UBGMY9-15-1

Construction and Environmental Materials

Metals

Dr Adrienn Tomor
adrienn.tomor@uwe.ac.uk
Metals
1. What are metals?
2. Steel types
3. Steel properties
4. Steel production
5. Steel applications
6. Corrosion
1. What are metals?

What are metals?

• Tin
• Lead
• Zinc
• Aluminum
Bronze
• Silver
• Gold
• Copper
• Nickel
• Iron Most common metal used in construction
• Platinum Reasons: - Well suited
- Most abundant

Alloying:
Most metals can be bonded together to vary material properties
because their metallic bond is relatively flexible.
 Melting Point (ºC)

1000
1500
2000

0
500
Tin

Lead

Zinc
1. What are metals?

Aluminum

Silver

Gold
Melting points of metals

Copper

Nickel

Iron

Platinum
1. What are metals?

Wrought iron

Cast iron
(Middle ages)


Steel
(Late 18th Century)
 1.1. Wrought iron
Wrought iron = “Worked” iron
Properties
Tough (can be hammered and shaped)
Ductile
Welded easily
Too soft for blades and swords (for their cutting edges)
<0.02% (small) carbon content

Production
1. In smelting furnaces (bloomeries)
from charcoal + iron ore
2. frothy iron sponge
3. heater and hammered

Use
Horse shoes, ornamental iron work, water pipes, bolts
and nuts, bars, handrails, etc.
Raw material for manufacturing steel
 1.2. Cast iron
Properties
Brittle (not suitable for sharp edges or where flexibility is
required)
Bolted together (cannot be welded)
2 - 3.5% (high) carbon content

Production
Re-melting pig iron in a blast furnace to remove
impurities and adding other elements. Casting.

Use
Pots, kettles, fire places, bridge elements, cannon shot
 1.3. Steel

Properties
Tough
Ductile
Welded easily
High compressive/tensile/bending strength
0.07-0.9% carbon

Production
Iron ore is heated with coke (to remove oxygen) and
limestone (to remove impurities).
“Pig iron” is than heated again to reduce carbon content
=> steel

Use
Reinforcing bars, wires, rail tracks, structural building
elements, cars, trains, cutlery, watches, tools, etc.
Introduction to steelmaking https://youtu.be/8OZ-WSQmLgc
Steelmaking: Raw materials https://youtu.be/8x1Hf_U-1fo
 Coke = hard, dry substance containing
1.3. Steel carbon, produced by heating bituminous
coal to a very high temperature in the
absence of air

Coke Limestone

Iron ore

 removes oxygen (2C + O2 = 2CO)

Heated

+ Coke
+ Limestone  removes impurities e.g. Cinder

- High carbon content > 4.4%

Pig iron
- Impurities
Heated

+ Oxygen  removes Carbon

Steel  Refine
 Solidify
 Mould into shape
Steelmaking: Blast furnace https://youtu.be/Yov7Z0rMyHI
Steelmaking: Secondary steel https://youtu.be/wtsBRF1W2oQ
Steelmaking: Oxygen steelmaking https://youtu.be/qo50KxLU_34
Steelmaking: Continuous casting https://youtu.be/d-72gc6I-_E
 1.3. Steel
Steel making
Basic oxygen furnace

Blast furnace Standard

grade steel

• Iron ore
• Limestone Pig iron
• Coke
• High quality
special steels
• stainless
steel
Electric arc furnace
 Coke = hard, dry substance containing
1.3. Steel carbon, produced by heating bituminous
coal to a very high temperature in the
absence of air

Coke Limestone

Iron ore

 removes oxygen (2C + O2 = 2CO)

Heated

+ Coke
Blast
+ Limestone
furnace
 removes impurities e.g. Cinder

- High carbon content > 4.4%

Pig iron
- Impurities

Basic oxygen furnace

Heated

+ Oxygen  removes Carbon

Electric arc furnace

Steel  Refine
 Solidify
 Mould into shape
Metals
1. What are metals?
2. Steel types
2. Steel types

Iron 0.02% Wrought iron

Brittle
0.07-0.25% Low carbon

Hard
(mild steel)
Ductile

0.25-0.5% Medium carbon

Soft

0.5-0.9% High carbon

(carbon tool steel)
>2% Cast iron Carbon
 2. Steel types
Type of steel Carbon (%) Properties Uses
Wrought iron 0.02 Ductile, Horse shoes
Welded easily
Low carbon 0.07-0.25 Soft, easily cold Car bodies, pipes
(mild steel) worked
Medium 0.25 – 0.50 Wear resistant Rails, rail products:
carbon couplings, crank
shafts, axles, gears,
forgings
High carbon 0.5 – 0.9 Strong and wear Cutting tools,
resistant hammers
Railway lines
Cast iron 2-3.5 Easy to cast but Pistons and cylinders
brittle
Stainless (+ >11%
steel Chromium)
 2. Steel types
Steel products
• Hot rolled sections
e.g. Universal beams and columns
(small deflection, high E-value)

• Cold rolled:
e.g. reinforcing and pre-stressing bars
profiled section
Metals
1. What are metals?
2. Steel types
3. Steel properties
3. Steel properties

Steel = Iron + Carbon

Soft, ductile Hard, brittle

0.07-0.25% Low carbon

(mild steel)
0.25-0.5% Medium carbon
0.5-0.9% High carbon
(carbon tool steel)
2-3.5% Cast iron
3. Steel properties
Brittle Ductile

High-carbon steel

(1)
Low-carbon steel
(2) (3)
Stress

1. Ultimate strength
(4) 2. Yield strength
3. Failure
4. Fatigue strength
Copper
Lead

Strain
3. Steel properties
Brittleness

= snaps/breaks easily, can not absorb energy

Influenced by:
• Finer grain size – less brittle
• Less carbon – less brittle
• Higher temperature – less brittle

Ductility

= Ability to stretch during breaking

3. Steel properties

Brittle
High-carbon steel

(1)
Ductile
Low-carbon steel
(2) (3)
Stress

1. Ultimate strength
2. Yield strength
3. Rupture

Strain
Metals
1. What are metals?
2. Steel types
3. Steel properties
4. Steel production
 4. Steel production
Steel production

Cast into ignots Continuous casting Cast into

(traditional) into billets or sections shape

Hot rolled sections Cold rolled sections

 4. Steel production
Steel alloys

Weathering steel
• 0.25-0.55% copper
• brown rust coating
• Use: Structural steels, not marine environment

Stainless steel
• >10.5% chromium
• natural passive film of chromium oxide
(reforms naturally)

Coated steel
• e.g. zinc, aluminium
• corrosion resistance is related to
coating thickness
Metals
1. What are metals?
2. Steel types
3. Steel properties
4. Steel production
5. Steel applications
 5. Steel applications
• Hot rolled sections
e.g. Universal beams and columns
(small deflection, high E-value)

• Cold rolled:
e.g. reinforcing and pre-stressing bars
profiled section
5. Steel applications

Steel application

Hot rolled Cold rolled

sections sections

Reinforcing Pre-stressing

Needs to be stiff;
High E value
5.1. Hot rolled sections

Steel application

Hot rolled
sections Steel = Iron + Carbon

Soft, ductile Hard, brittle

Brittle
High-carbon steel
0.5-2% Carbon
Stress
Ductile
Low-carbon
steel
<0.25% Carbon

Strain
 5.1. Hot rolled sections

Steel application

Hot rolled
sections
Low-carbon steels
Manufactured: hot rolled
Properties:
Brittle
• Weldabile
High-carbon steel
• Ductile
0.5-2% Carbon
• Stiff
Stress
Ductile
Low-carbon
steel
<0.25% Carbon

Strain
 5.1. Hot rolled sections

Steel application

Hot rolled
sections
Low-carbon steels
Manufactured: hot rolled
Properties:
• Weldabile
• Ductile Higher
• Stiff E-value Lower
• High E-value Stress E-value

Strain
 5.1. Hot rolled sections

Steel application

Hot rolled
sections
Low-carbon steels
Manufactured: hot rolled
Properties:
• Weldabile
• Ductile Higher
• Stiff E-value Lower
• High E-value E-value
• Strength 200-400N/mm2
Stress

Yield strength E
[N/mm2] [kN/mm2]
275 200
355 200
e.g. Universal beams and columns Strain
5.2. Reinforcing steel

Steel application

Cold rolled
sections

Reinforcing Pre-stressing
 5.2. Reinforcing steel

Steel application

Cold rolled
sections

Bar Reinforcing
Low-carbon steels
Manufactured: cold worked by twisting (or hot rolled)
Properties
• Weldabile
• Ductile

Concrete: Brittle Less dangerous if breaks!

Steel: Ductile
 Steel carries stress in reinforced concrete.
 Local bond necessary
 ‘Rippled’ surface
 5.2. Reinforcing steel

Steel application

Cold rolled
sections

Bar Reinforcing
Low-carbon steels
Manufactured: cold worked by twisting (or hot rolled)
Properties
• Weldabile
• Ductile
• Stiff
• High E-value
• Strength 400-500N/mm2

Reinforced concrete is made in situ

5.3. Pre-stressing steel

Steel application

Cold rolled
sections

Pre-stressing

?
5.3. Pre-stressing steel
How pre-stressed concrete is made?
1. All made in pre-stressed concrete
factory

2. Pre-stressing strand:

Made of high-strength steel,

embedded in concrete.
5.3. Pre-stressing steel
How pre-stressed concrete is made?

3. The pre-stressing wire is stretched

across the casting bed – a rigid frame
before placing the concrete.

Tension is applied to the cable before it is

surrounded by concrete.
 5.3. Pre-stressing steel
How pre-stressed concrete is made?

4. Concrete is made using cement,

sand, stone, and water.

5. Concrete is generally delivered ready mixed to be poured directly into the casting bed.
5.3. Pre-stressing steel
How pre-stressed concrete is made?
6. Once the pouring is complete, a
tarp is placed over the form and heat
is applied to cure the cement.

7. Once the concrete has hardened the pre-

stressing wires are cut and the concrete unit is
removed from the casting bed.
5.3. Pre-stressing steel
How pre-stressed concrete is made?

8. The ends are cleaned and the pre-stressing strands

are sealed with a protective coating.
5.3. Pre-stressing steel

Steel application

Cold rolled
sections

Wire Pre-stressing
Medium/High-carbon steels
Properties
• Ductile
• Low E-value
• High strength (ca. 1500N/mm2)

Made in factory
5.3. Pre-stressing steel

Steel application

Hot rolled Cold rolled

sections sections

Reinforcing Pre-stressing
Sections Bar Wire
Low-carbon steels Low-carbon steels Medium/High-carbon steels
Manufactured: hot rolled Manufactured: cold worked
e.g. Universal beams and by twisting or hot rolled
columns
Properties Properties Properties
• Weldabile • Weldabile
• Ductile • Ductile • Ductile
• Stiff • Stiff
• High E-value • High E-value • Low E-value
• Strength 200-400N/mm2• Strength 400-500N/mm2 • Strength ca. 1500N/mm2
Metals
1. What are metals?
2. Steel types
3. Steel properties
4. Steel production
5. Steel applications
6. Corrosion
6. Corrosion

Iron ore
Heated

+ Coke  Removes oxygen (2C + O2 = 2CO)

+ Limestone  Removes impurities e.g. Cinder

Pig iron - High carbon content > 4.4%

- Impurities
Heated

+ Oxygen  removes Carbon

Steel
 Refine
 Solidify
 Mould into shape
6. Corrosion
= Iron ore bonded
with oxygen

Iron ore
Heated

+ Coke  Removes oxygen (2C +Oxygen

O2 = 2CO)
removed

Pig iron
Heated

- Keep it dry
Steel Corrosion
- Paint
6. Corrosion
Corrosion in steel members
6. Corrosion
Corrosion in concrete members
Reasons:
• Permeability of concrete
• Depth of penetration

Results:
• Cracking and spalling
• Delamination
6. Corrosion
Corrosion in concrete members

Results:
• Cracking and spalling
• Delamination