oO! ~maacesyeh an be Aas se pebiodic eee (aboud 1 at hase [und) 3 eau alaminun elethn static fold of Ce tied peti eee eee ole {— = Orso aheot + 3 wninengst als “(wok eted) + — Rightly round to Nudews. 7 a Scanned with CamScannera| Solid > nana ado ms —[-3s [ee cooplely ped bak = yo a ee a wo Aa uted * | due to whine lain +” Mei ghee 7 alow aay ta oo a ha | ence eel st | = sake — _ fod i | Tagan a — Lue! i> aonas a | 04 thor One Joouatk dn gents fran Tila Sab Tous Beal ( dint wary Leth puts duu to wnlivaution) deus ans Covb vues Atte mais # ens "ee a | Sefuakion. | sustle, _oj.—dosdly —paud ene — Jad londuetra peeindly filed Heed = lords — 2 Alwaye ahead. ‘canned with CamScanner> || N Adicow Angelhwrs m a, we | q de swath mo ad otk Al (2214) 7 i aac ape | Ldio Ln = Sell ee — Vers, | untor atc paving es es | — distanu_-: tet _ _ [Rosters “4 splat _- ee Oo tron v2 al a - aie Bris anlivabowic Aspasation = : | widkinactron hatin atom is ne > mo Yrcation 4 3 8s aud 3p er as thet of 4 ollie — a atom: ure Sul sett. 64 oubrneodk — a abe) 2a Soe | Aa dine 20 4) — penal revels + ¢ _2N caee on — eer Scanned with CamScanner| Come Cloae to each ctl” i i wilinactién un Laan’ pat mucrie Na ng “+ Sup tes start 7 seal pl 7 sep aie tl “Forbidden Gap 2S and rer —f- — @) when bere: NMA “MM sitinatayuic_ de__Afatung decuaan | witiva cain dutuwur oulannrcot sett e's op: i ee Te . - alfa abovn gel 7 ab ye Jobin 9 deerzane — pe ee brpaTe:_[_| pacevo. A a [lute 2a 2b) = eam Rerut . ALi nyd cto Cah Ubu, = joy a | ho Aectichion 0h _ on Ae ware - — cs BSS Sub deal Ap Hepes Aub dead egy Sha “Jukuuun 3s and Aap dpe 7 “= OAD. Gh Aes (_ 2N, 25- - euul y EN (3 penal) ; One Conti akens da Scanned with CamScannereda dabide 5d ld: pandas ts un qpllud entree Aol — . | Sepanail =, L =n, Ss \ + | Jo aund lompldely juled 2 Valurwe bend. ptrans Cueby = Corduckon band. Scanned with CamScannerband ana tne upees ~~ _Aianation of Metallic Pro} erties ; i i in three dimensions over ical conduction. In metals, molecular orbitals extend in three aint and In the absence of an electric ail the atoms and electrons have a. high degre‘ ility. i field, equal number of electrons will move in all directions but in the presence of electric field, electrons readily move towards anode and hence electric current flows. 3 Thermal conduction, The mobile electrons ain energy from the heated end and move to an usioccupied molecular orbital where they can travel rapidly to colder part of the metal. Thus, mobile electrons account for the high thermal conduction of metals. 3 Eifect of Temperature on electrical conductivity. The free flow of mobile valence clectrons is obstructed by the increased thermal vibrations of the metal atoms with rise in temperature. Hence, electrical conductivity of a metal decreases with rise in cemperature. Clete windischiiliy ae 440 4A, Ter - Scanned with CamScannermneenate, edie wondusetiilty Se : 84 Classification of Solids distinct On the basis of band structure of solids, these can be classified into three ind structure of solids, these can be classified i D*1Gials (or conductors) Sivrfsulators bity Semiconductors s_ In this case there is no ; The conduction in metals is oily due to the electrons. In this © S ands actually forbidden y NN Band SY Sy —> Energy (eV) (a) Metals (conductors) Oo Fig. 1.47, Eniergy Band Diagram -- sh5 whatar at bro tewup Insulators: An insulator is a material having extremely poor electrical cons this case the valence band is completely filled and conduction band is comp 7 I It has a very wide forbidden energy gap e.g. for diamond it is 6eV oe In 1.47(b). Therefore, a very large amount of energy is required for the electrons to mo re from valence band to conduction band. Because of this, it is practically impossible f an clectron in the valence band to jump to the conduction band. The conduction ts a therefore, continues to remain almost empty. Thus, no current flows through sucha solid and it behaves as an insulator. i “ane faves Se Semiconductor: The_scmiconductoy tivity much greater than that of an insulator but much smaller than that of a metal. The forbidden energy gap in this caseis of the order of leV ks shown in Fig.1.47(c). (e.g. in case of Ge, E, =0.72 eV and for Si,E, = 1.leV). At absolute zero the valence band is completely filled and conduct bands totally empty. Hence they are insulators at low temperature’ However, at oan @) temperature, the thermal energy is sufficient to lift electrons form valence band to © conduction band. In the conduction band, these electrons are free to move under tht influence-of even small electric field. It is important to note that unlike metals, be resistance of semiconductor decreases with the rise in temperature. p r Deninkane of (b) Insulators (©) Seppjconductors \dustivity Scanned with CamScannera . Rerictone ¢_1- 418.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors komb” Intrinsic Semiconductors . ie thermal When the conductivity of a semiconductor is solely determined by nduator ™ ally generated carriers the semiconductor is termed a pure or intrinsic seme Gener jiconductors elements germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) arc regarded as basic semi ae tivity intermediate Py term(semiconductor applies to a class of materials having con re sen conductor and an insulator) When the semiconductor is kept at 0°K, a PU! —_—_______—— —__ Scanned with CamScannerf anp MOLECULAR STRUCTURE ane 410 ductors ; ic Sel on i tins) The intrinsi¢ or pure scmiconductor as such is not of much USC because on termperamareis very STAM Aye To sinall number of tree olectrons a is conductivity at ore conductivity of this intrinsic somiconductor considerabi increases oe is found to ein) Uaay COndu cA aenditonductu Adding some sul intrinsic semiconductors are having smal], 1 . uit, es -peineon ths Filled Valence Band (VB) and empty ‘WH tomb oon Band (CB) [Fig | 48] sufficient to promote ce Con oa from VB to CB. The hole left in the VB mre promared leetron in die CB both contribute maf gp i rds conductivity, It is obvious that number of — rowal . _—— noted to CB increases with rise in we cletton Te thus conductivity of semiconductors SS SG ve mt “ i) Ext eee with temperature) »~ trinsic sep with temperature) 1.18,3-Role of Doping on Band Structures Fig. 1.48 Semiconductors Scanned with CamScanneraS wh temperature) v Fig. 1.48 Semi-conductors 1.183 Role of Doping on Band Structures The process of deliberately adding. the impurity to a semi-conductor so as to het ose ss conducivity fs called doping) The impurity atoms are called as dopants and the senizonductor containing the impurity atoms is called a doped or an impurity or extrinsic semi-conductor) The amount of impurity added in the semiconductor-is very small say | in 10° to 108 atoms, so there is no structural change in the semiconductor but the conductivity of the material is greatly affected by this doping.‘ —— The impurity is added to increase the number of electrons or holes in the semiconductor. Since the semiconductors generally belong to fourth group of periodic table, the impurities which are added are elements belonging to the third or fifth group of periodic table. They are commonly boron, gallium, indium, and aluminium (trivalent) from third group, and phosphorous, antimony and arsenic (pentavalent) from fifth group, Depending upon the Shs type of impurity added, intrinsic semiconductors are classified ad (i) N—type semiconductor (ii) P-type semiconductor. By Bay T, MC +3) = 344 gp - — — P, Mae CHD 2 sap 1. Donor or N-type semiconductors \Whenapentavalet impurity atom offfoup Vis introduced int he smiconduts he resulting extrinsic semiconductor is called N-type semiconductor. Let us consider that_an_ impurity of arsenic is added to Si. Four of its five valence electrons form covalent bonds with the neighbouring four Si atoms while the fifth valence electron remains loosely bound to ts mcles as shown in Fig, 1.49. A small but definite amount of energy is required to detach this, ee from its nucleus and make it free to conduct. The.energy required is, =a i vided by as compared fo the energy required. for breaking a covalent _bond and can y Scanned with CamScannerimpurity ‘Atom oe Free Fe] Electron : aa Fig. 1.50, Energy Level p; Of N-Type Semiconducgae” \ Fig. 1.49. A Pentavalent impurity Atom (As) ina Si Crystal ‘The energy level corresponding to the fifth valence electron lies in the band gap jug, below the conduction band edgeyas shown in Fig 1.50, This energy level is called the don, Jevel{ The depth of the donor level below the conduction band is merely about 0.01eV for Ge and @.045 eV for Si. This much amount of energy is easily available. The electrons are, therefore easily transferred to the conduction band leaving behind positively charged immobile impurty ions. Thus each pentavalent impurity atom donates one. free electron to the semi-conductor Such impurties aye, therefore called as donor or P-type impurties and the semiconducir containing such impurity atoms is known as an N-type semiconductor. Since the donor impurties contribute free electrons to the semiconductor without contributing holes, the concentratron of slectrons in the conduction band becomes greater than the concentration of holes in the vale band: However, the semiconductor remains electrically neutral because number of free electrons (extra) remain equal to the number ‘of donor atoms. Electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers in this type of semiconductor and the current is carried mainly by electrons. Scanned with CamScannerEffect of temperature on the coductivity of n-type semiconductors : jor level to With increase of temperature, the number of electrons jumping from the don mae the conduction band of n-type Semiconductor increases, and thus conductivity Semiconductor initially increases wi erature | th rise in temrature. This ise of conductivity with ompesi | takes place up toa Particular Yange of temperature till all the electrons from the dont |all the electrons from the donor level #®, tansferred to the conduction band, Then the conductivit Constant, because | y of the n-type semiconductor ca | impurity are in conduction ae } ig. 1.51). Beyond this zone, increase in con With rise in temneratore fe anrio=t hace Be ies aa ietinoratire fe anvinsts Bae” Lo Scanned with CamScannera ‘Accoplor saturation Ze Fl Donar Exhaustion 70ne Conductivity o-constant | Intrinsic ‘Extrinsic “Temperature. —> cevaration in conductivity Of 2 n-type and p-type semiconductor with rise in temperature. Scanned with CamScanneram a trivalent impurity of group III is added to a semiconductor, the Tesulting 23 ductor is called a p-type semiconductor)Let us consider that an impurity of Boron is soho Si The thee of the valence elestrons of boron atom form covalen bonds with the se Tehouring atoms While the Tourth bond i not complied ieee the deficiency'of ane aco Ths incomplete bond is shown in Fig. 1.52, as a missing electron and this elecion, deficiency is called a hole. Thus the trivalent impurity atom has a tendency to accept one clcizon from @ neighbouring Si atom to complete the fourth bond. This Process requires a svall ancont of energy which is easily provided by the thermal agitation in the erystal. The srnsferied electron Teaves behind a hole at ifs previous position on the Si atom which acts 3s acutrent carrier. ptor or P-type semiconductor Fig, 1.53. Energy Level Diagram of & res cleston ° P-Type Semiconductor m (Boron) in Si Crystal Huang mee le Eresponding to the electron deficiency of the impurity atom is Jocated “eee band and is ald th erento le od Ks ane et Fig, *82.ATrivalent impurity Ato: } id and is called the acceptor level and it lies at a distance of about Scanned with CamScanneree 4 oss eF above the top of valence band in Si (Fig, 1.53). An electron can be easily transferred fom the valence band To the acceptor level by providing this small amount of energy, This dheatas holes in the valence band whielract as a mobile current carrier. The negatively charged impurity afom, However remains immobile and docs not contribute to the conduction. Thus, cach trivalent impurity atom can accept an clectron from a neighbouring S/ atom fo ‘produce a hoi in the semiconductor. Such impurities are, therefore, known as accep/or or p~ type impiurities and the semiconductor containing such impurity atom is called ap- type semiconductor — Since the acceptor impuritics contribute holes to the semiconductor without contributing electrons, the concentration of holes in the valence band becomes greater than the electrons in the conduction band. However, the semiconductor remains electrically neutral because the number of holes (extra) are equal to the number of acceptor atoms. Holes are the majority carriers and electrons the minority carriers in this case and the current is carried mainly by holes. The holes concentration is obviously extra large as compared to electron. concertration » hut their nrodnet alwavs remains constant i.e. mp.=%17;- —~ Scanned with CamScannervrvwuve aiways remains constant i.e. np = nf;. Effect of temperature on the conductivity of p-type semiconductor With increase of temperature, the number of electrons jumping from the valence band of the p-type semiconductor to the acceptor band oF dopant increases and thus conductivity or P-type semiconductor increases. When the temperature is high enough, at some point, all the acceptor atoms receive clectrons from the valence band and thuS acceptor saturation zone,\s reached. In this zone of temperature, the conductivity remains constant and maximum numbor of holes (depending on the number of dopant atoms added) have been formed. This acceptor saturati wn by Tine BC in Fig TS ~At high temperature beyond acceptor saturation zone, the intrinsic conductivity becomes predominant and so we observe increase in conductivity with rise in temperature Salved Tvnical Problems Scanned with CamScanner