is called
capacitance time constant τC = RC it is the time at which the charge on the capacitor
has increased to within a factor of (1 − e−1 ) w (?63%) of it is final value C. To show
this, we put t = τc = Rc ; then q = C(1 − r−1 ) = 0.63 C
6.10. Charging Capacitor 58
6.10 Charging Capacitor

Let q represent the charge on the C and i the current in
the circuit at some time (t) after switch has been closed.
We choose the positive direction for the current to cor-
respond to positive charge flowing onto the left hand ca-
pacitor plate. The instantaneous potential Vab and Vac
are:
q
Vab = iR Vac =
c
Using these in Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we find
q
ε − iR − = 0 (6.25)
C
ε q
i= − (6.26)
R CR
At t = 0, when the switch is first closed, the capacitor
is uncharged and so q = 0, substituting q = 0 in eq (6.26),
we find that the initial current Io is given by
ε
(Io = ), as we have already noted. If the C were not in
R
the circuit, the last term in eq (6.26) would not be present.
q
As the q increases the term become large, and the C charge approaches its final
RC
value, which we will call Qf . The current decreases and eventually becomes zero,
when i = 0, eq (6.26) gives
ε Qf
= ⇒ Qf = Cε (6.27)
R RC
Note that the final Qf dose not depend on R.
The current and the capacitor charge are shown as a
function of (t) in fig (??). At the instant the switch
is closed (t = 0), the i jumps from zero to its initial
ε
value (Io = ), after that, it gradually approaches
R
zero. The C charge starts at zero and gradually ap-
proaches the final value given by eq (6.27)
Qf = Cε
We can derive general expressions for the q and i as

dq
a function of t. Where i = , making substituting
dt
in eq (6.26) we have
dq ε q 1
= − =− (q − Cε)
dt R RC RC
dq dt
=−
q − Cε RC
and then integrate both sides. We change the integration variables to q 0 & t0 so that
6.11. Time Constant 59
we can use q & t for the upper limits. The lower limits are q 0 = 0 and t0 = 0
Z q
dq 0 Z t
dt0
= −
0 q 0 − Cε 0 RC
q − Cε t

ln =−
−Cε RC
q − Cε
= e−t/RC
−Cε
q = Cε(1 − et/RC ) = Qf (1 − et/RC )R-C circuit charging capacitor (6.28)
The instantaneous i is:

dq ε
i= = et/RC = Io et/RC (6.29)
dt R
The two equations (6.28 & 6.29) are both exponential functions of t.
6.11 Time Constant

1
After a t = RC, the i in the R-C has decreased to (about 0.368) of its initial
e
1
value. At this time, the capacitor charge has reached (1 − = 0.632) of its final
e
value Qf = Cε. The product RC is therefore a measure of how quickly the capacitor
charges. We call RC the (time constant) or relaxation time (τ ) τ = RC. When τ is
small, the capacitor charges quickly; when it’s large, the charging takes more time.
If the R is small, it’s easier for current to flow, and the C charges more quickly. If R
is in Ω & C in Farad, τ is in second.
6.12 Discharging a Capacitor

Now suppose that after the C in fig ?? has required a
charge Qo , we remove the battery from R-C circiut and
connect points a and c to an open switch as shown in fig.
We then close the switch and t = 0, q = Qo . The capac-
itor discharges through the R, and its charge eventually
decrease to zero. Then Kirchoff’s loop rule gives (q = 0)
dq q
i= =− (6.30)
dt RC
The i is now −ve, this is become +ve q is leav-
ing the left hand capacitor plate in fig (??). At
t = 0, when q = Qo the initial current is, Io =
Qo
− . To find q as a function of t. eq (6.30) again
RC
6.12. Discharging a Capacitor 60
charge. This time the limits for q 0 are Qo to q, we

get
Z q
dq 0 1 Zt
=− dt
Qo q 0 RC 0
q t
ln =−
Qo RC
q = Qo e−t/RC (6.31)
R-C circuit-discharging capacitor.
dq Qo −t/RC
i= =− e = Io e−t/RC (6.32)
dt RC
Energy consideration give as additional insight into
the behavior of an R-C circuit. While the C is charg-
ing, the instantaneous rate at which the the battery
deliren energy to the circuit is p = εi. The instanta-
neous rate at which electrical energy is dissipated in
the R is (i2 R) and the rate at which energy is stored
iq
in the C is (iVab = ) we find
c
iq
εi = i2 R + (6.33)
C
This mean that of the power (εi) supplied by the
battery, part (i2 R) is dissipated in the R and part
iq
( ) is stored in C.
c
Example
A resistor with R = 10 M Ω is connected in series with a C = 1 µF and a battery
with emf = 12 V . Before the switch is closed at t = 0, the C is uncharged.
a) What is the time constant?
b) What fraction of the final charge is on the plates at t = 46 sec?
c) What fraction of the initial current remains at t = 46 sec.
Answer
a)
τ = RC = 10 × 106 × 1 × 10−6 = 10 sec
b)
q
= 1 − e−t/RC = 1 − e−46/10 = 0.99
Qf
The capacitor is 99% charged after t = 4.6 RC = 4.6 τ
c)
i
= e−4.6 = 0.010
Io
After 4.6 time constant the I has decreased to 10% of its initial value.
Example
The R and C in example above are reconnected. The Cis originally given a charged
of 5 µC and then discharged by closing the switch at t = 0.
a) At what (t) will the charge be equal be equal to 0.5 µC?
b) What is the current at this times?
Answer
a)
q 0.5 × 10−6
t = −RC ln = −(10 × 106 )(1 × 10−6 ) ln
Qo 5 × 10−6
t = 23 sec
τ = RC = 10 sec
b)
Qo −t/RC 5 × 10−6 −2.3
i= e =− e = −5 × 10−8 Amp
RC 10
.
H.W
1. In figure below. What are the voltmeter and ammeter reading?

Answer:
I = 2A, Vab = 8V andVac = 8V

2. What are the ammeter reading now? Answer:
I = 6A, Vab = 0
3. For the H.W
a) Find the rate of energy conversion (chemical to electrical) and the rate of
dissipation of energy in the battery and the net power output of the bat-
tery?
Answer:
24 W att, 8 W att, netoutputpower 16 W att

b) Find the rates of energy conversion and energy dissipation in the battery
and the net power output of the battery.
Answer:
72 W att, 72 W att, 0
4. Compute the equivalent R of the network in figure below, and find the current
in each R. The internal r of ε is negligible.
Answer:
Req = 2 Ω
I4.2 = 3 A, I6.2 = 1 A, I3.2 = 2 A
5. In figure, find the current through them, the potential difference across each
them, and the power delivered to each them and the entire network if the
resistances are connected in series and parallel.
Answer:
Series:
I = 2 A, Vab = Vbc = 4 V
P = 8 W, Ptot = 16 W
Parallel:
Vde = 8 V, I = 4 A
P = 32 W, Ptot = 64 W
6. The circuit shown in figure below find:
a) The current in the circuit,

b) The Vab
c) The power output of the emf of each battery
Answer:
a) I = 0.5 A
b) Vab = 9.5 V
c) P12V = 6 W, P4V = −2 W
7. In the circuit in figure, find the unknown I, the internal resistance r and the
emf (ε).
Answer:
I = 3 A, r = 2 Ω, ε = −5 V
Chapter 7
The Magnetic Field
7.1 Magnetic Interaction

As 8th century B.C, the ancient Greek felt the magnetic interaction between some
materials; they discovered that a piece of magnetite (an oxide of iron) can attract a
piece of iron. Later it was discovered that one piece of magnetite can either attract
or repel another piece, depending on their relative orientation it was determined
neither of the objects carries a net electric charge, so that we can be sure these new
forces cannot be of electrical nature in origin. Also if a small needle-shaped piece
of magnetite suspended like a (compass), a piece will spontaneously rotate about
pivot point and eventually come to rest and pointing to the earth north pole. So
it is responding to the magnetic field of earth as shown in fig (7.1). So the earth
is a natural magnet then it passes magnetic field that its lines originates from the
geographical south pole of earth and emerge (end) at the north pole of earth, it was
discovered later that these magnetic field lines results from the current stream of
liquid (molten part) of earth’s core, under the mantle part and cortex of the earth as
shown in fig (7.2). In fig (7.2) show that the; flows in the wire, the compass shows
quite clearly that a magnetic field is present, and the direction of the compass needle
indicates the direction of the magnetic field near the wire.
Figure 7.2: A compass shows that a mag-

Figure 7.1: Magnetic Interaction netic field surrounds a current carrying
wire
65
7.2. Magnetism and Moving Charge 66
7.2 Magnetism and Moving Charge

There is an attempting to understanding magnetic field by following the same pro-
cedure we used for electric field, but it’s here more difficult and complex, because
there is no (isolated magnetic charge) like in electric, that is there is no magnetic
monopoles. So we can use an electric test charge to prob magnetic field but only
if the charge is moving relative to magnetic field source (a magnetic field exerts no
force on an electric charge at rest). Really the interaction between magnetic field and
moving charge originates from that moving charge also procedure magnetic field.
In electrostatic we associated an electric potential energy with a test charge in an
electric field. Is there a magnetic potential energy associated with a moving electric
charge with in magnetic field? The answer is no, because forces that depend on
velocity are not conservative forces so (potential energy can be defined only for con-
servative force), then there is no magnetic potential. The basic relationship between
q and E in electrostatic can be
Electric Charge → Electric F ield → Electric Charge
For magnetic fields

! !
M oving Electric M oving Electric
→ M agnetic F ield →
Charge Charge
7.3 Magnetic Poles

If we have a magnetic rod as shown in fig (7.3) and some compasses near it, we can
note that there is a force (magnetic interaction) that exerts by north and south poles
of the magnetic rod on the each compass (the red side the north pole of compass)
poles, so that:
"like poles repel, and unlike poles attract" that is south pole attracts north pole,
but two north poles or two south poles are repel each other this is rule is very similar
to the rule for the interaction of electric charges.
Figure 7.3: Magnetic Poles

7.4. The magnetic Force On a Moving Charge 67
7.4 The magnetic Force On a Moving Charge

If we find the force on a test charge at rest to be non-zero, then we can conclude
that an electric field must be present at that point and given by (F~E = q E).
~ We
now seek the corresponding expression for magnetic field based on the force exerted
on a moving charged particle but it is not simple as the electric force because the
~ and the velocity (~v ).
magnetic force involve two vectors the magnetic field (B)
Figure 7.4: Magnetic Interaction Figure 7.5: A compass shows that a mag-
netic field surrounds a current carrying
wire
F~B = q~v × B
~ (7.1)
Now for more understanding this law, consider a test charge (+q) placed near the
~ in magnetic field
north pole of magnet rod, and the charge is moved with velocity (v)
~ we have the following case:
(B)
1. The magnetic force (F~B ) is always perpendicular to (~v ), no matter what the
direction of (~v ), it cannot change the magnitude of ~v , only its direction.
2. The magnetic force varies with the direction of velocity (~v ), that is depending
~ it is (F~ ) becomes zero where (ϕ = 0o , 180o )
on the angle between (~v ) and (B),
~ = vB sinϕ) and the magnetic force has its maximum value
fig (7.5) as (~v × B
~ (i.e. ϕ = 90o ).
where (~v ) is perpendicular to (B)
3. The magnitude of (F~B ) varies with the magnitude of (~v ) in direct proportional.
4. We also find that the magnitude of (F~B ) is proportional to the magnitude of

charge (q) and that (F~B ) reverses direction when (q) changes sign.
From equ (7.1), we note that we can obtain the magnitude of (B),~ if we assume
~ then from fig (7.5), (ϕ = 90o ).
that the velocity is perpendicular to (B),
FB = |q| vB sin90 FB = |q| vB (7.2)
FB max
∴ B= (7.3)
|q| v
7.4. The magnetic Force On a Moving Charge 68
~ is the tesla (T)

The SI unit of B
N ewton N
1 tesla (T ) = 1 =1
Coulomb.M eter/Second A.m
Where (Non-SI) unit
1 tesla = 104 gauss
~
Table below gives soma typical values of B
Location ~
B(T)
At the surface of a neutron star (Calculated) 108
Near a super conducting magnet 5
Near a large electromagnet 1
Near a small bar magnet 10−2
At the surface of earth 10−4
Fig (7.5) shows the geometrical relationship among the vectors F~B , ~v , and B,
~ note
that F~B is always perpendicular to the plane formed by ~v & B
~
Example
~ of magnitude 1.2 mT points
A uniform magnetic field (B)
upward vertically, a proton with kinetic energy 5.3 Mev
moves horizontally. Find the magnitude of (F~B ) acts on
the proton
F~B = q~v × B
~
FB = qvB sin 90 FB = qvB
Kinetic energy:
s
1 2K.E
K.E = mv 2 ⇒ v =
s
2 m
−13
2 × 5.3M ev × (1.6 × 10 J/M ev)
v= −27 = 3.2 × 107 m/s
1.67 × 10 Kg
FB = |q|vB sin θ
−19
= (1.6 × 10 C) (3.2 × 10 m/s) (1.2 × 10−3 T ) (sin 90 ) = 6.1 × 10−15 N
7
This is may seem like a small force, but it acts on a particle of small mass, producing
a large acceleration; namely
F 6.1 × 10−15 12
a= = −27 = 3.7 × 10 m/s
m 1.6 × 10
F = ma (Newton Second Law)
Example
An electron in TV camera tube is moving at 7.2x106 m/s in magnetic field of strength
83 mT
7.5. Combining Electric and Magnetic Fields 69
1. If you don’t know the direction of field, what is the maximum and what point
the electron does not experience to force.
2. If the electron acceleration is 4.9x106 m/s2 what is the angle between (V~ ) and
~
(B).
Example
A proton traveling at 23o with respect to magnetic field (2.63 mT) experiences
magnetic force of (6.48x 10−17 N) calculate:
1. The proton speed
2. Kinetic energy of proton
Solution:
FB 6.48 × 10−17
1. F~B = q V~ ×BF
~ B = qV BsinϕV = =
qBsinϕ (1.6 × 10−19 ) (2.63 × 10−3 ) (sin23)
1 1
2. K.E = me v 2 K.E = (1.67 × 10−27 ) J
2 2
7.5 Combining Electric and Magnetic Fields

~ and magnetic field (B)
If both electric field (E) ~ act on
a charged particles, the total force on the charge can be
expressed as:
F~ = q E
~ + q~v × B
~ (7.4)
This force called Lorentz force, which can be defined

as "the sum of electric and magnetic forces that may si-
multaneously act on charged particle".
The electric part of this force acts on the charged
particle, whether at rest or in motion. The magnetic
part acts only on moving charged particles. One com-
mon application of the Lorentz force occurs when a beam
of charged particles passes through a region in which the Figure 7.6: Electric and
~ and B
E ~ field are ⊥ to each other and the velocity of the
Magnetic Fields
~ B,
particles. If (E, ~ and ~v ) are oriented as in fig (7.6),
~ is in opposite direction to the magnetic force. We can
then the electric force (q E)
adjust (change) (E)~ and (B)~ until the magnitudes of (F~E ) and F~B are equal in this
case the Lorentz force is zero so that:
qE = qvB
7.6. The Magnetic Field due to moving charges 70
E
v= (7.5)
B
Then particle with (v = E/B) is unaffected by the two fields. This value of v is
independent of the q or mass of the particles.
Example
An electric field of 1.5 KV/m and a magnetic field of 0.44 T act on a moving electron,
they produce no force.
1. Determine the electron speed.

~ B,
2. Draw the vectors E, ~ and ~v .
Solution
~ is perpendicular to the plane
1. The total force (Lorentz force vanishes) when (E)
~ and (~v ). Then F = 0F~ = q E
of (B) ~ + q V~ × B
~ In this case the electric force

~ is equal to magnetic force q~v × B
(q E) ~ .
qE = qvB
E 1.5 × 103
v= =
B 0.44
2.
7.6 The Magnetic Field due to moving charges

In section (7.4) we discussed the force exerted by magnetic field on a moving charge,
here by analogy to electric field, we can say that moving charge can also be a source
of magnetic field this observation first was demonstrated in 1820 by Orested, he
was noted that when a compass places near the wire carrying a current the needle of
compass affected by the current.
If we assume that a charge (q) moving with velocity
(~v ) then the magnetic field B~ produced has some properties:
7.6. The Magnetic Field due to moving charges 71
(a) The moving charge on the (b) The moving charge on the
magnetic field gold surface
Figure 7.7: The Magnetic Field due to moving charges
1. The field strength is directly proportional to the magnitude of the velocity (v)
and charge (q).
~ is reversed.
2. If (~v ) reverse direction or q changes sign, the direction of B

3. The field B~ is zero at points along the direction of (~v ) as shown in fig (7.8)

~ varies with (sinϕ) (ϕ: is the angle between point and (~v )). Figure
the field B
Figure 7.8: The field at point 2 is 1/4 of the field at point 1, because point 2 is twice
as far from the charge
show that the field at point 2 is 1/4 of the field at point (1), because point 2
is twice as far from the q, point(3) is the same distance from the q as point 1,
but the field at point 3 is smaller than the field at point 1 by the factor (sin φ)

~
4. B is a tangent to the circle drawn about (~v ) in planes ⊥ to ~v with the

direction of B~ determined by right hand rule (thumb in the direction of (~v )

~ ). On any given circle, the magnitude of B
and fingers is the direction of B ~
is the same at all points.
7.7. The Magnetic Field of Current 72

~ is the same
5. On any given circle around the charged path the magnitude of B
at all points on the circle.

6. The magnitude of B ~ decreases by (1/r2 ) where (r) is the distance from the
line of current it represent the radius of circle.
qv sinϕ
B∝ (7.6)
r2
In the vector form:
B~ = K q~v × r̂ (7.7)
r2
r̂: is the unit vector with magnitude 1
~r
∴ r̂ =
|r|
Then equ (7.7) can be written as:
~ = K q~v × ~r
B (7.8)
r3
Where (K) is constant and it is equal to:
µo
K= = 10−7 T.m/A
4π
µo : is permeability constant (µo = 4π × 10−7 T.m/A)
Then equ (7.8) of magnetic field becomes:
~ = µo q~v × r̂ = µo q~v × ~r
B
4π r2 4π r3 (7.9)
µo qv sin φ
B=
4π r2
When φ is the angle between ~v and ~r
7.7 The Magnetic Field of Current

In previous section we deduced that there is a magnetic field of moving charge in
specific direction with velocity(~v ). We generalize the idea for current passes through
a wire in various shapes. As the current essentially is a collection or are a number of
charges flowing through a conductor (wire). Thus we use integration method as for
electric field to determine the magnetic field of the whole wire that carries a current
(i): Z
B= dB
µo dq~v × ~r
dB =
4π r3
7.8. The Magnetic field of Straight Line Wire 73
d~s
We can write as ~v =
dt
d~s dq
dq~v = dq = .d~s = id~s
dt dt
µo id~s × r̂ µo id~s × ~r
∴ dB = 2
= (7.10)
4π r 4π r3
This is named Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of (dB) is
µo ids sinϕ
dB = (7.11)
4π r2
~ is the same as the direction of d~s × ~r
The direction of dB
7.8 The Magnetic field of Straight Line Wire
From fig (7.9) we have a straight wire, we wish to find

magnetic field (B)at point (p) at a distance (d) from
the midpoint of wire, the wire carries a current (i), at
first we determine (dB) of the small part of wire (dz)
at point (p) using equ (7.11)
µo ids sinϕ
dB =
4π r2
√
r= z 2 + d2 ⇒ r 2 = z 2 + d2
d d
sinϕ = sin (π − ϕ) = cos ϕ = = √ 2
r z + d2
µo id
∴ dB = dz Figure 7.9: The
4π (z 2 + d2 )3/2
Magnetic field of
Straight Line Wire
L
Z
µo id Z + 2 dz
B= dB = L
4π − (z 2 + d2 )3/2
2
L
+
µo id z 2
B=
4π d2 (z 2 + d2 )3/2 L
−
2
µo i L
B= q (7.12)
4πd (L2 /4) + d2
7.8. The Magnetic field of Straight Line Wire 74
In special case where we have too long wire compare with the distance (d) we want
to find magnetic field that is (L d) then equation (7.12) can be written:
µo i
B= (7.13)
2πd
Example
An alpha particle (q=+2e) is moving in positive x-axis direction with speed (1.5
x 106 m/s) when the particle at the origin. Find the magnetic field at:
1. P1 , x=0, y=0, z=+2 cm
2. P2 , x=0, y=+2 cm, z=0
3. P3 , x=+1 cm, y=+1 cm, z=+1 cm
Solution:
1. At P1
µo qV sinϕ
B1 =
4π r12
2 × (1.6 × 10−19 ) (1.5 × 106 ) sin 90
B1 = 10−7 = 1.2 × 10−16 T
(0.02)2
1. In this case B1 =B2 because the distance between P1 and q is equal to P2 to q

and the magnitude of (B) is same at the same circle, then P1 and P2 are lies on
the circle of radius (2 cm).
2. At P3 √
q √
r3 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3 = 1.73 cm
ϕ: angle between (V~ ) and (~r3 ) can be determine

ab 1
cosϕ = = = 0.578 , ϕ = cos−1 0.578 ϕ = 54.7o
r3 1.73
−7 2 (1.6 × 10−19 ) (1.5 × 106 ) sin 54.7

B3 = 10 2 = 1.3 × 10−16 T
(0.0173)
7.9. The Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Charge 75
7.9 The Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying

Charge
A current is a collection of moving charges. Be-
cause a magnetic field exerts a side way force on
a moving charge, it should be also exert a side
ways force on a wire carrying a current. That
is, a side ways force is exerted on the conduction
electrons in the wire, but since the electrons can
not escape side ways, the force must be trans-
mitted to the wire itself. Fig 7.10a shows a wire
that passes through a region in which a B ~ ex-
ists. When the wire carries no current Fig 7.10a, Figure 7.10: A flexible wire passes
it experiences no deflection. When a current is between the poles of a magnet.
carried by the wire, it deflects Fig 7.10b, when (a) There is no current in the wire.
the current is reversed Fig 7.10c the deflection (b) A current is established in the
reverses. The deflection also reverses when the wire, (c) The current is reversed.
B~ is reversed.
To understand this effect consider the charges
flows in the wire Fig (7.11), using free electron
model for current in a wire assuming the elec-
trons to move with a constant velocity vd (drift
velocity).
The wire passes through a region in which a
uniform B ~ exist. The side ways force on each
(q = −e) due to the B ~ is (−e~vd × B).
~ Let con-
sider the total side ways force on a segment of
the wire of length (L).
The same force acts on each electron in the
segment, and the total F~B on the segment is
therefore equal to the number N of electrons is
Figure 7.11: A close-up view of
F~B = −N e~vd × B
~ (7.14)
a length L of the wire of Fig.
If (n) is the number density (number per unit 7.10 The current direction is up-
volume) of electrons, then the total number N of ward, which means that electrons
electrons in the segments is (nAL), where A is drift downward. A magnetic Held
the cross-sectional area of the wire. Substituting emerges from the plane of the fig-
in equ (7.14) ure, so that the wire is deflected
to the right.
F~B = −nALe~vd × B
~ (7.15)
But ~j = −ne~vd and i = jA

Then
~
nALe~vd = iL (7.16)
7.10. Amper’s Law 76
Substituting in equ (7.14), we obtain an expression for the force on the segment:
F~B = iL
~ ×B
~ (7.17)
equ (7.17) is similar to equ F~B = q~v × B.

~ Fig (7.12) shows the vector relationship
~ ~ ~
between F , L&B compare with qE = qvB to see the similarities between equ (7.17)
and F~B = q~v × B~ then
FB = iLB sin φ (7.18)
~ is parallel to B,
If L ~ then F~B = 0. If the segment is ⊥ to the direction of the field,
then
FB = iLB (7.19)
If the wire is not a straight or the field is not uniform. Then
dF~B = idL
~ ×B
~ (7.20)
We can find the total force on the segment of length L by doing a suitable.
~ that makes an
Figure 7.12: The magnetic force acting on a directed wire segment L
angle φ with a magnetic field.
7.10 Amper’s Law

Coulomb’s law can be considered a fundamental law of electrostatic to calculate the
electric field also the Gauss’ law permitted us to solve a certain class of problems,
those containing a high degree of symmetry.
This situation in magnetism is similar. Using the Biot-Savart law to calculate

the magnetic field of any distribution of currents (which are equivalent to Coulomb’s
law). A more fundamental approach to magnetic fields uses Amper’s law to calculate
~ Which can written as:
B. I
~ s = µo I
B.d~ (7.21)
In using Amper’s law we construct an imaginary closed surface (called an Amperian
loop) I Z
~ s = Bds cos θ
B.d~ (7.22)
The I in equ (7.21) is the total current by the loop, it is the total current carried by
wires that pierce any surface bounded by the loop. in fig (7.13) the B ~ at any point
is the net effect of the currents in all wires. However, in the evaluation of the right
side equ 7.21 including only the current i1 & i2 , because the wires carrying i3 & i4
do not pass through the surface the loop carrying currents in opposite direction. A
right-hand rate is used to assign signs to currents (such as i1 ) are taken to be positive,
where as currents in the opposite direction (such as i2 ) are taken to be negative. The
net currents is I = i1 − i2 . Changing the shape of the surface with out changing the
loop does not change these conclusion.
Z
Bds cos θ = µo (i1 − i2 )
Figure 7.13: (a) In applying Ampere’s law, we integrate around a closed loop. The
integral is determined by the net current that passes through the surface bounded
by the loop. (b) The surface bounded bythe loop has been stretched upward.
In Fig (7.13b) the surface has be "stretched" upward so that now the wire carrying
current i4 penetrates the surfaces. However, note that it does so twice, once moving
downward (−i4 ) to the total current through the surface, according to our (right-
hand rule)and once moving upward (+i4 ). Thus the total current through the surface
does not change. Then I
Bds cos θ = µo (i1 − i2 ) (7.23)
Applications of Amper’s Law
1- Along straight wire (external points) :

We can use Amper’s law to find B ~ at a distance d from along straight line as
illustrated in Fig (7.14). Choosing Amperian loop a circle of radius d centered
on the wire with its plane perpendicular to the wire.
where θ = 0
I I
Bds cos θ = B ds = B(2πd) = µo I
The right side of Amper’s law is simply µo I (taken

as positive in accordance with the right-hand rule)
gives
µo I Figure 7.14: A circular Amperian
B2πd = µo I =⇒ B =
2πd ~
loop used to find B
2- Along straight line (internal points) :

We can also use Ampere’s law to find the B ~ inside a wire. We assume a
cylindrical wire of radius R in which a total current (i) is distributed uniformly
i cross-section. to find B ~ at a distance r < R from the center of wire. Fig
(7.15) shows a circular Amperian loop of radius (r) in side the wire. Where B ~
is constant in magnitude every where on the loop and tangent to the loop, left
side of Amperian law is equal to B(2πr).
The right side of Ampere’s law involve only the current in side the radius r.
If the i is distributed uniformly over the wire, the fraction of the i inside the
πr2
radius r is the same as fraction of the area inside r, or . Ampere’s law
πR2
gives
πr2
B(2πr) = µo i 2
πR
µo ir
∴ B= (7.24)
2πR2
µo i
At the surface of the wire (r = R) =⇒ B = will be equal with equ (7.28)
2πR
µo i ~ depends on (r) at point both inside and
B= Fig (7.15) shows how the B
2πR
outside the wire.
Equ (7.24) is valid only for the case in which the (i) is distributed uniformly
over the wire.
Figure 7.15: Along straight wire carries a (I)
Figure 7.16: The magnetic field calculated for the wire shown in Fig. 33-22. Note
that the largest field occurs at the surface of the wire.
7.11. Faraday’s Experiments 80
7.11 Faraday’s Experiments

Faraday’s law of induction was discovered
through experiments carried out by Michael
Faraday in England in 1831 and by Joseph Henry
in the United States at about the same time.
Figure 7.17 shows a coil of wire as a part of a
circuit containing an ammeter. No current in
the circuit because there seems to be no elec-
tromotive force. However, if we push the bar
magnet toward the coil, which its north pole fac-
ing the coil, the ammeter deflects, showing that
a (i) has been set up in the coil. If we hold
the magnet stationary with respect to the coil,
the ammeter does not deflect. If we move the
magnet away from the coil, the meter again de- Figure 7.17: The ammeter A de-
flects, but in the opposite direction. The faster flects, indicating a current in the
the magnet is moved, the greater is the reading circuit, when the magnet is mov-
of the meter. The current that appears in this ing with respect to the coil.
experiment is called an (induced current) Fig.
7.18 the coils are placed close together but at rest with respect to each other.
When we close the switch S, thus setting up
a steady current in the right-hand coil, the am-
meter in the left-hand coil deflects momentarily.
When we open the switch, the meter again de-
flects momentarily, but in the opposite direction.
Experiment shows that there is an induced emf in
the left coil of Fig. 7.18 whenever the current in
the right coil is changing. The common feature
of these two experiments is motion or change.
As the magnet is moved in the situation of Fig.
7.17, or as the switch is opened or closed in Fig.
Figure 7.18: The ammeter A de-
7.18, the number of lines of the magnetic field
flects momentarily when switch S
passing through the left-hand coil changes, it is
is closed or opened. No physical
the change in the number of field lines passing
motion of the coils is involved.
through a circuit loop that induces the emf in
the loop. To make this statement quantitative,
we introduce the magnetic flux φ can be considered to be a measure of the number
of field lines passing through any surface is defined as
Z
φB = ~ A
B.d ~ (7.25)
~ is an element of area of the surface (shown in Fig. 7.19), and

Here dA
φB = BA cos θ (7.26)
7.11. Faraday’s Experiments 81
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the tesla meter", which is given the name of weber
(abbreviation Wb); that is,
1 weber = 1 tesla.meter2
In terms of the magnetic flux, the emf induced in a circuit is given by Faraday’s law
of induction: In mathematical terms, Faraday’s law is
dφB
|ε| = (7.27)
dt
where ε is the induced emf, the emf has units of volts.

If the coil consists of N turns, then an induced emf appears in every turn, and the
total induced emf in the circuit is the sum of the individual values, and
dφB
|ε| = N (7.28)
dt
Figure 7.19: The magnetic field TS’ through an area A gives a magnetic flux through
the surface. The element of area dA is represented by a vector.The magnitude of
the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the rate at which the magnetic flux through
the circuit is changing with time.
Chapter 8
Inductance
in chapter (??) we studied the behavior of capacitors,in which accumulate charge and
setup an electric field in which energy is stored. In this chapter we study a device
called an inductor, in which energy is stored in the magnetic field surrounding its
current-carrying wires.
We determine the inductance of an inductor through the application of Faraday’s
law, in which a changing current produces an emf. The inductance measures the
ability of the inductor to store energy in the magnetic field of a current.
8.1 Inductance
An inductor is a circuit element that stores
energy in the magnetic field surrounding its
current-carrying wires. An inductor is char-
acterized by its inductance which depends on
its geometrical properties its like capacitor.
Fig (8.1) shows an inductor, such as as
ideal solenoid, carrying a current (I) that Figure 8.1: An arbitrary inductor,
produces a magnetic field B~ in its interior. If represented as a solenoid. The current
~ and the i establishes a magnetic Held B.~
we charge the I, thereby changing B
magnetic flux through the solenoid. Fara-
day’s law show that there is an emf generated in the inductor.
The inductance L is defined to be the proportionality constant that relates the
rate of change of current to the induced emf:
dI
εL = L (8.1)
dt
The inductance is always taken tube positive quantity. Equ (8.1) show that SI unit
of inductance is
1 Henry = 1 V.sec/Amper
In an electric diagram an inductor is ( ). To find the relationship between the
dI
sign of εL and using Lenz law.
dt
82
8.2. Calculation The Inductance 83
8.2 Calculation The Inductance

We can use equ (8.1) to find the inductance of an inductor of any particular size or
shape. Our method will be to use the magnetic field of the current-carrying inductor
to find the flux through the device, and then to use Faraday’s law to find the emf
corresponding to a changing current.
~ which we can calculate
Suppose the current in the inductor set up a magnetic field B,
form the size and shape of the inductor and from the distribution of I. This enables
the magnetic flux φB through each turn of the coil to be obtained. For the cases we
will consider, the flux has the same value of each of the N turns of the coil, so that
the total flux is (N φB ). This quantity is known as the number of flux linkages of the
inductor.
The emf can be found from Faraday’s law
d(N φB )
εL = − (8.2)
dt
Comparing the two equations, we find
dI d(N φB )
L =−
dt dt
Integrating with respect to time (assuming that φB = 0 when I = 0)
LI = N φB
φB
L=N (8.3)
I
Equ (8.3) is independent of I (like the capacitance) depends only on the geometry
of the device.
8.3 The Inductance of a Solenoid

Apply equ (8.3) to calculate L for a section of length (l) of a long solenoid of cross-
sectional area A;
The magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying I is
β = µo nI
where n: number of turns per unit length.

The number of flux linkages in the length (l) is:
N φB = (nl)(BA)
or
N φB = n2 lµo IA
From equ (8.3)
φB
L=N = µo n2 lA (8.4)
I
8.4. LR Circuit 84
The inductor per unit length is

L
= µo n2 A (8.5)
l
This equation involves only geometrical factors, the cross section of area (A) and the
number of turns per unit length. If we double (n2 ) the number of turns per unit
length, not only is the number of N of turns doubled, but the flux φB through each
turn is doubled, and the number of the flux linkages increases by a factor of (4), as
does the inductance.
8.4 LR Circuit
Figure (8.2) shows s circuit in which R and
L are connected in series. A switch (S) can
connect a battery to emf (ε) into the circuit.
Initially, no I flows in the circuit. When the
S moved to a, the I in the R starts to rise. If
the L we not present, the the I would quickly
ε
rise to a steady value ( ). The L, however,
R Figure 8.2: An LR circuit
gives an induced emf εL , which according to
Lenz law, oppose the rise in I. That is op-
poses the polarity of the battery emf. The I in the circuit depends on two emfs: a
constant emf (ε) due to battery and a variable emf εL of the opposite sign due to the
inductance.
In this circuit, we can consider the L to behave like an infinite resistance just
after the battery is switched into the circuit. Much later the L behaves a resistance
of zero as the current approaches its steady value. Now analyzing a circuit when a
switch is at (a)
dI
ε − IR − L
dt
or
dI
ε = IR + L (8.6)
dt
dI
(ε − IR) = L
dt
Z i
dI dt
= intt0
0 ε − IR L
ε
∴ i(t) = (1 − e−t/τL ) (8.7)
R
L
where τL = (8.8)
R
The inductive time constant τL indicate, how rapidly the I approaches its steady
value equ (8.7) show that i = 0 when t = 0 and i → ε/R when t → ∞ From equ
8.4. LR Circuit 85
(8.7) put τL = t
ε ε ε
i= (1 − e−1 ) = (1 − 0.37) = 0.63
R R R
The τL is that time at which the I in the circuit is less than its find steady value
1
(ε/R) by a factor of (about 37%).
e
∆VR = IR = ε(1 − e−t/τL )
dI
and ∆VL = L = εe−t/τL (8.9)
dt
Figure 8.3: The variation with time of (a) ∆VR , the potential difference across the
resistor in the circuit of Fig. (8.2), and (b) ∆VL , the potential difference across the
inductor in that circuit The curves are drawn for R = 2000Ω, L = 4.0H, and ε = 10V .
The inductive time constant τL is 2 ms; successive intervals equal to τL are marked
by the triangles along the horizontal axis.
which are plotted in fig (8.3). From equ (8.9) we obtain:

∆VR + ∆VL = ε
If we throw the switch from a to b when the I has same values Io the effect is to
remove the battery from the circuit. Now
di
L + iR = 0
dt
Z i
di Z t R
= 0 dt
io i 0 L
−R
it = io e L
t
= io e−t/τL (8.10)
Fig (8.4) show the ∆VR & ∆VL in which the S is left at a for time that is very long
compared with (τL ).
Using equ (8.10) to obtain ∆VR & ∆VL
L
∆VR = io Re−t/τL & ∆VL = − io e−t/τL = −Rio e−t/τL
τL
∴ ∆VR + ∆VL = 0
8.4. LR Circuit 86
Figure 8.4: Same as Fig. (8.3) forthe circuit of Fig. (8.2) with the switch thrown to
b after it has been ata for along time
Appendix A
Typefaces Used
Greek Alphabet
Upper Case Lower Case

alpha A α
beta B β
gamma Γ γ
delta ∆ δ
epsilon E
zeta Z ζ
eta H η
theta Θ θ
iota I ι
kappa K κ
lambda Λ λ
mu M µ
nu N ν
xi Ξ ξ
omicron O o
pi Π π
rho P ρ
sigma Σ σ
tau T τ
upsilon Υ υ
phi Φ φ
chi X χ
psi Ψ ψ
omega Ω ω
87
Appendix B
B.1 Physical Constant
Quantity Symbol Numerical Value Unit

acceleration of free fall (standard) gn 9.80665 m/s2
atmospheric pressure (standard) po 1.01325 × 105 Pa
atomic mass constant (unified) mu 1.660540 × 10−27 kg
Avogadro constant NA 6.022137 × 1023 mol−1
Bohr magneton µB 9.274015 × 10−24 J/T
Boltzmann constant k 1.380658 × 10−23 J/K
elementary (proton) charge e 1.602177 × 10−19 C
electron: charge −e −1.602177 × 10−19 C
electron: rest mass me 9.109390 × 10−31 kg
electron: charge/mass ratio e/me 1.758820 × 1011 C/kg
Faraday constant F 9.648531 × 104 C/mol
free space: electric constant εo 8.854188 × 10−12 F/m
free space: intrinsic impedance Zo 376.7303 Ω
free space: magnetic constant µo 4π × 10−7 H/m
free space: speed of e.m. waves c 2.99792458 × 108 m/s
gravitational constant G 6.67259 × 10−11 N m2 kg −2
ideal molar gas constant R 8.314510 Jmol−1 K −1
neutron rest mass mn 1.674929 × 10−27 kg
Planck constant h 6.626076 × 10−34 J s
normalised (h/2π) ~ 1.054573 × 10−34 J s
proton: rest mass mp 1.672623 × 10−27 kg
proton: charge/mass ratio e/mp 9.578831 × 107 C/kg
Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.67051 × 10−8 W m−2 K −4
velocity of sound in air (s.t.p.) c 331.45 m/s
88
B.2. Prefix 89
B.2 Prefix
Prefix Prefix Symbol Prefix Factor

yotta Y 1024
zetta Z 1021
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
gigi G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 101
deci d 10−1
centi c 10−2
milli m 10−3
micro µ 10−6
nano n 10−9
pico p 10−12
femto f 10−15
atto a 10−18
zepto z 10−21
yocto y 10−24
Written By:
Saro Salam Ahmed
Electricity and Magnetism
2013-2014

Elec

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Elec

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Elec

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electricity and

1 Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law 1

2 Electric field and Gauss Law 11

3 Electric Potential Energy and Potential 25

4 Electrical material and capacitance 35

6 Direct Current Circuit (DC Circuit) 49

7 The Magnetic Field 65

1.1 Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1 Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.1 Electric Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4.1 A Conductor in an Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.6 Slab of Insulating materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6.1 Electric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

7.1 Magnetic Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8.1 An arbitrary inductor, represented as a solenoid. The current i estab-

Electric Charge and Coulomb’s

1.2 Historical Development of Electromagnetism

1.3 Electric Charge

(a) Repulsion (b) Attraction

Figure 1.1: Electric Charge

1.4 Conductors and Insulators

These materials are named insulators.

1.5 Coulomb’s Law

Figure 1.2: Coulomb’s Law

1.6 Comparison Between Coulomb’s Law and New-

K = 1/4πo = 9 × 109 N.m2 /C 2

o : is permittivity of force space and equals (8.85×10−12 c2 /N.m2 ). This equation

• Continues charge distribution:

• The charge rod:

• The charge disk::

• The charge shape:

I Uniform Line of Charges:

From the figure

Equ. 1.3 become:

Now putting (q/2πR) instead of (λ) in above equation:

Vector from the Coulomb’s law:

Example 1: The average distance in the hydrogen atom is 5.3 × 10−11 m

1. What is the magnitude of the average electrostatic force between them .

2. What is the magnitude of the average gravitational force between them

3. Compare between the two forces.

3. Gravitational force is weaker than the electrostatic force by a factor of about

3.7 × 10−6 c × 1.2 × 10−6 c

This is a large repulsive electrostatic force , acting on a single proton , so it is must

1 100 × 10−6 × 0.03 × 10−3

Electric field and Gauss Law

2.2 The Electric Field

Charge Field Charge

Figure 2.1: Electric Field

Example: An electron (q = −e) placed near a charged body experience a force in

1. Using equation 2.1

2. Using the same equation:

Fy = qE = 2(+1.62 × 10−19 )(−2.25 × 1011 N/C) = −7.2 × 10−8 N

It means that the electrostatic force is attraction in the negative y-direction

2.3 Electric Field of point charge

2.4 Electric field of continuous charge distribution

I- Uniform line of charge:

Carrying out this integral we get:

II- Uniform ring of charge:

K = 1/4πo = 9 × 109 N.m2 /C 2

o : is permittivity of force space and equals (8.85×10−12 c2 /N.m2 ). This equation