1 * {equim point (o) — “onevibrationorcyele Figure 1 (@) A pendulum’s swing has predictable motion. This predictable ‘motion is used to pace some clocks. (b) One vibration, or one cycle, of the Pendulum is one complete vibration. ibration the cycical motion of an object ‘bout an equilbcium pont ‘mechanical wave the transfer of eneroy through a material due to vibration ‘medium the material that permits the transmission of energy trough vibrations net mation the displacement of a particle ‘over a certain time interval the difference between the particle's intial and ial postions What Is a Vibration? Jn your day-to-day experience you see many objects in back-and-forth motion, example, the movements of windshield wipers and the pendulum in a clock qn back-and-forth motions (Figure I(a)). The wipersand pendulum repeatedly move bag, and forth along a fixed path, resulting in a cyclical motion, Many of these cycliay ‘motions are more rapid and therefore difficult to see. For example, if you put yy hand on the speaker of an operating stereo system, you will feel it shaking with ‘music. The walls ofthe speaker are moving back and forth, but they are moving fast and too slightly to be seen under normal conditions. ‘These objects move ba} and forth about a middle point, which is called an equilibrium point, or res pos ‘When the motion stops, the objects return to this point. For instance, if you stop pendulum in Figure 1(@), itwill hang straight down, at the equilibrium point. Ne hhow the equilibrium point is halfway between the maximum distance thatthe pene ddulum swings to the let and to the right. The cyclical motion about an equilibria point is called a vibration (Figure 1(b)). Vibrations and Mechanical Waves ‘A pendulum is an isolated object—consider instead particles that are part of mat rial, ike a drumhead. Ifthe particles in the drumhead are disturbed, such as when yo beat the drum, the vibrations created by the disturbance are transferred through the material, This transfer of energy through a material by particle vibration is Particle Behaviour in Mechanical Waves When vibrating, the medium tends to gain or lose very little energy. Thus, a vibrati ‘can continue for a long time in some media. A vibration is able to travel through: ‘medium because each molecule in the medium is connected to neighbouring mol- ecules by intermolecular forces. ‘These forces allow the distances between atoms t@ increase slightly without losing energy. This molecular property of a medium allows ‘4 mechanical wave to be one of the most efficient forms of energy transmission in nature. Its the net motion of the particles that causes a vibration. Net motion is the dis placement ofa particle over a certain time interval. The particle may follow a complex | path, but the particle’ net motion is how far it has moved (straight-line distance) from its starting point to its finishing point. After a wave has passed through & ‘medium, the particles return to their original location. Ideally, there is no net motion of the particles when they have stopped vibrating, so their net displacement is 20. ‘Therefore, no work is done on them by the wave—no energy is lost by the wave and. it can continue indefinitely. Figure 2 illustrates this point. The boat is going up and. down when # wave passes, but the boat does not move with the wave energy. Figure 2 A boat on a lake does not move to shoe due to wave action alone. After the ‘wave passes, the boa returns to its poston in 378 Chapter 8 + Vibrations and WavesParticle Behaviour {Real from previous science courses that molecules are always in motion because of thermal energy. However, thermal motion—motion resulting from thermal energy—~is random and does not produce a transfer of energy inthe form of a mechanical wave. {nstead, the medium has to be disturbed by a vibration to set up a mechanical wave. Pgore 3 illustrates this concept using the example ofthe drumhead from page 378. (Figure 3 (2) Aterthe musician strikes the rum, a mechanical wave transfers energy outward ‘fom the impact point. The wave raves trough the medium; inthis caso, ho skin ofthe ‘cjumhead. 0) Te partes of he drumbead vibrate and transfer thelr motion to partes beside ‘thm. This allows the wave energy to move through the medium. All-vibrations need a medium to transfer waves. A mediums effectiveness at trans- 1miting vibrations varies, depending on its molecular and mechanical structure, its density and even its temperature. We now examine more closely how the behaviour ‘of particles in different media allows energy to be transferred by vibrations. 'Particle Behaviour in Solid Media ‘Suppose you sit at one end ofa mattress, and at the other end you place some objects elastic the roperty ofa mem that such as textbooks. If you bounce on one end of the mattress, the objects at the other Tums to ts rigina shape after being send will move. This is because the material in the mattress is connected, soa distur-_“isturbed ‘bance at one end is transferred to the other end. In a solid medium, the atoms are held securely in a crystal formation by strong “mermolecular forces. Therefore, they can only vibrate igh as the disturbance corte ane ;passes through the medium. Ifthe medium returns to its original shape after the dis- turbance, the medium is said to be elastic. Most solid media have this property—even very rigid media, such as steel. In general, rigid materials transfer mechanical waves, ‘more efficiently than less rigid materials. Thus, mechanical waves in rigid materials last Ionger, go faster, and go farther than they do in less rigid media. Duting an earthquake, for example, vibrations through rigid media like rock can be transmitted ‘thousands of kilometres from the source (Figure 4). You will learn more about earth- “quakes in Chapter 10, Conversely, the less rigid a medium, the less efficient it is at transferring a vibration. A less rigid material, such as a pillow, disperses more energy through absorption, so a vibration weakens quickly. The speed and distance that a wave can travel are therefore reduced. “rust , «a Elud Meek Figure 4 Ac Particle Behaviour in Fluid Media near shove tow eaves Recall that liquids and gases are classified as fluids because they are materials that can pass though the planet. flow, In liquids, the molecules are not in a crystal formation but are still very much in contact. So liquids are very effective transmitters of sound. For example, sound * translational molecular motion the travels almost five times as fast and much farther in water than in air. straight-ine motion ofa molecule; his ‘The individual molecules in a gas are much farther apart than they are in mation is pial of gases because the liquids and solids. Consequently, gas is the least dense state of matter, Gases rely partes in quis and solids ae not free ©n translational molecular motion, or straight-line motion, to transfer vibrations. to move in this manner ve 8.1 What Isa Vibration? 379‘With their lower density, gases are less effective than solids and liquids a trans ting vibrations. How well agus transmits a vibration also depends on the gas’ temper ture and density, Figures illustrates particle vibration in a solid. liquid, anda gas Baie NG Nd Figure & Microscopic particle vibration in a) a soli, (ba quid, and (c) a gas. Solid and tquid media are generally more effective at transmitting vibrations than gases are. Ss How could you apply information about + Avibration is the cyclical motion of an object about an equilibrium point. + (Al vivatcr needs madi to wane oe sets tr ec + A mechanical wave is a transfer of energy through @ medium by particle ‘Unit Task on page 486? vibration, Particle vibration is caused by a disturbance to the medium, + A medium is @ material that permits the transmission of energy due to vibrations. A medium can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. + The particles of an clastic medium return to their original location after a ‘wave passes through, + The speed of a wave and the distartceitwcan travel depend on the composit of the medium. A rigid medium allows a wave to travel longer and faster than a less rigid medium. A less rigid medium disperses more energy, thus reducing the speed and distance that a wave can travel, Questions 1. In your owm words, explain the dference between a wave 3. What properties ofa medium allow a wave to pass trough ‘anda vibration, cam most elective? Provide an example in your answer. 2. Lit five vibrating objects that you have observed or 4, Describe three ways in which we use a source of vibration experienced in everyday life, tmx est to create waves that are useful to society, 232 {@) Describe each vibrating object, and explain how you 5, Describe two ways that you think mechanical waves ‘know itis a vibration. produce effects that are harmful to society. Support your (0) How many of the vibrating objects that you listed can ‘answer with an example not used in Question 2. se be considered to be transmitting a mechanical wave? st them, and explain your answer. (©) For each object from (0), identity the medium that ‘transmits these waves. 6. In a graphic organizer, explain the relationship between the ‘speed of a wave in diferent media and the particle nature ofthe media, Eas 380 Chapter 8 + Vibrations and Waves a ,Types of Mechanical Waves wanical waves can be classified according to the direction of the particle motion ‘compared to the direction of the wave motion. There ae two basic types of mechan- geil waves: transverse waves and longitudinal waves. Transverse Waves “Arransverse wave describes a wave in which the particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of the flow of energy. For example, when you strum the string of a guitar, you cause the string to vibrate (Figure 1). The stimulus (origin of vibration) provided iy your finger strumming the guitar is near one end of the guitar string. The vibra tion moves along the string and reflects off the far end, returns, and reflects again, and sp on. However, the guitar string does not move in the direction of the energy flow. {astead, the string vibrates perpendicular to the direction of the flow of energy. “Water waves area familiar example of transverse waves. A boat bobbing on waves ‘moves up and down. ‘This direction is perpendicular to the direction of the flow of energy of the water waves. | Figure inthis image of a single vibrating guitar string, the particles inthe string are moving up ‘ant down, and the energy is flowing back and forth along the string. Longitudinal Waves A longitudinal wave describes a wave in which the particles vibrate in the same direction 8 theenergy flow. Ifyou performed the activity a the beginning ofthis chapter, you creat- ‘ed longitudinal wave motion ina Slinky by sending pulses along the length ofthe Slinky. Aulse isa single wave or single disturbance. Figure 2 illustrates longitudinal wave. Figure 2 Longitudinal wave mation ina inky Je transverse wave a wave in which Particles vibrate perpendicular to the ‘ection of the flaw of energy longitudinal wave a wave in which particles vibrate parallel to the docton of the fow of eneroy 8.2 Types of Mechanical Waves 381compression the region in alongitcinl ave in which the mediums patil are closer together ‘rarefaction the region ina longitudinal ‘wave in which the medium’: partes are farther apart Eien Rarefaction ‘The tem “rarefaction” may be new to you, but you may have heard the term “rarefied” used to describe the ar at igh attudes, where a passenger jet ies, forinstance. At an atu of 9000 m, the ais much less dense ‘han at ses lve, so we say his less dense iris rarefied. “Rare” comes from the wort “at,” which has two ‘der meanings “loose” and “ti.” ‘sound form of energy produced by ‘apidly vibrating objects detectable by ‘sensory organs suchas the ear Another way to demonstrate @ Jongitudinal wave is to connect a number of m together with springs, as shown in Figure 3. Ifyou pull mass A to the let and then it, the spring action will pll mass A toward mass B, The energy is transferred from mass, tomass then from mass B to mass G andl so on. The particles transfering the energy the springs or the masses—all move parallel to the direction ofthe flow of energy A Bc Dp Eg AB Cc Do ¢ Torcoeeemicym erica, my @ AB c pe AB cop ferramrarcrarmrgamaraniae _mimtareoargarar a Figure 3 (a) Mas Ais pulled tote land released.) Masses A and 8 move cose together, ‘moving the energy rom the stimulus along th springs and masses. (The vibration moves log causing masses Band C tobe closer.) The wave has now made i 1 mass E. nthe entre ‘raster, the parties hae all moved parle othe direction ofthe low of ene. Compressions and Rarefactions Gas molecules have much greater freedom of movement, and they are in con ‘motion due to their temperature. A longitudinal vibration in a gas results in regions where the particles are closer together, called compressions, and regions where are farther apart, called rarefactions (Figure 2). “The terms “compression” and “rarefaction” correspond to the local pressure dilfer ences as the wave’ energy passes through the medium. When the particles are clos together, or compressed, the pressure is increased above ambient pressure. The term “ambient pressure” describes the average pressure of the gas; that is, the pres it would have if the wave were not present. The regions where particles are farther apart, or rarefied, have a pressure that is lower than ambient pressure. This concep {is llstyated in Figure 4 higher pressure lower pressure higher pressure compression rarefaction compression Figure 4 Rarefaction and compression region ina longitudinal wave correspont to regions of Pressure diferences Sound ‘A vibrating object can produce longitudinal waves in a part of the medium that sur rounds it If these waves have properties that make them detectable to the human ea they are called sound, The energy transferred through successive compressions and rarefactions of a sound wave causes vibrations in our ears that the brain interprets af sound, (Human hearing is discussed further in Chapter 10.) Sound is also transmitted through liquids and solids. Our ears ae less suited to detecting sound waves in liquids and solids, however. In fluids, sound is transmitted as a longitudinal wave. In solids, sound can be transmitted as either a transverse wave or a longitudinal wave. Complex Wave Motion ‘Transverse and longitudinal waves are basic types of waves, However, in many cases, these types of waves combine to form a more complex wave. For example, water waves onthe surface ofa lake ae largely produced by wind. The wind will impart some longitudinal ‘motion to the water molecules, resulting in 2 motion of the water molecules tat is val in shape. The shape of the oval is controlled by how much the molecules move in each Chapter 8 + Vibrations and Wavesgrection. For example, if the perpendicular motion is much greater than the motion Jel tothe surface, then the oval is longer (Figure 5(a). vAnather example of a complex wave occurs when you strike a slid surface with a [solid object. For example, suppose you strike a piece of wood with a hammer. Some Jpolecules are driven forward, initiating a longitudinal wave, The intermolecular that connect tothe rest ofthe surface also create a transverse wave that radiates Sgutalong the surface (Figure 5(b)). @ ( 4 Su Transverse waves ate created here. ‘To see animations of transverse, longitudinal, and complex waves, Figure 5 (a) The wind blowing over the surface of wate causes the water molecules to move in the shape of an oval. The shape ofthe oval becomes thinner and more vertical with reduced Wind speed. (t) When a wood surtace is struck by a hammer, the Impact create a longitudinal wave below the Longjitucnal waves — surface, anda transverse wave along o ae created here. feeuten nia NTE Te 1 eteda) Skis Performing, Observing, Analyzing, Evaluating, Communicating Inthis activity, you wil investigate longitudinal and transverse wave ‘ton by simulating particle mation. Your teacher wil have the ‘class move out into the hall, ouside, ort some other suitably large oom. Perfor movements ony when instructed by your teacher Part A: Transverse Wave Motion 1, Form a lin in which al students are standing side by side, facing inthe same direction, Leave approximately 1 m between yourself and te student on ether side. You and Your classmates represent the particles in a medium, and the space between students represents the chemical bonds. The student at one end is student 1 the student next student 1 is student 2, and so on . (a) Student 1 moves foward thee steps, student 2 moves forward two steps, and student 8 maves forward one step. (0) Stent 1 moves three steps back and retuns to the starting point, student 2 moves ahead one step and then back. ‘wo, and stent 3 moves ahead two steps and back one step, Student 4 moves ahead thre steps, student 5 moves ea wo steps, and student 6 moves ahead one stp. 3. Examine the shape ofthe wave, 4, Repeat Stop 2 withthe next si students. Continue until the wave has made its way tothe end, Repeat as instructed by your teacher. 5. Observe how the wave travels down the line of students, Part B: Longitudinal Wave Motion 6. Forma line in which all students are standing one behind the other Leave about 3 m between each student. erating Wenererse end Longhucinal Wave Motion wail it ss 7. The students near one end ofthe lin will ve forward three steps. The fotion is to go forward three steps and then back three steps. (@) The student a the back of the tne is student 1, the ‘student ahead of student 1 is student 2, and so on Student 1 takes thre steps forward. Student 2 takes to stops forward, and student 3 takes one step forward, (©) Student 1 takes three steps back and remains stationary from now on. Student 2 takes one step {orward and two steps back, Student 3 takes two steps forward and then one step back, Student 4 takes three steps forward, Student 5 takes two steps forwerd, and student 6 takes one step forward. 8. Inspect the progress ofthe wave. 9. Repeat Step 7 with the next six students, Repeat as instructed by your teacher. ‘A. Inthe transverse wave demonstration, what dd you notice about the distances between you and your neighbours? mmx 8. Did you feel it was possible to move farther than 3 m from the ine, or was this fic to accompli? na rue medium, ‘what would control this aspect ofthe wave's motion? ma . Inthe longitudinal wave demonstration, was it ficult to maintain the motion? Why or wy not? sat 1. Were the simulations in this activity fair? What compromises ‘wore made? at 8.2 Typos of Mechanical Waves 383Summary [iy How could you apply information about sound and sound waves tothe Unit Task on page 4867 respectively + Sound, an important example of a longitudinal wave, isa form of energy produced by rapidly vibrating objects ‘+ Many wave motions in nature are « combination of longitudinal and transverse motion. + In transverse waves, the particles of the medium move perpendicular tothe direction of the flow of energy. + In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium move parallel to the direction ofthe flow of energy. + Ina fluid, longitudinal waves transfer energy through regions of higher and lower pressure. These regions are called compressions and rarefaction, Questions 1. Inyour own words, describe the characteristics ofthe two basic types of mechanical waves. Make a labeled diagram ‘of each, Em sta 2. Provide two examples of transverse waves that you have encountered in everyday ie. Explain why each example is considered a transverse Wave, Ua ur 8. Provide two examples of longitunal waves that you have ‘encountered in everyéay life. Explain why each example is ‘considered a longitudinal wave, Cat ice 4, In Bports stadiums an activity called the wave" is sometimes performed by the crowd Is this a true ‘mechanical wave? If not, what compromises are being made with respect to the definitions given in this section? tm 5, Define sound, and explain how a medium can transfer sound waves eficienty, rm ate 6. Js sound a mechanical wave? Explain your answer. 1m 7. Aside from communicating by speech, lit three benefits of boing abe to detect sound. 8. Provide two examples of a complex wave motion. Describe ‘the wave motions, and explain how you know that ‘transverse and longitudinal waves are present. 0 x wat 9, Figure 6 is an image of an electric ringer inside a bell ar ‘A vacuum pump can be connected tothe jar You tum the | ringer on, and slowly start removing the ar from the bell Jat. Then you slowly allow the air back in, cam ma {@) Predict how the sound from te ringer wil change as Figure 6 The connection to evacuate the alr Is hidden from view. 984 Chapter 8 « Vibrations and Wavesome characteristics of waves, such as the large water wave in Figure 1, are based on tri features, and some characteristics of waves are based on time. So waves can he described in terms oftheir size, their shape, and the speed at which they move. Geometric Wave Characteristics Br characteristics based on shape and sire ince amplitude, wavelength, phase, Sod phase shi implitude and Wavelength Section 8.1 you learned that vibrating particles in a medium create a wave, and tthe equilibrium point ina vibration is halfway between the maximum distances 1m point is called the amplitude (Figure 2). Since a vibrating par- le passes the equilibrium point twice each cycle, the amplitude is haf the distance een the maximum and minimum values. For transverse mechanical waves, the mplitude is measured in metres, ‘The waveform, or shape of a wave when graphed, in Figure 2 shows that the jaximum point of a transverse wave is called a crest, and the minimum point of a transverse wave i called a trough. A continuous wave has many repeating crests and froughs. The amplitude of a longitudinal wave, such as a sound wave, is measured the varying pressures it creates. So scientists define the amplitude of a longitudinal as the maximum pressure it creates compared to the pressure ofthe non-disturbed Imediumn. For this reason, longitudinal waves are often referred to as pressure waves re 2 Geometric wave characteristics applied to both transverse and longitudinal waves. mets, lonatudinal waves are sketched as transverse waves to make them easlerto observe. Also shown in Figure 2is wavelength. Wavelength isthe distance between two similar ints in successive identical cycles in a wave (such as from crest to crest or from {tough to trough). The symbol for wavelength is the Greek letter lambda, A (pronounced hase and Phase Shift Bboth transverse and longitudinal waves, the x-coordinate of a unique point of a ive is called its phase. The units of phase are the same as the units of wavelength Aueires) Phase can also be expressed as a decimal percentage. Thus halfway through, single cycle is a phase of 0.5 (no units). ‘Two waves can be identical to each other but shifted along the x-axis with respect ‘ach other. A phase shift is a shift of an entire wave with respect to en identical Wave along the x-axis, usually by some fraction of a single wavelength (Figure 2). Figure 1 The characteristics ofthis ‘water wave can be descrited in terms of its height and its speed. amplitude the maximum dspacement of ‘wave from its equlovium point ‘waveform the shape ofa wave when graphed ‘rest the maximum point ofa transverse trough the minimum point ofa transverse wave ‘wavelength (A) the distance between ‘wo similar poinsin successive Identical cycles ina wave, suc a rom crest to rest or trough to trough phase in 2 continuous transverse or longitudinal wave, the s-coorinate of unique point of he wave phase shift a shift of an ent wave ‘along the 2s with respect to an otherwise identical wave 8.3 Wave Characteristicsa trough in the other. Tis is avery important concept in electricity electronics i physics of sound (Chapter 9), and the study of the atom. In phase the stato of wo dotical waves ‘Identical waves are In phase if their phase shifs are equal, and out of phase ‘wise. The amount they are out of phase is equal to the phase shift. Often, if two wa | Soa phase shift of “(ora phase shift of0.5) means thatthe crest of one wave is ope ‘at have the same phase shit “ cut of pase te sa ot two identcal #6 out of phase, they are simply sid to be “totally out of phase” waves that have diferent phase sits | e-Based Wave Characteristics ‘Time-based wave characteristics are related to the motion of the vibrating partis | and the wave. These characteristics are frequency, period, and the speed at whick ‘wave travels. Frequency, Period, and Speed frequency (f) the numberof complete The number of complete cycles per unit time, usually 1 s, is called the frequency cycles that occur in uittime, usualy 1s; (Figure 3). A wave has the same frequency as the vibrating particles that create an) sustain it. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz) and is defined as one cy measured in hertz { per second. ‘The time it takes for any of the vibrating particles in a wave to complete one 1] period (7) the time fora vibrating is called the petiod (T). When studying waves, the vibration of the particles is of | particle to complete one cle difficult to observe, so the period can be found by measuring the length of time takes for one wavelength to pass by a fixed point, or the time it takes for one co vibration. Frequency and period are related mathematically: FGM = eles frequency = ime The term “pero” ilo used in Consequently, ‘other repeating motos, such as revolutions and rotatons, to indicate ‘the time for ane cyte, Figure 3 Wave characterises base on time. Frequency isthe numberof complete cys po second Here, there ae about 4 crests per Second, so the requency is f= 4.25 Ha. The perio T=02858. i iM Hilf i Hi i Ifyou stay in one spot and measure how fast the wave crests are passing by, Yo f wave speed (v) the ate at which a wave will have a measure of the wave speed (v). The speed of a wave is also a measure of is traveling trough a medium; also a how fast the energy in the wave is moving. If you know the wavelength and measure of how fast the energyin the period of a wave, you can calculate wave speed, As you learned in Chapter 1, wave is moving is calculated by dividing the distance (wavelength, in this case) by time (pet Hence, = Ate length of one cycle "Te ~ tine ‘ime for one cycle Chapter 8 + Vibrations and Waves“The wnt of wave speed is mettes per second (m/s). As you will earn in Section 8.4, ow fast a wave moves depends on the medium in which itis travelling as well as the emperature of the medium. imple Harmonic Motion (ne common type of oscillation (vibration) is called simple harmonic motion (SHM). ple harmonic motion is any motion that repeats itself at regular intervals about an guiibrium point. The amplitude, period, and frequency are the same for each osclla- gon. Examples of SHIM are spring-mass systéms (Figure 4), a simple pendulum oscil- [sting with a small amplitude, a particle vibrating within a solid, and driven oscillators, + Wave characteristics are based on both wave shape and the behaviour of a wave in time. + Amplitude is the maximum distance a vibrating particle moves from its ‘equilibrium point. + Wavelength is the distance between two similar points in successive identical cycles in a wave, such as from crest to crest or trough to trough. +The phase shift is the amount that one waveform is displaced along the x-axis, from an otherwise identical waveform. + Frequency is the number of complete cycles of a wave that occur per unit, ‘of time (usually 1). Period is the time it takes for a vibrating particle to complete one cycle. + Wave speed is the rate at which a wave travels through a medium. Its also @ measure of how fast the energy in the wave is moving. + Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is any oscillating motion that repeats itself at regular intervals. Questions and frequency. cmt x ieee Investigating Vibrations (9.402) In this investigation, you will hypothesize he factors that afoot ‘and then test your hypotheses. ‘wansverse and longitutinal mation, ‘imple harmonic mation any motion that repeals itself at requir intenals spring Figure 4. spring-mass system 3, In your o¥m words, distinguish between wave speed 4, Make a sketch that shows two identical transverse Waveforms, except one waveform is phase-shfted one-half ‘a wavelength fromthe other. cm ar 5. Make a sketch that shows two identical longitudinal waveforms, except one waveform is phase-shifted one-half a wavelength from the other. Gm saat (@) Label the amplitude, wavelength, and equilxium point 6, f you did the activity atthe begining ofthis chapter, you of the waveform, performed a simple demonstration of two types of wave (0) stall pairs of points that are in phase. ‘motion using a Stinky. Do you think that these motions 2 Contrast wavelength and ampitude for 2) ongtuinal ‘Were examples of simple harmonic motion? Explain your Waves and (b) transverse waves. (00 x answer, CaM xa be 8.3 Wave Characteristics 37Reciprocal ‘reciprocal sa number that you ‘mutpy by so thatthe esu equals 1. For example, the reciprocal of 4 is ‘because 4x j= 1, Investigating Two-Dimensional ‘Wave Motion (p. 403) Hence In this investigation, you wil predict vA ‘he relationships between frequency, speed, and waveenath. See Determining Wave Speed In this section, you will learn about the mathematical relationships involved ‘wave speed, such as the universal wave equation. You will also learn what fa influence the speed of a wave; in particular, a sound wave. The Universal Wave Equation ‘Imagine you are standing on a dock on a lake so that you are able to observe the passing waves. (You can assume that you have all the equipment necessary to allow you observe and measure properties of waves, such as distance and time) Fits, by the duration between crests passing your reference point, you can measure the per of the wave. Then you can take a picture ofthe waveform and measure the wavelength ising the dock and other structures as distance references, From these measurements, you can calculate wave speed using the kinematics definition for average speed. Using the fact that frequency is the reciprocal of period, a substitution can be made for T'in the wave speed equation: ‘This important relationship is called the universal wave equation, and itis valid for ll ‘waves and wave types. ‘The universal wave equation can also be derived as follows: sytles frequency (f) = ine distance wavelength (A) = tes frequency (f) x wavlenath (4) = FERS 5 tance ‘cycles ‘Tutorial 1 demonstrates how wave speed can be calculated using the universal wa equation. GC ‘Sample Problem 1: Calculating Wave Speed Ahharp string supports a wave with a wavelength of 2.3 m and a frequency of 220.0 Hz. Calculate its wave speed. Given: A = 2.3m; f= 220.0 Hz Required: v ‘Chapter 8 « Vibrations and Waves(220.0 Hz)(2.3 m) = 506 m/s ‘The wave speed on the harp string is 508 mvs, Problem 2: Calculating Wavelength ‘produces a sound wave that Is observed travelling at 350 m/s with a frequency: 1046.50 Hz. Calculate the wavelength of the sound wave. v= 350 mis; f= 1046.50 Hz __350.mvs ~ 7046.50 Hz A= 033m The wavelenth of the sound wave coming from the trumpet is 0.33 m. “1, ra wave nasa frequency of 230 Hz and a wavelength of 2.3m, what is its speed? em te 2 fa wave has a speed of 1500 m/s and a frequency of 11 Hz, what is its wavelength? am ans: 140 my 3, Hfawave has a speed of 405 m/s and a wavelength of 2.0 m, what is its frequency? fa inca ‘Factors That Affect Wave Speed ns i The transfer of energy using waves is more efficient if the particle vibrations do not ‘absorb much er y. For example, a more rigid object such as a soccer ball tends to 5 nergy igi bj ° Ve bounce more effectively if itis fully inflated. Ifthe atoms comprising an object are linked by strong intermolecular forces, the wave energy is transmitted more efi | ciently and thus the wave speed i fester If these forces are not as strong, then energy” transmission isles efficient and thus slower. oe Temperature Figure + comparing transmission o { In the cas of gases, you might think that cooler gases are more elective ttransmit- Youn gos the wah naos Kate | | ting sound because they are denser. However, usually the converse is true because, neighbouring molecules more rapid, | | with an increase in temperature, the molecules move faster and transfer their kinetic ths increasing the rate of sound energy : | energy more efficiently (Figure 1). . Wanste. Hi / one 8.4 Determining Wave Speed 389linear density (2) the mass per unit distance ofa string; units are Klograms per mete (g/m) Figure 2 The diameters ofthe utar stings shown here ae geting Drogresively larger from ft ight ‘The tear density is therefore increasing from ft to right. The speed of sound is Drogtessely slower in these sings. Linear Density and Tension ‘The speed ofa wave along a string, such as a violin or guitar string, is governed by properties of the string (Figure 2). A string’ near density, or mass per unit distangy. determines how much force it will take to make the string vibrate. Linear density is calculated using the equation af ame ‘here m is the mass of the string, in kilograms, and Lis its length, in metres, ‘Another variable affecting wave speed is tension. A loose string, for example, quickly absorb all of the energy. A taut (tight) string, however, will transmit en very effectively. Linear density and tension are the only variables that control speed that waves can travel along a string. The equation for the speed of a wave a stringis y= fe A ‘where Fy is the tension in the string (in newtons) and yz is the linear density’ kilograms per metre). In Tutorial 2 we will demonstrate how this equation is used determine the properties ofa string. Gti seri Sample Problem 1: Determining String Tension ‘On your class wave machine, you have a string of mass 350 g and length 2.3 m. You ‘would like to send a wave along this string at a speed of 50.0 m/s. What must the tohsion,of the string be? Given: m = 350 g or 0.350 kg; L = 2.3 m; v= 50.0 m/s Required: F, ‘Analysis: First, calculate the linear density, .. Second, rearrange the equation for the speed of 2 wave ona sting to solve forthe tension, Fy: w =: ie Solution: ie 350 kg 23m ‘= 0.152 kg/m (one extra digit carried) v wah Rave = (60.0 m/s)*(0.152 kg/m) = 9804 f= S80N Statement: The required tension ofthe string onthe wave machine is 380 N. 390 Chapter 8 + Vibrations and Waves