PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY
1st Year - 1st Sem SEMI-FINALS MR. DIOBERT N. DE LEON
Lecture 7: PLANT EMBRYOGENESIS
AND INHERITANCE
PLANT EMBRYOGENESIS
Embryogenesis - plant development starts
after fertilization.
All land plants are called embryophytes
because they form an embryo during this
process.
There are a number of structures in the plants
that may resemble an embryo such as the:
gemmae of liverworts and some propagules for
vegetative propagation.
Thus, it is important to designate the embryo as
a zygotic embryo when speaking of
embryogenesis.
A plant zygotic embryo has five main
components:
hypocotyl,
two apical meristems: (root and
shoot),
a root cap, and
cotyledons.
In plants undergoing double fertilization such as
the angiosperms, the fertilization of the ovule
results into both the zygote and the endosperm.
Goldberg and co-workers divided the
process into three:
Because plant development proceeds variably
among plants:
(1) post-fertilization-proembryo stage
(2) globular-heart transition stage
(3) organ expansion and maturation stage
The following set of characteristics sets
the plants apart from other organisms:
Plant embryogenesis happens to serve the
following purpose:
(a). Specify which cells proceed to become
meristems
(b.) Specify the shoot-root body pattern
(c.) Differentiate the primary plant tissue types
(d.) Develop a storage organ for seed germination
and seedling development
(e.) Enable the sporophyte to lie dormant until
conditions are favorable for post embryonic
development.
Among dicots, the stages include the
following:
1. Two-cell stage - the zygote divides into two
unequal and asymmetrical cells:
one large basal cell
one small apical cell.
These cells will give rise to different structures later
on. The apical cells, containing most of the
cytoplasm, will give rise to the hypocotyl, the shoot
apical meristem, and the cotyledons. The basal cells
will give rise to the hypophysis and suspensors.
2. Four-cell stage - The two cells divide
longitudinally in a plane perpendicular to the first
division to form a four-celled filament.
3. Eight-cell stage - also called the octant stage,
the four cells divide transversely to form an octant.
4. Globular or Dermatogen stage - this stage is
characterized by the formation of the protoderm, the
first histologically distinct tissue. The three tissue
systems are now recognizable in this stage based on
their cell division patterns. The cotyledon begins to
form.
5. Heart stage - the formation of two cotyledons
give the embryo a heart-shaped form in this stage.
The root apical meristem begins to organize at this
stage. The hypophysis, or the most apical suspensor
cell, becomes incorporated into the embryo.
6. Torpedo stage - In this stage, the suspensor
degenerates, and the shoot and root apical
meristems are fairly established.
The post embryonic development, sometimes
designated as the walking stick stage, will include
the process of maturation. In this process,
macromolecules such as oils, starches, and proteins
are stored. The cells continue to grow. After which,
embryogenesis will be arrested. The embryo goes
into a period of dormancy in the seed. Germination
follows when conditions are favorable for the plant.
Embryogenesis in plants involves two body plans: Law of Segregation
shoot-root axis determination - starts at the
two-cell stage, where the apical cell becomes The Law of Segregation suggests that gametes,
the embryo and the basal cell becomes the produced through meiosis in diploid organisms,
suspensor. take a single copy of a gene, resulting in haploid
axial and radial symmetry - determined by sperms or eggs, with the transfer process being
cell division. Plant embryogenesis doesn't random.
involve cell migration, and the shape depends
on cell division patterns. Monocot embryos
have a single modified cotyledon called the
scutellum, which acts as a tissue between the
endosperm and the embryo.
In monocots, the suspensor during the globular
stage is less differentiated. Instead of the heart
stage, a monocot embryo enters the Scutellar
stage.
The Coleoptilar stage follows, characterized by
the differentiation of the plumule and the radicle.
The name coleoptilar is derived from the coleoptile
and coleorhiza, two tissues that surround the shoot Law of Independent Assortment
and root tissues to aid in emergence during
germination. Independent Assortment states that the
inheritance of genes for one characteristic doesn't
INHERITANCE OF TRAITS affect the inheritance of another. Mendel's
experiment showed that pod shape inheritance
Heredity - the term used to denote the passing doesn't directly affect seed shape. Today, we
of traits from parent to offspring among know that genes are arranged in chromosomes,
sexually or asexually reproducing exemplifying this third law of inheritance.
organisms.The inheritance of these traits, or
phenotypes, is essentially the meat of genetics. Non-Mendelian Genetics

Mendelian Genetics After Mendel's work was rediscovered, biology

advanced understanding of inheritance.
Geneticists studied patterns of genetic material
Mendelian or classical genetics refers to the
transmission and discovered non-Mendelian
basic laws of inheritance. These were the direct
principles of inheritance, revealing potential
result of Mendel's experiment on the pea (Pisum
differences in organisms' behavior.
sativum) plant.
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who
worked in his monastery's garden. He was Principle of Incomplete Dominance
credited to be the Father of Modern Genetics.
Crossing two plants to produce white and red
Law of Dominance and Recessiveness flowers, Mendel's rules dictate dominant colors.
However, a snapdragon produces a pink-petalled
flower, a mix of genotypic influence. This is called
Mendel's Law of Dominance and Recessiveness
incomplete or partial dominance, where numerical
roots from the fundamental concept of one
values are at the midline of homozygotes.
allele, or unit factor as he called it, of the
same gene masking the other allele at the
same locus.
Locus refers to the location of the allele in the
chromosome.
To denote this law, capital letters are used to
signify dominant alleles and small caps of the
same letter for the recessive ones. Using Mendel's
experiments on plant height, the allele that codes
for tall is dominant over the short. Thus, we use the
letter T to symbolize tall and the small letter t to
symbolize short.
 Law of Segregation
Dominance refers to the allelic relationship
between two alleles of the same gene,
manifesting in the resulting phenotype. This
pattern is common in humans and is seen in the
ABO blood type and the Camellia genus.
Dominance does not indicate health or fitness, but
rather the allelic relationship.
Lecture 8: PLANT HISTOLOGY
PLANT TISSUES
Cell division, differentiation and specialization will
eventually lead to various types of tissues with
specific functions.
Three main types of tissues are present in the plant:
dermal tissues
vascular tissues
ground tissues
These types fall into two main categories.
Those tissues that can differentiate are
meristematic.
Those that cannot are referred to as
permanent.
Meristematic Tissues
are composed of small undifferentiated or
incompletely differentiated cells. They have the
ability to divide and produce new cells for the
plant. The vacuoles are relatively small, and
protoplasm fill up the cell completely. Precursor
plastids called proplastids may be found. The
cell wall is mainly primary and is very thin.
It may be classified according to location:
Apical meristems - those at either end of the
plant-tip of shoot or tip of root.
Root apical meristems - produce cells in two
axes.
Stem cells - organized around a region called
quiescent center - these cells are responsible
for most cells in the roots. A root cap protects
this center.
Shoot apical meristem - the source of all
above ground organs. During flowering, the
shoot apical meristem is transformed into their
florescence meristem.
Intercalary meristems occur among
monocots at the base of nodes and leaf
blades. In species of bamboo, intercalary
meristems allow for rapid growth.
Apical meristems give rise to three primary
meristems:
protoderm - develops into the epidermis
procambium - develops into the primary
xylem and primary phloem
ground meristem - develops into the cortex
and pith
All of these are responsible for primary growth or
an increase in length.
Secondary meristems or lateral meristems are
formed by the primary meristems. These are
responsible for an increase in diameter of the
plant. Two types include:
vascular cambium - gives rise to the
secondary xylem and secondary phloem.
cork cambium - gives rise to the periderm
that eventually replaces the epidermis.
Permanent Tissues
- Tissues composed of fully differentiated cells
- responsible for many of the plant activities such
as:
photosynthesis
conduction of water
provision of support
protection
Permanent tissues may be simple or complex:
Simple tissues - composed of only one type
of cell with similar structure.
Eg. sclerenchyma, collenchyma, and
parenchyma.
Complex permanent tissues - such as the
xylem and phloem - are composed of more
than one type of cells.
PLANT TISSUE SYSTEM
- is a set of tissues with common features.
- it include:
ground tissue system
dermal tissue system
vascular tissue system
Dermal Tissue System
The dermal tissues are the coverings of the
plant, providing protection by preventing
unwanted materials from entering the plant
and preventing losses of water, nutrients, and
important compounds.
The tissues facilitate the gaseous exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide. They usually begin
as parenchymal cells. Eventually, they are
modified to perform their main function of
covering and protection.
 Epidermis - the first layer of dermal tissue
among young plants. As the plant ages, the
epidermis is wrapped by the periderm. This is
mostly nonliving cork cells that function as
added protection. Old trees have multiple
layers of periderm.
Certain modifications of the dermal tissues are
possible. Trichomes, hair-like structures on leaf
surfaces, are an example. Cuticles may also be
secreted to intensify mechanisms against water
loss.
Ground Tissue System
- These tissues are the main components of the
young plant because they are integral in the
packing and supportive system of the plant. They
function in the manufacture of food and storage.
The ground tissues are composed of three types of
cells:
Parenchyma -
are the proliferative cells of the plant found in
all plant tissue systems. With thin cell wall, they
are capable of further cell division.
The apical and lateral meristems of the plant
shoot and root are equipped with parenchyma
to provide new cells for growth. Majority of the
fruit and vegetable's weight are parenchymal
cells acting as storage cells.
Photosynthesis occurs in specialized
parenchymal cells called mesophyll cells.
In terms of shape, parenchyma may be angular or
loose;
Angular parenchyma - found in the outer
region of the root cortex and
Loose parenchyma - found in the inner
portion of the stem cortex.
Based on function, parenchyma called
prosenchyma are thick-walled with tapering
ends and provide mechanical support.
Aerenchyma - air-storing types that provide
buoyancy to hydrophytes.
Chlorenchyma - chlorophyll-containing
parenchyma found in the mesophyll layer of
leaves.
Storage parenchyma - store sugar, protein
granules, and oil drops. They are found in seeds
and fruits.
Collenchyma - are similar to parenchyma except
for certain modifications in their appearance.
For one, they have thicker cell walls, and they
are usually found as elongated cells packed in
rope-like structures.
They can stretch, thus providing mechanical
support. These are usually found in the sub
epidermal regions of the plant.
Sclerenchyma -
unlike the first two, are dead cells with thick
lignified secondary cell walls. Such structure
prevents these cells from stretching as the
plant grows.
Two common types of sclerenchyma:
fibers
sclereids.
Different sclereid types are illustrated in the
figurebelow:
Vascular Tissue System
Vascular tissues
- are an extensive tissue system working mainly for
the transport of water and nutrients from the roots
to the leaves and from the leaves to the different
parts of the plant. The phloem and the xylem are
two main types of this tissue. The contents
transported by these tissues are known as sap.
Xylem
- is the tissue system that conducts water and
nutrients from the roots to the leaves. All xylem of
vascular plants contain stracheids- these are long
tapered cells.
- Like sclerenchyma, tracheids are dead at
maturity, with only the thick cell walls remaining.
They align at the thinner portion of the cell wall
called pits to allow water and nutrients to pass
from one tracheid to another.
Tracheid
- is considered to be the chief water-conducting
element in gymnosperms and seedless vascular
plants.
Vessel elements
- another type of water-conducting cells in most
flowering plants, are shorter and have wider
diameter but are also dead at maturity. This
structure allows more water to pass through.
Phloem
- on the other hand, is the food-conducting tissue
system among vascular plants. Unlike the xylem,
phloem is active and alive during maturity.
 Sieve-tube members (aka sieve-tube
elements),
- are a type of phloem carrying food materials
from the leaves to the different parts of the plant.
They form sieve tubes when arranged from end to
end.
- do not have nucleus at maturity.
- they are dependent on a companion cell
adjacent to them that forms from the same parent
parenchymal cell of the sieve tube.
- In nonflowering vascular plants, sieve cells, a
more primitive version of the sieve tubes, are
present. The main difference lies in their
arrangements. Sieve cells are rather overlapping
rather than continuous. In place of the companion
cells, an albuminous cell is present, providing
support to the non-nucleated sieve cell.
Phloem and xylem arrange themselves in bundles.
The arrangement of the phloem and xylem in a
vascular bundle can be simple or compound.
Plant Histology
Xylem and phloem arrange themselves differently among
terrestrial plants
THE PLANT AS A WHOLE
The plant body can be divided into two main
systems:
THE ROOT SYSTEM
can be found underneath the soil, except for
plants with epiphytic lifestyle.
The root system serves as the main anchorage
of the plant and absorbs water and nutrients
from the soil.
The roots can be in the form of fibrous roots or
taproot.
They can also be simple or extensive,
depending on the type of the plant and the
need for nutrients.
THE SHOOT SYSTEM
the parts above the ground.
is composed of the stem that conducts the
nutrients and water.
It provides support to the plant, including the
leaves where the process of photosynthesis
occurs, the flower which serves as the
reproductive system of the plant, and the
fruits.
Mesophytes
are plants that live in normal terrestrial
conditions where water availability is just right
and where there is an alternating wet and dry
condition.
Most plants we see are mesophytes.
There are less pronounced modifications in
plants belonging to this group
Because conditions are relatively fine most of
the time, mesophytes can grow tall and long,
accumulating water, nutrients, and carbon into
their system.
Some of the oldest plants recorded are
mesophytes.
Mesophytes are important in the nutrient
cycling in forests and other ecosystems.
Hydrophytes
are plants that live in water most of or all the
time.
Examples include the water lily and the sea
grasses.
Because of the osmotic pressure exerted by
water to plant cells, the plant needs to have
regulatory mechanisms to avoid plasmolysis
and bursting.
Mangrove species, for example, have salt
glands that remove salt from the plant tissues
to avoid desiccation.
Same is true to seagrasses. These organisms
that are subjected to salty water are
specifically called halophytic.
Other classifications of plants include the annuals
and the perennials depending on the length of
time they grow, die, and repeat the cycle; tree,
shrubs, herb, palm, and vines depending on the
habit; woody and herbaceous depending on the
strength of the stem; and many more.