Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Child Abuse & Neglect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chiabuneg

Desistance from physical abuse in a national study of Nepal:

Protective informal social control and self-compassion
Clifton Emery a, Alhassan Abdullah b, *, Srijana Thapa c, Ko Ling Chan d,
Cheryl Hiu-Kwan a, Angel Hor-Yan Lai d, Bobo Hi-Po Lau e, Christine Wekerle f
a
Department of Social Work and Social Administration, The University of Hong Kong, HKU Centennial Campus, PokFuLam Road, Hong Kong
b
College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
c
Department of Child Welfare Studies, Namseoul University, South Korea
d
Department of Applied Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
e
Department of Counselling and Psychology, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, Hong Kong
f
Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S4L8, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Research on the conditions under which perpetrators desist from child maltreatment
Physical abuse has seen greater attention as part of the efforts to break the cycle of maltreatment. New theo­
Desistance retical insights suggest that informal actions (herein protective informal social control of child
Recidivism
maltreatment) by network members which communicate warmth, empathy with victim distress,
Recurrence
Adolescent self-compassion
and promote the modeling of positive parenting practices are more likely to increase maltreat­
Protective informal social control ment desistance. Likewise, parents' desistance from maltreatment is theorized to impact on ad­
Nepal olescents' (victim) cognition and self-compassion.
Objective: This study examined the relationship among protective informal social control of child
maltreatment (protective ISC_CM) by social networks, physical abuse desistance, and adolescent
self-compassion.
Participants and setting: A nationally representative sample of 1100 mothers and their adolescent
children (aged 11–15) in Nepal was obtained.
Methods: Questionnaires were administered to mothers and their adolescent children indepen­
dently. Hypotheses were tested using regression models with standard errors corrected for clus­
tering within wards.
Results: More than 1 in 7 mothers reported perpetrating physical abuse in the past year, and 1 in
every 5 adolescents reported being victims of physical abuse. Odds of abuse desistance increase
by roughly 10 % for each act of protective ISC_CM reported by the mother. Also, odds of abuse
desistance associated with higher adolescent self-compassion, and acts of protective ISC_CM
associated with higher levels of adolescent self-compassion.
Conclusion: The findings suggest that interventions to boost desistance from maltreatment and
break the cycle of abuse in Nepal, should focus on promoting protective informal social control
actions.

* Corresponding author at: College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Sturt Road, Bedford Park 5042, Adelaide,
South Australia, Australia.
E-mail addresses: cemery@hku.hk (C. Emery), alhassan.abdullah@flinders.edu.au (A. Abdullah), koling.chan@polyu.edu.hk (K.L. Chan),
chkchui@hku.hk (C. Hiu-Kwan), angelhy.lai@polyu.edu.hk (A.H.-Y. Lai), hplau@hksyu.edu (B.H.-P. Lau).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106588
Received 18 May 2023; Received in revised form 17 October 2023; Accepted 28 November 2023
0145-2134/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Clifton Emery et al., Child Abuse & Neglect, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106588
C. Emery et al. Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (xxxx) xxx

1. Introduction

The use of physical violence against children by caregivers is a costly, global problem. An estimated 22 % of children around the
world are physically abused (Stoltenborgh, Bakermans-Kranenburg, van Ijzendoorn, & Alink, 2013). Pereznieto, Montes, Routier, and
Langston (2014) estimate the global cost of violence against children is between 3 % and 8 % of Global GDP (up to $7 trillion USD).
Chronically abused children are at higher risk for depression (Emery et al., 2022; Haahr-Pedersen et al., 2020), suicide (Mironova
et al., 2011), anxiety (Lindert et al., 2014), aggression (Keene & Epps, 2016), addiction (Halpern et al., 2018), Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD) (Adams, Mrug, & Knight, 2018), school dropout and academic problems (Gubbels, van der Put, & Assink, 2019), and
early mortality (Grummitt et al., 2021). Based on concerns about the consequences of chronic abuse, a large research literature ex­
amines the conditions under which abuse recurs or whether perpetrators desist (cf. Azar et al., 2016; Jonson-Reid, Drake, Chung, &
Way, 2003; Jonson-Reid, Emery, Drake, & Stahlschmidt, 2010; Potter, Kennedy, & Font, 2022). However, research on maltreatment
desistance is often confined to relationships with demographic characteristics and empirical types of abuse in western samples (cf.
Potter et al., 2022). It is often confined to official reports that represent only a fraction of cases in the population (Potter et al., 2022;
White et al., 2015) or based on a single reporter (for an exception see Finkelhor, Ormrod, & Turner, 2007). Research on the re­
lationships between physical abuse desistance and protective and punitive informal social control of child maltreatment is limited
(Emery, Trung, & Wu, 2015). Such research is vitally important in Nepal, where police are able to handle only a tiny fraction of family
violence cases (Bhandari et al., 2022), forcing victims to rely on informal social networks for assistance. Further, although the rela­
tionship between victim self-compassion and maltreatment victimization is well established (Tanaka et al., 2011), no study has
examined the relationships between informal social control, physical abuse desistance, and victim self-compassion. This study ad­
dresses these gaps using a cross-sectional nationally representative random sample of 1100 Nepali mothers and their adolescent
children to compare current victims of physical abuse with victims previously but not currently abused.

1.1. Theoretical and empirical links between physical abuse desistance and informal social control

Sampson, Raudenbush, and Earls (1997) defined informal social control as actions undertaken by non-institutional actors (e.g.,
neighborhood residents) to achieve public order. In child maltreatment research, the concept informal social control of child
maltreatment (herein ISC_CM) describes actions undertaken by ordinary residents (including neighbors, family members and friends)
in observed maltreatment cases. ISC_CM breaks down into protective and punitive dimensions based on the motive of the ISC_CM
actions; to safeguard the child (protective ISC_CM) or punish the perpetrator (punitive ISC_CM) (Emery, Trung, & Wu, 2015). Others
argue that the mechanism is via direct contact with the perpetrator or otherwise (Abdullah, Emery, & Jordan, 2020). Whether direct or
indirect, the conventional theoretical mechanism for efficacy is the rational deterrence hypothesis (Matsueda, Kreager, & Huizinga,
2006; Sampson et al., 1997). Rational deterrence is a variant of rational choice theory; potential perpetrators are assumed to logically
evaluate the potential costs and rewards of crime and punishment and make choices that maximize reward and minimize cost. Thus, in
line with the rational deterrence hypothesis, actions (either protective or punitive) undertaken by neighbors in the face of physical
abuse incidence are meant to motivate desistance from maltreatment by the parent. Failure to desist from maltreatment will increase
costs, sanctions or punishment for the parent. As such, as rational actors, parents will desist from re-engaging in any acts of
maltreatment when their neighbors undertake actions of informal social control, either protectively or punitively. In contrast to
predictions from the rational deterrence hypothesis, empirical findings from research on the relationship between informal social
control and child maltreatment has shown that punitive (punishment-oriented) informal actions by neighbors is not associated with
maltreatment, instead non-punitive-oriented informal actions by neighbors (protective informal social control) is associated with
fewer cases of physical abuse and other maltreatment types. The failure of the research literature on informal social control and
maltreatment to conform to the predictions of rational deterrence explanations has been extensively documented (Emery, Wu, Kim,
Pyun, & Chin, 2017).
Empirically, research on ISC_CM found that protective ISC_CM is associated with less very severe abuse and fewer child behavior
problems when very severe abuse does occur, (Emery, Trung, & Wu, 2015), less abuse-related injury (Emery et al., 2015), and less
neglect (Abdullah & Emery, 2023; Emery, Eremina, Arenas, Kim, & Chan, 2020). A small field experiment suggested it decreases
perpetrators' self-estimated probabilities of perpetrating physical abuse in vignettes (Emery, Wu, Eremina, et al., 2019). However, a
limitation in previous research is that perceived ISC_CM (what my family friends and neighbors might do) and observed ISC_CM (what
they actually have done) were combined into a single scale in which perceived ISC_CM was not measured when observed ISC_CM was
indicated as having happened (cf. Emery, Trung, & Wu, 2015). Punitive ISC_CM does not show consistent relationships with
maltreatment and is sometimes associated with worse, rather than better outcomes (cf. Abdullah & Emery, 2023). Emery, Thapa, Do,
and Chan (2015) note that the higher cost version of ISC_CM having an apparently lower deterrence effect is inconsistent with rational
deterrence theory (Matsueda et al., 2006). The empirical findings run counter to the logic of the rational deterrence hypothesis because
punitive ISC_CM imposes higher costs on the perpetrator than protective ISC_CM. However, previous findings suggest the protective
version of ISC_CM may be a promising factor in understanding physical abuse desistance. Emery, Thapa, et al. (2015) argue that
protective (direct) informal control may have efficacy when it causes perpetrators to shift focus from a punishment schema to a schema
involving empathy with the victim's distress, rather than by invoking a consideration of costs. If the informal social control actions of
neighbors have a mirroring effect on perpetrators, attempts to protect the child might encourage the perpetrator to stop, while attempt
to punish the perpetrator might simply reinforce the perpetrator's punishment schema. This would explain empirical findings asso­
ciating protective ISC_CM and punitive ISC_CM with less or more severe violence (Emery et al., 2017).

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Previous research on desistance1 from child maltreatment often relies on official reports that represent only a fraction of true cases
(because only a small fraction of maltreatment becomes known to authorities) and hence suffers from selection bias (cf. Jonson-Reid
et al., 2010). Other research is limited by variables confined to existing data because it is carried out on existing data or examines a
particular therapeutic technique (cf. Hakman, Chaffin, Funderburk, & Silovsky, 2009; Potter et al., 2022). Apart from limitations on
generalizability and scope that are created by these trends, these two foci overwhelmingly imply resource-rich environments. In the
context of poverty and/or economic development, official government services and formal social control may have little capacity to
reach families in which physical abuse is occurring. This problem is particularly likely in Nepal where only a tiny fraction of family
violence cases are reported (Bhandari et al., 2022) and where it may be physically impossible for available police to reach remote
communities in a timely manner. A similar problem exists for studies of formal therapeutic approaches. If the context does not allow
the police or formal government services to reach victimized children in need it is unlikely that sufficient funding will be available for
highly trained therapists to bridge the gap. Previous research also tends to rely on a single reporter. What is much needed is research on
how existing informal social practices in developing countries and in remote and impoverished regions of wealthier countries can be
learned from and built upon in ways that substantively reduce and mitigate the violence children in those places experience.

1.2. Maltreatment desistance and child and family characteristics

Previous research suggests that perpetrators are less likely to desist from maltreatment when they are young and female (Potter
et al., 2022) or reliant on government assistance due to poverty (Jonson-Reid et al., 2010). Marshall and English (1999) found
maltreatment desistance was less likely for physical abuse and neglect, when the child has a disability, and when the caregiver had a
history of victimization in childhood. Maltreatment desistance is also less likely when perpetrators are the biological or adoptive
parents of the child but more likely for physical abuse than other types of maltreatment (Potter et al., 2022). Desistance is more likely
when families receive in-home child welfare services and mental health treatment (Jonson-Reid et al., 2010). Home visits by public
health nurses do not appear to affect desistence from physical abuse (MacMillan et al., 2005), but by increasing positive parent-child
interactions and decreasing negative interactions parent-child interaction therapy does appear to increase desistence from physical
abuse (Hakman et al., 2009). This research suggests another possible mechanism by which protective ISC_CM could affect desistence:
by informally modeling positive parent-child interactions rather than negative interactions. Given the multiple possible theoretical
explanations for a positive relationship, the first hypothesis is a significant positive relationship between protective ISC_CM and
physical abuse desistance.

1.3. Self-compassion, desistance, and informal social control

Self-compassion has been defined as “an orientation towards seeing the world, and the self, realistically, but kindly, and in a
contextualized manner supportive of greater well-being” (Neff, 2003; Tanaka et al., 2011). However, this definition renders self-
compassion tautological with respect to well-being and therefore resilience. Hence, we adopt the unitalicized part of the definition
only. The negative relationship between maltreatment, particularly emotional abuse and physical abuse, and self-compassion is well
documented (Tanaka et al., 2011). Research within positive psychology identifies self-compassion as a positive character strength that
can mitigate against negative behaviours. Self-compassion is reported to be associated with depression (Kwok et al., 2016; Neff &
Germer, 2013), greater wellbeing, and life satisfaction (Kwok et al., 2016; Tweed et al., 2011). Self-compassion also appears to mediate
the relationship between maltreatment and well-being indicators like depression symptoms (Wu, Chi, Lin, & Du, 2018). The logic is
that maltreatment involves an attack on the child's personhood, which necessarily implicates self-compassion insofar as it is a self-
identity process (Glaser, 2002; Tanaka et al., 2011).
Compared to ongoing physical abuse, desistance may be positively associated with adolescent self-compassion because it offers the
adolescent less overall exposure to abuse and because it may reflect an improvement in parenting that allows for healthier identity
development and emotional self-regulation. The contrast in experiencing first abuse and then desistance from it may also provide
adolescents with greater opportunity for reflection, which, when it appears deliberately and consistently as a cognitive approach,
constitutes the dimension of self-compassion dubbed ‘mindfulness’ (Tanaka et al., 2011). Moreover, the negative empirical correlation
between physical abuse and self-compassion (Tanaka et al., 2011) suggests a positive relationship between perpetrator desistance from
physical abuse and victim self-compassion. Hence, the second hypothesis is a significant positive relationship between physical abuse
desistance and adolescent self-compassion.
According to Neff (2003), the closest theoretical construct to self-compassion is empathy towards the self. This raises important
questions about the direct relationship between protective informal social control and self-compassion. It has been noted repeatedly
that many findings pertaining to protective versus punitive ISC_CM do not conform to predictions of rational choice theory (Emery,
Trung, & Wu, 2015). An alternate explanation has been proposed that the mechanism by which protective ISC_CM works may involve
shifting the perpetrator's schema from a punitive schema to a schema that emphasizes empathy with victim distress (Emery &
Abdullah, 2022; Emery, Thapa, et al., 2015). If protective ISC_CM models an empathetic response to distress and hence increases
perpetrator empathy towards the victim, its effect on victim self-compassion could be even stronger. That is, if Emery and Abdullah

1
A Google Scholar search on ‘desistance’ and ‘maltreatment’ provided very few results. However, when search terms were expanded to include
‘recidivism,’ ‘recurrence,’ and ‘re-referral,’ the number of studies expanded substantially. For the convenience of the reader, studies on recidivism,
recurrence, etc. are treated and discussed as the opposite of desistance. The direction of the effects is changed in the discussion accordingly.

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(2022) are correct and protective ISC_CM is associated with less violence because it shifts the perpetrator's focus from a punitive
schema to a schema involving empathy with the victim's distress, we argue protective ISC_CM may also increase victims' empathy
towards themselves, that is to say their self-compassion. Likewise, if punitive ISC_CM reinforces perpetrators punishment schema, it
may also negatively impact victim's self-compassion. Although self-compassion of non-victims of physical abuse may be higher than
that of victims (Tanaka et al., 2011), in a desistence study comprised of only adolescents who have physical abuse victimization history
such as this one, victims who have been exposed to empathetic intervention via protective ISC_CM may be benefitted with higher self-
compassion as a result. Hence, the third hypothesis is a positive relationship between protective ISC_CM and adolescent self-
compassion when physical abuse desistance is held constant, while the fourth hypothesis predicts a negative relationship between
punitive ISC_CM and adolescent self-compassion.

1.4. Nepal context for physical abuse, informal social control, and self-compassion

The large majority of the Nepali population is Hindu (81 % according to the Central Bureau of Statistics, 2012) and the Nepali
language is intelligible to speakers of the Hindi language in India (and vice versa). Recent research finds that 49.8 % of Nepali children
are physically abused (Atteraya, Ebrahim, & Gnawali, 2018). Physical abuse is negatively associated with higher education and income
(Atteraya et al., 2018) in Nepal. In Kathmandu, the father's IPV against the mother, intimate terrorism, and the child's age are posi­
tively associated with physical abuse (Neupane et al., 2018). Emery et al. (2022) found that 12 % of children in Kathmandu suffered
from multiple maltreatment victimization (polyvictimization). Neupane et al. (2018) found a much higher level of polyvictimization
(78 %) using a broader set of forms of abuse that included emotional abuse. A review of the literature found no studies of desistance
from physical child abuse in Nepal. To date, no research on ISC_CM has been carried out in Nepal. However, Emery, Thapa, et al.
(2015) found having neighbors who intervened protectively against intimate partner violence (protective ISC_IPV) was negatively
associated with child abuse severity. We found no research on the relationship between self-compassion and child maltreatment in
Nepal.
Based on the foregoing discussion we posit the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1. When controls are held constant, protective informal social control of child maltreatment will be positively associated
with physical abuse desistance as reported by (a) mother and (b) adolescent.
Hypothesis 2. When controls are held constant, physical abuse desistance will be positively associated with adolescent self-
compassion as reported by adolescents.
Hypothesis 3. When controls and physical abuse desistance are held constant, protective informal social control of child
maltreatment will be positively associated with adolescent self-compassion.
Hypothesis 4. When controls and physical abuse desistance are held constant, punitive informal social control of child maltreatment
will be associated with lower self-compassion.

1.5. The current study

The current study is the first to examine physical abuse desistance and informal social control of child maltreatment (ISC_CM). It is
the first study to examine the relationship between ISC_CM, physical abuse desistance, and self-compassion. It is the first national study
of physical abuse desistance and the first national study of ISC_CM in Nepal. It advances the literature methodologically by examining
physical abuse desistance reported both by mother and by the adolescent child. In this manner it contributes to the global literature on
physical abuse desistance, protective ISC_CM, and self-compassion. At the same time, it makes substantial contributions to knowledge
at the national level. The study improves on previous measures of ISC_CM by separating perceived ISC_CM (what do you think friends,
neighbors and family might do) and observed ISC_CM (what did they actually do) on the scale. Because of likely relationships to
physical abuse, desistance, informal social control, and self-compassion, household income and rural/urban status, mother's age, years'
resident in the neighborhood, and tendency to keep child abuse secret, and the child's age and sex are controlled in the models.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants & procedure

The data are a stratified four-stage national random probability proportional to size (PPS) cluster sample of 1100 mothers and their
adolescent children aged 13–15 in Nepal. Based on the 2011 National Population and Housing Census, municipalities were stratified
into urban (18 % of the sample), large town (17 %), small town (24 %), and rural (41 %) categories.2 In the first stage, 27 municipalities
(6 urban, 5 large town, 6 small town, and 11 rural) were selected using probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling. In the second
stage, for most municipalities 4 wards were randomly selected using PPS sampling (for a total of 100 wards across Nepal). In a few
cases simple random sampling (SRS) was used when ward populations were not available. In the third stage, area sampling (two

2
This compares to actual population distribution based on the Nepal census of 18.2 % urban, 21.3 % large town, 23.7 % small town, and 36.9 %
rural.

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random draws from the uniform distribution) was used to randomly select a starting point on the ward map. In the fourth stage the
study protocol helped enumerators to locate the 11 closest households to the start point with a randomized protocol for floors and
apartments in multi-story buildings. Enumerators screened for households with mothers and adolescent children aged 13–15. When
more than one child met the age criteria the focal child was selected using most recent birthday.
The study questionnaire, informed consent procedures, and research ethics were approved by the IRB at the University of Hong
Kong (IRB number is omitted for peer review). Written informed consent was provided by the mother for both self and adolescent child;
written assent was provided by the adolescent. Participants were informed that participation was voluntary, confidential, and could be
terminated at any point during the survey. The study was also approved by the Nepal Health Research Council (NHRC). Study enu­
merators had to undergo a two day training provided by the PI, and pass both a written exam and a certification interview. In addition
to informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, research methods, and refusal conversion, enumerators were provided training on the
effects of child maltreatment and intimate partner violence to sensitize them to the issues and teach them how to take active measures
to protect confidentiality. In particular, enumerators were trained to break off the interview if participants showed distress or if the
environment became unsuitable (e.g. if confidentiality of the process was threatened). Data quality indicators to protect against
random responding were inserted into the maltreatment scales for both mothers and adolescents. These were items like: “if you read
and understand this question please circle the ‘5’.”
Questionnaires were translated into Nepali by the third author and back-translated into English by a research assistant. A focus
group with the research team and enumerators was used to further vet the questionnaires to ensure they were accurate and easily
comprehended. A pilot study was also used to provide initial information on the suitability of the procedures and measurements.
Cronbach's alphas presented below are from the current study.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Desistance from physical abuse

Desistance from physical abuse was measured in two separate ways, from mother's report on the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS)
(Straus et al., 1998) and from adolescent's report on the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) (Finkelhor et al., 2007). The CTS
items used to measure physical abuse were: (1) shook the child, (2) punched or kicked the child, (3) choked the child, (4) beat up the
child, (5) burned the child, (6) hit the child with an object, (7) slapped the child on the arm or leg, (8) pinched the child, (9) used or
threatened to use a knife on the child, (10) slapped the child on the face, and (11) knocked down the child. Possible responses were (1)
once in the past year, (2) twice in the past year, (3) 3–5 times in the past year, (4) 6–10 times in the past year, (5) 11–20 times in the
past year, (6) more than 20 times in the past year, (7) not in the past year but this has happened, and (8) this never happened (α =
0.78). Maternal report of desistance was coded as zero if there was any past year physical abuse. It was coded as 1 if all past year
physical abuse was zero but there was at least one 7 for a physical abuse item. Desistance was coded as missing when mother reported
no history of physical abuse. The JVQ item on physical abuse by parents/caregivers (“not including spanking on the bottom…did a
grown-up in your life hit, beat, kick, or physically hurt you in any way”) was used to create an ‘ever physically abused’ dummy variable
indicator. Possible responses to items on the JVQ include happened in the past year (1), happened but not in the past year (2) and never
happened (3). Adolescent report of desistance was coded as 0 when the JVQ item was answered with a 1, desistance was coded as 1
when the item was answered with a 2, and was coded as missing for 3 (because desistance can only occur when there has been abuse in
the past). Analyses were run separately for maternal report and adolescent report of physical abuse desistance.

2.2.2. Self-compassion
An abbreviated version of Neff's (2003) self-compassion scale was used for this study. Nearly half of the items on Neff's (2003)
original scale are reverse coded, and the first two items on the scale are among those. Because the interviewers were concerned about
both the length of the scale in a survey format as well as the potential for the changing valence to be confusing to Nepali adolescent
respondents, the study investigators selected 12 reverse coded Likert items from the scale. These were (1) I'm disapproving and
judgmental about my own flaws and inadequacies, (2) when I'm feeling down I tend to obsess and fixate on everything that's wrong, (3)
when I fail at something important to me I become consumed by feelings of inadequacy, (4) when times are really difficult I tend to be
tough on myself, (5) I'm intolerant and impatient towards those aspects of my personality I don't like, (6), when I'm feeling down I tend
to feel like most other people are probably happier than I am, (7) when I see aspects of myself that I don't like I get down on myself, (8)
when I'm really struggling I tend to feel like other people must be having an easier time of it, (9) when something upsets me I get carried
away with my feelings, (10) I can be a bit cold-hearted towards myself when I'm experiencing suffering, (11) when something painful
happens I tend to blow the incident out of proportion, and (12) when I fail at something that's important to me I tend to feel alone in my
failure. Possible responses ranged from 0 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). Inter-item reliability was good for these items at α =
0.83. The items were reverse coded, summed, and divided by the number of items answered (usually 12) to create the self-compassion
scale. It is worth noting that self-compassion is modeled in this study as an outcome variable.

2.2.3. Informal Social Control of Child Maltreatment (ISC_CM)

The study improved on the ISC_CM measure developed by Emery, Trung, and Wu (2015) by creating a separate indicator for each
item depending on whether it actually happened. Hence, mothers' perceptions of what was likely to happen were measured on a Likert
scale ranging from would never do this (1) to would almost certainly do this (4). However, a separate indicator was to be ticked if this
had actually happened. Protective ISC_CM was measured by whether or not family, friends or neighbors had ever (1) gotten in between
my child and me when they witnessed me using physical violence against my child, (2) tried to calm me down by talking, (3) gave me

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advice about child rearing, (4) taken my child away somewhere temporarily. As the questions were asked separately for family, friends,
and neighbors this yielded a 12 item scale. Because the items are dichotomous (ever/never) the Kuder-Richarson coefficient is used to
estimate inter-item reliability, which was high (KR-20 = 0.91). Punitive ISC_CM by family, friends, and neighbors was measured by
whether or not they had ever (1) threatened to tell others about it when they witnessed the mother using physical violence against the
child, (2) called child protective services, or (3) called the police. This yielded a 9 item scale as each item was asked separately about
family, friends, and neighbors. The Kuder-Richarson coefficient suggested good inter-item reliability (KR-20 = 0.89). Although not a
one-two one correspondence, these ISC_CM scales can be conceptualized as estimated counts of the number of interventions. Models
will hence come close to estimating a dose-response relationship (Abdullah and Emery, 2023).

2.3. Control variables

2.3.1. Maltreatment secrecy

The 6 item keeping maltreatment secret scale was developed in order to address social desirability concerns about maternal
disclosure of maltreatment directly. The maltreatment secrecy scale was modeled after the IPV secrecy scale developed in (Emery,
Eremina, et al., 2015). The items were: (1) if I ever hit my child, I would try to keep it secret from my friends, (2) if I ever hit my child I
would try to keep it secret from my family, (3) if I ever hit my child I would try to keep it secret from my neighbors, (4) if I ever hit my
child I would try to keep it secret from my co-workers, (5) if I ever hit my child I would try to keep it secret from my boss, and (6) if I
ever hit my child I would try to keep it secret from everyone. Possible responses were (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) disagree, and (4)
strongly disagree. Screeplot analysis of the principal factors of the items showed a sharp elbow after the first eigenvalue (4.05), with
the second eigenvalue very close to zero (0.07), which suggests that a single dimension is an adequate representation of the scale.
Loadings on the first factor were all positive and greater than 0.7. Inter-item reliability was good as α = 0.93. All items were reverse

Table 1a
Sample descriptive statistics: urban/rural.
Variable Nepal Rurala (Guanpalika) Cities & Towns

N = 1100 Standard N = 451 Standard N = 649 Standard

Mean deviation Mean deviation Mean deviation

Past Year Physical Abuse (Maternal Report on CTS) 73.2 % 0.44 83.6 %*** 0.37 65.9 % 0.47
Past Year Physical Abuse (Adolescent Report on 20.9 % 0.41 12.6 %*** 0.33 26.7 % 0.44
JVQ)
Ever Any Physical Abuse (Maternal Report on CTS) 88.5 % 0.32 92.0 %** 0.27 86.0 % 0.35
Ever Any Physical Abuse (Adolescent Report on 45.3 % 0.50 37.0 %*** 0.48 51.0 % 0.50
JVQ)
Physical Abuse Desistance (Maternal Report on CTS) 17.3 % 0.38 9.2 %*** 0.29 23.3 % 0.42
Physical Abuse Desistance (Adolescent Report on 54.2 % 0.50 65.9 %*** 0.48 48.3 % 0.50
JVQ)
Self-Compassion 1.89 0.63 1.69*** 0.56 2.03 0.62
Protective ISC_CM Count 6.90 4.07 6.24*** 4.27 7.40 3.55
Punitive ISC_CM Count 2.26 2.82 2.86*** 2.89 1.85 2.58
Physical Abuse Secrecy (Mother) 14.47 3.82 15.97*** 3.91 13.44 3.12
Mother's Age 37.73 5.37 37.82 5.24 37.67 5.29
Years Lived in Community 17.71 8.33 19.57*** 8.39 16.42 8.11
Living in Cities & Towns 59.0 % 0.49
Rural (Living in Guanpalikas) 41.0 % 0.49
Adolescent's Age 13.87 0.81 13.84 0.81 13.88 0.80
Adolescent Female 57.0 % 0.50 53.2 %* 0.50 59.6 % 0.49
Monthly Income (USD) $139.34 $108.95 $102.19*** $85.58 $163.92 $115.20

Types of Physical Abuse (Lifetime, CTS)

Ever Shook Child 68.1 % 0.47 77.2 %*** 0.42 61.8 % 0.49
Ever Pinched Child 28.5 % 0.49 34.6 %*** 0.48 24.3 % 0.43
Ever Slapped on Arm or Leg 65.3 % 0.48 63.4 % 0.48 66.6 % 0.47
Ever Slapped Face 28.4 % 0.45 34.8 %*** 0.48 24.0 % 0.43
Ever Hit Bottom with Belt, Brush, Other Hard Object 61.4 % 0.49 60.5 % 0.49 61.9 % 0.49
Ever Hit with Object Elsewhr 43.8 % 0.50 44.3 % 0.50 43.5 % 0.50
Ever Knocked Down 11.8 % 0.32 22.4 %*** 0.42 4.5 % 0.21
Ever Punched or Kicked Child 23.6 % 0.43 35.7 %*** 0.48 15.3 % 0.36
Ever Choked Child 5.8 % 0.23 10.0 %*** 0.25 2.9 % 0.17
Ever Beat Up Child 14.7 % 0.35 27.5 %*** 0.45 5.9 % 0.23
Ever Burned the Child 4.5 % 0.50 8.0 %*** 0.27 2.0 % 0.14
Ever Threatened/Used a Knife 7.0 % 0.32 11.1 %*** 0.31 4.2 % 0.20
a
Stars indicate significant differences between rural and urban on Z or t-tests.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

6
C. Emery et al. Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (xxxx) xxx

coded and summed to create the scale.

2.3.2. Demographic characteristics

Age, income, and years residing in the neighborhood are well known correlates of desistance and crime (Gottfredson & Hirschi,
1986; Sampson et al., 1997). Hence, mothers' age in years, years resident in the neighborhood, and household income (in Nepali
rupees) were controlled in the analyses. The models also controlled for adolescent child's age and sex and urban versus rural household.

2.4. Analytic issues

Hypotheses were tested using regression and logistic regression models with standard errors corrected for clustering within wards
using Stata16. Diagnostics were run on regression models and for linear probability models for the logistic regressions. All of the
variance inflation factors (VIFs) were less than 2 (the highest VIF was 1.48 for protective ISC_CM). These diagnostics indicate mul­
ticollinearity was not a problem in the models. Pregibon's linktest uncovered a nonlinearity problem in both models for self-
compassion (maternal report of desistance model, t = 2.25, p = .025; adolescent report of desistance model t = 3.27, p = .001).
Polynomial transformation of the predictors had little effect on the size or significance of the linktest finding so Box-Cox models were
used to suggest likely transforms of self-compassion.
The best Box-Cox transformation as suggested by log-likelihood was to leave self-compassion untransformed, with the second best
transformation being the log. Running the models with the log transform of self-compassion eliminated non-linearity problems as
indicated by Pregibon's linktest (maternal report of desistance model, t = − 0.31, p = .423; adolescent report of desistance model t =
1.18, p = .238). Using the log-transformed version of self-compassion did not affect the significance of any of the variables in the model
except one. In the log-transformed version of the maternal report of desistance model, adolescent sex ceased to be a significant pre­
dictor of self-compassion. It is also worth noting that in the adolescent report of desistance model desistance went from the 1 %
significance level in the untransformed model (p = .002) to the 5 % significance level in the transformed model (p = .014). Based on the

Table 1b
Sample descriptive statistics: male/female.
Variable Nepal Boysa Girls

N = 1100 Standard N = 473 Standard N = 627 Standard

Mean deviation Mean deviation Mean deviation

Past Year Physical Abuse (Maternal Report on CTS) 73.2 % 0.44 75.6 % 0.43 71.3 % 0.45
Past Year Physical Abuse (Adolescent Report on JVQ) 20.9 % 0.41 20.9 % 0.41 20.9 % 0.41
Ever Any Physical Abuse (Maternal Report on CTS) 88.5 % 0.32 88.8 % 0.32 88.2 % 0.32
Ever Any Physical Abuse (Adolescent Report on JVQ) 45.3 % 0.50 46.9 % 0.50 44.0 % 0.50
Physical Abuse Desistance (Maternal Report on CTS) 17.3 % 0.38 14.8 % 0.36 19.2 % 0.39
Physical Abuse Desistance (Adolescent Report on 54.2 % 0.50 55.9 % 0.50 52.9 % 0.50
JVQ)
Self-Compassion 1.89 0.63 1.81*** 0.56 1.95 0.68
Protective ISC_CM Count 6.90 4.07 6.32*** 4.27 7.35 3.86
Punitive ISC_CM Count 2.26 2.82 2.27** 2.89 2.26 2.77
Physical Abuse Secrecy (Mother) 14.47 3.82 14.93*** 3.91 14.14 3.72
Mother's Age 37.73 5.37 37.69 5.24 37.76 5.46
Years Lived in Community 17.71 8.33 17.22 8.39 18.08 8.29
Living in Cities & Towns 59.0 % 0.49 55.4 %* 0.50 61.7 % 0.49
Rural (Living in Guanpalikas) 41.0 % 0.49 44.6 %* 0.50 38.3 % 0.49
Adolescent's Age 13.87 0.81 13.91 0.81 13.83 0.81
Adolescent Female 57.0 % 0.50
Monthly Income (USD) $139.34 $108.95 $139.44 $111.46 $137.98 $106.08

Types of Physical Abuse (Lifetime, CTS)

Ever Shook Child 68.1 % 0.47 67.9% 0.47 68.3 % 0.47
Ever Pinched Child 28.5 % 0.49 31.3% 0.46 26.5 % 0.44
Ever Slapped on Arm or Leg 65.3 % 0.48 66.2% 0.47 64.6 % 0.48
Ever Slapped Face 28.4 % 0.45 27.1% 0.44 29.5 % 0.46
Ever Hit Bottom with Belt, Brush, Other Hard Object 61.4 % 0.49 62.2% 0.49 60.8 % 0.49
Ever Hit with Object Elsewhr 43.8 % 0.50 46.5% 0.50 41.8 % 0.49
Ever Knocked Down 11.8 % 0.32 15.9%*** 0.37 8.9 % 0.28
Ever Punched or Kicked Child 23.6 % 0.43 26.4% 0.44 21.5 % 0.41
Ever Choked Child 5.8 % 0.23 6.6% 0.25 5.3 % 0.22
Ever Beat Up Child 14.7 % 0.35 19.0%*** 0.39 11.5 % 0.32
Ever Burned the Child 4.5 % 0.50 5.7% 0.23 3.5 % 0.18
Ever Threatened/Used a Knife 7.0 % 0.32 8.0% 0.27 6.2 % 0.24
a
Stars indicate significant differences between boys and girls on Z or t-tests.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

7
C. Emery et al. Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (xxxx) xxx

Box-Cox log-likelihoods and also for the purposes of interpretability the tables present the models for untransformed self-compassion.
Studentized residuals were calculated for each model. When models were run without these potential outliers there were no changes in
the signs of coefficients and none lost statistical significance. Removing potential outliers generally resulted in findings being more
highly significant. It is worth noting that in the maternal report of desistance model, removing the outliers resulted in punitive ISC_CM
being positively associated with maternal report of desistance (z = 3.20, p = .001). This is unusual and constitutes a first finding of an
apparently beneficial effect of punitive ISC_CM. However, the fact that this occurred when extreme cases were removed from the data
and was not replicated by the adolescent report of desistance model with or without outliers suggests the finding should be regarded
with circumspection. It may mean that the finding does not hold for the most severe cases of IPV. Models are shown with the outliers
included so that the estimates presented are statistically conservative.

3. Results

Table 1 provides percentages (means) and standard deviations of the variables in the models separately by rural (41 % of the
sample) or urban (59 % of the sample), by the adolescent child's gender, and by whether or not the mother or the adolescent reported
desistance from physical abuse. Table 1 is hence divided into sections a, b, and c. Each of Tables 1a, 1b, and 1c contains the sample's
national estimates on the left side for comparison. Although the sample strata for urban, large town, small town, and rural munici­
palities can be combined with the population proportions to calculate exact prevalence estimates, the sample strata are close enough to
the national distribution that this makes little difference. For example, the prevalence estimate for any physical abuse in the last year
based on mother report using the sample is 73.2 %. Calculating the exact estimate based on the population strata yields 72.5 %. Given
less than one percentage point difference and the greater emphasis of the paper on statistical inferences in models, sample percentages
are presented.
Overall prevalence of past year and lifetime physical abuse in Nepal was very high. As seen in Table 1a, more than 1 in 7 mothers
reported perpetrating physical abuse in the past year against their adolescent child; more than 1 in every 5 adolescents in the study
reported being victims of physical abuse. National sample lifetime estimates were even higher; nearly 9 out of every 10 mothers

Table 1c
Sample descriptive statistics: desisted/current.
Variable Nepal Maternal reporta Adolescent reporta

N = 1100 Standard deviation N = 168 N = 805 N = 270 N = 228

Mean Desisted Current Desisted Current

Past Year Physical Abuse (Maternal Report on CTS) 73.2 % 0.44 0.0 % 100 % 75.9 %* 85.1 %
Past Year Physical Abuse (Adolescent Report on JVQ) 20.9 % 0.41 13.7 %** 24.2 % 0.0 % 100 %
Ever Any Physical Abuse (Maternal Report on CTS) 88.5 % 0.32 100 % 100 % 94.4 % 95.2 %
Ever Any Physical Abuse (Adolescent Report on JVQ) 45.3 % 0.50 43.5 % 49.6 % 100 % 100 %
Physical Abuse Desistance (Maternal Report on CTS) 17.3 % 0.38 100 % 0.0 % 19.6 %** 10.6 %
Physical Abuse Desistance (Adolescent Report on JVQ) 54.2 % 0.50 68.5 %** 51.4 % 100 % 51.4 %
Self-Compassion 1.89 0.63 2.22*** 1.82 1.97* 1.86
Protective ISC_CM Count 6.90 4.07 8.53*** 6.64 7.68* 6.96
Punitive ISC_CM Count 2.26 2.82 2.77** 2.12 2.38 2.20
Physical Abuse Secrecy (Mother) 14.47 3.82 13.70** 14.74 14.52 14.36
Mother's Age 37.73 5.37 38.53* 37.53 38.32 37.39
Years Lived in Community 17.71 8.33 17.04 17.75 17.72 17.84
Living in Cities & Towns 59.0 % 0.49 77.3 %*** 53.2 % 59.3 %*** 75.0 %
Rural (Living in Guanpalikas) 41.0 % 0.49 23.7 %*** 46.8 % 40.7 %*** 25.0 %
Adolescent's Age 13.87 0.81 13.83 13.91 13.97* 13.82
Adolescent Female 57.0 % 0.50 63.1 % 55.5 % 54.1 % 57.0 %
Monthly Income (USD) $139.34 $108.95 $159.51*** $129.72 $132.39* $152.92

Types of Physical Abuse (Lifetime, CTS)

Ever Shook Child 68.1 % 0.47 56.5 %*** 81.2 % 74.8 % 70.2 %
Ever Pinched Child 28.5 % 0.49 17.3 %*** 35.4 % 28.9 %* 19.7 %
Ever Slapped on Arm or Leg 65.3 % 0.48 61.3 %*** 76.4 % 74.1 % 80.7 %
Ever Slapped Face 28.4 % 0.45 19.0 %*** 34.9 % 34.4 % 29.8 %
Ever Hit Bottom with Belt, Brush, Other Hard Object 61.4 % 0.49 52.4 %*** 71.2 % 74.8 % 75.4 %
Ever Hit with Object Elsewhr 43.8 % 0.50 22.0 %*** 55.3 % 54.1 % 62.2 %
Ever Knocked Down 11.8 % 0.32 4.8 %*** 15.2 % 14.8 %* 8.8 %
Ever Punched or Kicked Child 23.6 % 0.43 7.1 %*** 30.8 % 28.5 % 22.8 %
Ever Choked Child 5.8 % 0.23 4.2 % 7.1 % 6.3 % 3.5 %
Ever Beat Up Child 14.7 % 0.35 8.3 %** 18.4 % 21.1 % 15.4 %
Ever Burned the Child 4.5 % 0.50 4.2 % 5.2 % 5.5 % 3.1 %
Ever Threatened/Used a Knife 7.0 % 0.32 4.2 %* 8.7 % 8.1 % 5.7 %
a
Stars indicate significant differences between desisted & current on Z or t-tests.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

8
C. Emery et al. Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (xxxx) xxx

reported perpetrating physical abuse at some point in the adolescent's life; more than four out of every 10 (nearly half) of adolescents
reported experiencing physical abuse victimization at some point in their lifetime. Table 1 shows that any past year physical abuse and
lifetime physical abuse perpetration (reported by mother both mother and adolescent) was higher in rural compared to urban areas (p
< .001). Self-compassion was lower among rural adolescents (p < .001) and among boys (p < .001). Self-compassion was higher in
both mother-reported (p < .001) and adolescent-reported (p = .041) desistance samples (Table 1c). The desistance rate (no physical
abuse reported in past year but reported before) was 17.3 % for mothers but 54.2 % for adolescents (Table 1 c). Correspondence
between maternal report of desistance and adolescent report of desistance was 52 %. The average protective ISC_CM count was close to
7, but this was only about 2 for punitive ISC_CM. Average count of protective ISC_CM was significantly higher in urban areas while
punitive ISC_CM was significantly higher in rural areas (Table 1a). Mothers were on average close to 38 years old while adolescents
were close to 14 years old on average. The monthly household income in the sample was $139 USD. The rural sample had lower
monthly income, fewer adolescent girls, and more years of residing in the same community (Table 1a). There were 473 adolescent boys
(43 %) and 627 adolescent girls (57 %) in the sample.
With respect to the types of abuse perpetrated, the most common forms of physical abuse reported by mothers on the CTS (lifetime)
were shaking the child (68.1 %), slapping the child on the arm or leg (65.3 %), hitting the child on the bottom with a belt, brush, or
other hard object (61.4 %), and being hit with a belt or hard object on other parts of the body (43.8 %) (Table 1c). More severe forms of
physical abuse were less prevalent but still high. Nearly one in every four mothers (23.6 %) reported having punched or kicked the
child at some point; nearly one in 6 (14.7 %) reported having beaten up the child at some point, more than 1 in 10 (11.8 %) had
knocked the child down, while more than 1 in 20 (7 %) had used or threatened to use a knife, and nearly one in 20 (4.5 %) had burned
the child at some point. As seen in Table 1c, all types of violence except slapping an arm or leg, hitting the bottom with a belt or brush,
and hitting another part of the body with a belt, brush, or hard object were more commonly reported in rural areas than urban areas.
Mothers were more likely to report knocking down and beating up boys than girls (p < .001) (Table 1b). Lifetime prevalence of almost
every type of violence was lower in the maternally reported desistance sample than in the current sample. This could be explained if
Nepali women are more likely to report desistance when physical abuse is less severe, on average. For several types of violence
(pinching and knocking down), lifetime prevalence of maternally reported abuse in the adolescent reported desistance sample is higher
than the current physical abuse sample. Although not significant, the trend holds for many other types of violence. This is consistent
with the idea that Nepali adolescents may be more likely to report desistance when physical abuse is more severe (with the trend in the
opposite direction from their mothers).
Table 2 shows municipality cluster-corrected logistic regression models for mother and adolescent reported physical abuse
desistance in the first two column sets. Table 2 shows municipality cluster-corrected regression results for adolescent reported self-
compassion in models controlling for physical abuse desistance as reported by mothers (column 3) and physical abuse desistance
as reported by adolescents (column 4). Both maternal reports (B = 0.31, p < .001) and adolescent reports (B = 0.16, p = .002) of
desistance were significantly associated with higher adolescent self-compassion. Acts of protective ISC_CM were associated with higher
levels of adolescent self-compassion in both models even when desistance was held constant as reported by mothers (B = 0.02, p <
.008), and by adolescents (B = 0.04, p < .001). However, punitive ISC_CM was associated with lower levels of adolescent self-
compassion for both models that controls for mother's report of desistance (B = − 0.05, p < .001) and adolescent's report of desis­
tance (B = − 0.08, p < .001) samples. Odds-ratios in both maternal report (OR = 1.12, p < .011) and adolescent report (OR = 1.08, p <

Table 2
Regression & logistic regression: self-compassion & desistance from physical abusea.
Variable Desistance: CTS/Maternal Report Desistance: JVQ/Adolescent Report Adolescent Self- Adolescent Self-
(n = 973) (n = 498) Compassion: Compassion:
Controlling for Controlling for
Maternal Report of Adolescent Report
Desistance of Desistance
(n = 973) (n = 498)

OR OR B SE(B) B SE(B)

Desistance (CTS) 0.31*** 0.08

Desistance (JVQ) 0.16** 0.05
Protective ISC_CM 1.12* 1.08* 0.02** 0.01 0.04*** 0.01
Punitive ISC_CM 1.07 0.94 − 0.05*** 0.01 − 0.08*** 0.01
Physical Abuse Secrecy (mother) 0.99 0.98 − 0.03* 0.01 − 0.05*** 0.01
Mother's age 1.06** 1.03** − 0.004 0.005 0.001 0.01
Years in residence 0.98 0.98 0.01 0.003 0.004 0.003
Kid's age 0.95 1.29* − 0.09** 0.03 − 0.09** 0.03
Kid is female 1.24 0.84 0.09* 0.04 0.05 0.05
Household Income (100 USD/month) 1.18 0.89 − 0.003 0.02 − 0.04 0.03
Rural (Guanpalika) 0.38** 2.27** − 0.16 0.09 − 0.30** 0.09
(Pseudo) R2 0.09 0.05 0.19 0.34
a
Standard Errors clustered by ward.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

9
C. Emery et al. Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (xxxx) xxx

.022) desistance models indicate that odds of desistance increase by roughly 10 % for each act of protective ISC_CM reported by the
mother.
In the self-compassion models, mothers' tendency to keep physical abuse secret was associated with significantly lower adolescent
self-compassion (B = − 0.03, p = .011, mother's report model) and (B = − 0.05, p < .001, adolescent report model). Older children had
significantly less self-compassion in the model that controls for mother's report of desistance (B = − 0.09, p = .001) and adolescent's
report of desistance (p = .002). Girls had significantly higher self-compassion in the mother report model (B = 0.09, p = .017) but rural
adolescents had significantly lower self-compassion in the adolescent report model (B = − 0.30, p = .001).
According to maternal (OR = 1.06, p = .006) but not adolescent report (OR = 1.03, p < .069), odds of physical abuse desistance
increase with each year of a mother's age. Odds of reported desistance by the adolescent increased with the child's age (OR = 1.29, p =
.046), child's age was not significant and the odds-ratio was in the opposite direction for mother reported desistance. Odds of mother
reported desistance were significantly lower in rural areas (OR = 0.38, p = .002) but adolescent reported desistance was significantly
(much) higher (OR = 2.27, p = .003).

4. Discussion and implications

Overall physical abuse rates in Nepal are high. Based on maternal reports and population strata, the exact population estimate from
our sample is 72.5 % of Nepali adolescents in the past year experienced some form of physical abuse. However, the true prevalence is
likely to be higher given some reluctance to report and because as our sample has more girls than boys. The true average is likely closer
to the average of the prevalence for boys and girls ((75.6 + 71.3)/2 = 73.45 %), which is very close to our sample average (73.2 %).
Lifetime prevalence of more severe forms of physical abuse was concerningly high. Among adolescents, 61.4 % had been hit on some
part of their body not the buttocks with a hard object like a stick or belt at least once in their lives. Nearly one in four (23.6 %) had been
at some point punched or kicked. One in six (14.7 %) had been beaten up. One in twenty had been choked (5.8 %) or burned (4.5 %),
and 7 % had been threatened or attacked with a knife. In a context in which prevalence of physical abuse is so high, understanding the
conditions under which physical abuse is more likely to stop (desistance) and the conditions under which it is mitigated are vitally
important. Based on the literature review (cf. Emery, Thapa, et al., 2015; Emery, Trung, & Wu, 2015) we hypothesized that acts of
protective informal social control of child maltreatment (ISC_CM) would be positively associated with physical abuse desistance
(hypothesis 1). Based on the literature on relationships between adolescent self-compassion and physical abuse (cf. Tanaka et al.,
2011), we also hypothesized that physical abuse desistance would be positively associated with adolescent-self compassion (hy­
pothesis 2), and that protective ISC_CM would be positively associated with adolescent self-compassion even when desistance is held
constant (hypothesis 3). Finally, consistent with the logic on the reinforcement of punishment schema, we hypothesized that punitive
ISC_CM will be associated with lower adolescent self-compassion.
All four hypotheses were supported regardless of whether physical abuse desistance was reported by the mother or by her
adolescent child. Each act of protective ISC_CM by family, friends, and neighbors (as reported by the mother) is associated with a
roughly 10 % increase in the odds of physical abuse desistance in both mother report and adolescent report models. The finding that
protective ISC_CM is associated with physical abuse desistance suggests this may be one mechanism that explains the negative rela­
tionship between protective ISC_CM and past year physical abuse in previous research (Emery, Trung, & Wu, 2015); protective ISC_CM
may lead to desistance which implies less abuse in the past year. This consistent support for hypothesis 1 also suggests that protective
ISC_CM may play a vital role in reducing risks associated with continuous physical abuse. This role may be particularly important in
situations in which agents of formal social control are not readily available, e.g. when violence occurs behind closed doors and when
violence is occurring in rural areas or developing countries with fewer formal resources. It is important to recognize, however, that, if
replicated, the findings may have important implications for developed countries as well. In many western countries the relationship
between impoverished and marginalized communities and agents of formal social control and representatives of state-sponsored child
protection have become increasingly fraught, leading some scholars to call for the abolition of the child protection system (cf. Roberts,
2022). Working with communities to enhance protective ISC_CM could be one point of entry in the move towards developing a new
child protection approach.
Support for hypothesis 2 suggests the benefits of physical abuse desistance go well beyond decrease in risk of physical injury.
Adolescents for whom their mothers desisted from maltreatment, reported self-compassion scores between a one-half standard de­
viation higher (0.31) in the mother report model, and one quarter standard deviation higher (0.16) in the adolescent report model,
compared to adolescents with current physical abuse experience. Intuitively, adolescent resilience should be more likely when physical
abuse stops rather than when it continues, and the data are consistent with this interpretation. Higher self-compassion among ado­
lescents may also break the cyclical reproduction of violence as it may weaken or transmit the relationship between adverse life events
and later perpetration (Geng & Lei, 2021; Miyagawa & Kanemasa, 2022). Having compassionate feelings impacts on how you view the
world and the conditions of others. Self-compassion enables people to acknowledge uncomfortable feelings with self-kindness, have
positive outlook about the world, and address pain or challenges with clear mindfulness (Neff, 2003; Wu et al., 2018). Research within
positive psychology identifies self-compassion as a positive character strength that can mitigate against negative behaviours. Even
when physical abuse has occurred, our findings and previous research suggest it is still possible to break the cycle of violence if self-
compassion can be increased.
The support found for hypotheses 3 and 4 has methodological, theoretical, and practical import. Even when physical abuse
desistance is held constant, protective interference against physical abuse by family, friends, and neighbors (protective ISC_CM as
reported by the mother) was positively associated with self-compassion as reported by the adolescent (hypothesis 3). And punishment-
oriented interference against physical abuse by family, friends, and neighbors was associated with lower adolescent self-compassion.

10
C. Emery et al. Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (xxxx) xxx

From a methodological standpoint, it is reassuring to see positive findings from protective ISC_CM may jump the potential reporting
gap. Because the surveys of mothers and adolescents were administered independently, it is unlikely that bias from mother-reporting of
protective ISC_CM would have a direct effect on adolescent reporting of self-compassion. Previous research on protective ISC_CM has
been limited by concerns about common reporter bias (e.g. reports on ISC_CM, abuse perpetration, and child behavior were all
supplied by the mother; Emery, Trung, & Wu, 2015). Our findings mitigate such concerns both for this study and for previous research.
At the theoretical level, it has long been recognized that divergent findings between protective ISC_CM and punitive ISC_CM
constitute an anomaly with respect to rational deterrence theory (Emery, Thapa, et al., 2015; Matsueda et al., 2006). This study
replicates the anomaly but provides additional insights which can strengthen understanding of the mechanisms that explain the ef­
ficacy of protective and punitive ISC_CM. Controlling for desistance, protective ISC_CM is positively associated with adolescent self-
compassion. However, punitive ISC_CM is negatively associated with adolescent self-compassion In both desistance models, protec­
tive ISC_CM is positively associated with desistance but punitive ISC_CM is not. At this point, some questions need to be asked about the
effectiveness of the punitive ISC_CM approach. The findings also cast indirect light on a competing theoretical explanation. Emery,
Thapa, et al. (2015) argued that the mechanism by which ISC_CM affects perpetrators might be via encouraging the perpetrator to shift
towards an empathetic schema and away from a punitive schema. The finding on the negative association between punitive ISC_CM
and adolescent self-compassion is consistent with the theoretical logic that punitive ISC_CM may reinforce victims and/or perpetrator's
punishment schema. Although this study does not examine perpetrator empathy or other perpetrator schemas, there is a close rela­
tionship between self-compassion and empathy (Neff, 2003). The fact that protective ISC_CM is associated with higher victim self-
compassion but punitive ISC_CM is associated with lower victim self-compassion suggests the possibility of similar effects on perpe­
trators. Indirectly, the findings suggest there may be some foundation for Emery, Thapa, et al.'s (2015) contention about empathy as a
mechanism.
Taken together, the inferential findings from the model have some practical importance. Acts of protective ISC_CM are associated
with increased odds of desistance, and both protective ISC_CM and desistance are independently associated with greater adolescent
well-being in the form of self-compassion. Punitive ISC_CM has negative associations with adolescent self-compassion. Policy and
programming should be developed to encourage protective ISC_CM, particularly in a South Asian context. Boosting protective ISC_CM
may have the double benefit of reducing current year physical abuse prevalence and increasing victim self-compassion, even when
victimization is ongoing. However, in addition to policy and program development, rigorous research is needed to assess the impact of
policies and programs. At a community level components of the Strong Communities for Children program (Melton & McLeigh, 2020)
could be used to increase community norms supporting informal intervention. This approach could be integrated with training for
community members, community organizations, schools, religious bodies, parents, and extended families in protective ISC_CM and
parenting. Formal child protection organizations could be encouraged, incentivized, and funded to work with communities and civic
organizations to establish protective informal social relationships and control as a first line of defense against maltreatment.
The findings suggest that there are very high levels of physical abuse of children in Nepal, and that nearly across the board all types
of physical abuse are more prevalent in rural areas (guanpalikas). These very high levels of physical abuse may have been partially
caused by the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic, as data were collected towards the end of the pandemic period. Maltreatment pre­
vention programs are particularly needed to better protect children in rural areas. It is also particularly concerning that punitive
ISC_CM was more common in rural areas but protective ISC_CM was more common in urban areas. Methodologically the results
suggest that researchers should be concerned with underreporting of physical abuse by adolescents on the JVQ. The findings suggest
that underreporting may be particularly serious for adolescents in rural areas and from lower SES families. Self-compassion was also
significantly lower among rural adolescents. Although mothers' physical abuse secrecy was not associated with physical abuse
desistance, it was negatively associated with adolescent self-compassion. Promotion of protective ISC_CM may be more effective in
enhancing adolescent well-being if it goes hand in hand with encouragement to discuss problems of maltreatment openly and with less
shame. In one of the two models girls had higher levels of self-compassion than boys. Taken together with the facts that acts of
protective ISC_CM were significantly fewer for boys, mothers' physical abuse secrecy was higher for mothers of adolescent boys, and
boys were at significantly increased risk for some types of severe violence (15.9 % of boys had been knocked down versus 8.9 % of girls;
19 % of boys had been beaten up versus 11.5 % of girls) abuse prevention, detection, and treatment may be particularly needed for
adolescent boys in Nepal.

4.1. Limitations

The data are cross-sectional and non-experimental; hence findings are associations and not necessarily causal. Analyzing reports by
both mothers and adolescents functions as a sensitivity check to mitigate concerns about self-report bias. The results are only strictly
generalizable to Nepal, which the sample represents. It is a concern that the sample yielded more adolescent girls than adolescent boys.
It may be that adolescent boys were more likely to be outside of the house and mothers did not strictly adhere to study protocol about
the adolescent with the most recent birthday. The measure of self-compassion was a shortened version of the full scale and included
only the reverse coded items in order to avoid adolescent confusion. Although victimization rates are high, there appears to be
substantial under-reporting by adolescents and in a few cases adolescents reported physical abuse victimization when their mothers
did not. Maternal secrecy was also significantly higher for boys, who are subjected to higher levels of some types of severe physical
abuse. Hence, even these very high prevalence findings are likely to be under-estimates. The data set is large and representative, but
some null findings could still occur due to a lack of statistical power. More research is needed to replicate these findings in other
cultural contexts, and to pursue the development of interventions which could then be tested in randomized clinical trials. Qualitative
research can also be undertaken to further unpack these findings.

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4.2. Conclusion

Findings from this study shine a light on the importance of informal social control actions in child maltreatment situations. The
findings suggest that interventions that strengthen informal social control actions by ordinary residents could contribute to reduce the
high physical abuse cases in Nepal. Such interventions could also benefit Nepali adolescents by increasing their levels of self-
compassion which is significant for breaking the intergenerational cycle of physical abuse in Nepal.

Grant and funding

This project was supported by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong General Research Fund No. 17615120.

Declaration of competing interest

Authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest in the writing of the manuscript.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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