Using kinetic theory to explain the liquid state, melting and vaporisation

Liquid state
• In liquids, the particles are constantly in motion. However these particles are grouped as
units or clusters. The inter-molecular forces are weaker than those in solids but stronger
than those in gases. Their movement is random.

Melting
• When a solid is heated the particles gain energy and start to vibrate faster and faster.
Initially the structure is gradually weakened which has the effect of expanding the solid.
Further heating provides more energy until the particles start to break free of the
structure. Although the particles are still loosely connected they are able to move
around. At this point the solid is melting to form a liquid. The particles in the liquid are
the same as in the solid but they have more energy. To melt a solid energy is required to
overcome the attractions between the particles which allows them to pulled apart. The
energy is provided when the solid is heated up. The temperature at which something
melts is called its "melting point" or melting temperature.

Vaporisation (both evaporation and boiling)

Evaporating
• Within a liquid some particles have more energy than other.

• These "more energetic particles" may have sufficient energy to escape from the surface
of the liquid as gas or vapour.

• This process is called evaporation and the result of evaporation is commonly observed
when puddles or clothes dry.

• Evaporation takes place at room temperature which is often well below the boiling
point of the liquid.

Evaporation
• Evaporation only takes place at the surface of the liquid.

• As the temperature increases the rate of evaporation increases as more particles gain
sufficient energy to escape the surface of the liquid.
 • Evaporation is also assisted by windy conditions which help to remove the vapour
particles from the liquid so that more escape

Boiling
• If a liquid is heated the particles are given more energy and move faster and faster
expanding the liquid.

• The most energetic particles at the surface escape from the surface of the liquid as a
vapour as it gets warmer.

• Liquids evaporate faster as they heat up and more particles have enough energy to
break away.

• The particles need energy to overcome the attractions between them.

• As the liquid gets warmer more particles have sufficient energy to escape from the
liquid.

• Eventually even particles in the middle of the liquid form bubbles of gas in the liquid.

• At this point the liquid is boiling and turning to gas.

• The particles in the gas are the same as they were in the liquid they just have more
energy.

• At normal atmospheric pressure all materials have a specific temperature at which

boiling occurs. This is called the "boiling point" or boiling temperature.

Vapor Pressure
• The process of evaporation in a closed container will proceed until there are as many
molecules returning to the liquid as there are escaping. At this point the vapor is said to
be saturated, and the pressure of that vapor (usually expressed in mmHg) is called the
saturated vapor pressure.

• The temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure is
called the boiling point.
Evaporation vs. Boiling