1.

Physical Examination
- Physical examination of a salt often provides important information, which simplifies
further analysis.
In the following section, some of the physical properties will be discussed:
1. Colour:
- Always check the colour of the salt, which may provide useful information about the
cations.
- Ionic compounds formed from the representative (main group) elements tend to be white
or colorless. However, ions of transition metals (TM) tend to be coloured.
- The following table represents the characteristic colors of salts of some cations.
Ion/ Compound Colour
Co2+ Rose-red
Co3+ Violet
Cr3+ Violet or dark green
Cu2+ Blue
Cu2+ (hydrated salt) Greenish-blue
Cu+ White such as (CuI)
Co2+ (anhydrous salt) Deep blue
Co2+ (hydrated salt) Red
Fe2+ Pale green, pale violet
Fe3+ Yellow-brown
Mn2+ Pale pink
Ni2+ Blue-green
Ni2+ (hydrated salt) Green
Shows the absence of Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Ni2+, Mn2+, Co2+ White
+ 2+ 3+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
NH4 , Pb , Al , Zn ,Ba , Ca , Sr and Mg White

FeS, CuS, HgS, PbS, NiS, CoS, CuBr2, Ag2S, Cu2S Black, Substance.

SnS, Bi2S3 MnCO3 (pale brown), CuCrO4, SnS. Brown Substance

CdS, SnS2, As2S3, PbI2, Chromates, As2S5, AgI Yellow substance

HgI2, AsI3, SbI3, SnI2, Red substance

Sb2S3 Orange substance

Carbonate or Chloride of Cu2+ Green substance

Some Cr3+ salts Purple

1
2. Appearance
- Some salts can be identified by their appearance. For example, calcium carbonate has the
texture of powdered chalk. Therefore, visiting your chemistry laboratory and physically
examining the salts may help you to analyze the salt in the practical examination.

3. Solubility of Salts:
- Place one small spatula of the compound in 1 mL of water. If the compound is soluble
this amount will dissolve after considerable stirring. If the compound is moderately
soluble, some of this amount will dissolve. If the compound is insoluble, even a very
small amount will not dissolve.

2
 2. Identification of Cations (Basic Radicals)

Aims and Objectives

The aim of this part is to determine the cations present in the given salt. We will be looking for
the common cations. The common cations can be classified into five groups, according to their
precipitation with certain reagents called “group reagents” which will precipitate the members
of a given group.

Group Group reagent Ions precipitate

Group I Dilute-hydrochloric acid Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+ The metals of this

(Silver group) group are characterized
by being precipitated as
chlorides.
Group II Sub-group IІІ-A copper group Hg2+, Cu2+, Bi3+, The metals of this
(Copper and Cd2+ group are characterized
arsenic group) Dilute HCl (Acidic medium) + by being precipitated as
H2S sulphides (Acid
medium)
Sub-group IІІ-B arsenic group Sn2+, Sn4+, Sb+3
Dilute HCl (Acidic medium) +
H2S

Group III Sub-group IІІ-A (Iron group) Fe2+, Fe3+, Al3+, The metals of this
(Iron and zinc Cr3+ group are characterized
NH4Cl + NH4OH (aq. NH3)
Group) by being precipitated as
hydroxides.
Sub-group IІІ-B ( zinc group) Zn2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, The metals of this
Co2+ group are characterized
NH4Cl + NH4OH (aq. NH3)
by being precipitated as
(basic medium) + H2S
sulphides (basic
medium).
Group IV NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)2CO3 Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+ The metals of this
(Calcium group are characterized
Group) by being precipitated as
carbonates.
Group V No particular reagent Mg2+, K+, Na+, Different ppts. are
(Alkali Group) NH4+ formed.

3
 EXPERIMENT 1

Identification of Cations Group

4
 Group І: Silver Group

- This group contains silver Ag+, lead Pb2+ and mercurous (Hg22+) ions.
- The cations in this group can be easily analyzed as their chloride precipitations.
- When the acid concentration increases, the precipitated salts start to dissolve. Thus, the
concentration of the acid is highly important parameter to identify the cation.

Group I (silver group)

Preliminary Test: Salt solution+ dil. hydrochloric acid

Silver A white ppt. of silver chloride (AgCl) is formed, which dissolves in ammonium
(Ag+) hydroxide. AgCl turns violet when exposed to light.
AgNO3+HCl→AgCl↓+HNO3
AgCl+2NH3 →Ag(NH3)2Cl

Lead(II) A white ppt. of lead (II) chloride (PbCl2) is formed, which is insoluble in
(Pb2+) ammonium hydroxide but soluble in hot water and reprecipitates on cooling.
Pb(NO3)2+2HCl→PbCl2↓+2HNO3

Mercury(I) A white ppt. is formed of mercury(I) chloride (Hg2Cl2), which turn black when
(Hg22+ ) ammonia solution is added, due to the production of amino-mercuric chloride and
finely divided mercury (black).
Hg2(NO3)2+2HCl→Hg2Cl2↓+2HNO3
Hg2Cl2+2NH4OH→Hg(NH2)Cl+ Hg↓+ NH4Cl+2H2O

Confirmatory Test:

1. Salt solution+ sodium hydroxide solution(NaOH)

Silver Brown-black ppt. of silver oxide (Ag2O) is formed
+
(Ag )

Lead(II) A white ppt. is formed of lead(II) hydroxide (Pb(OH)2), which dissolves in excess
(Pb2+) of NaOH.

Mercury(I) A black ppt. of mercury(I) oxide(Hg2O) is formed.

(Hg22+ )

5
2. Salt solution+ potassium iodide solution (KI)
Silver A yellow ppt. of silver iodide (AgI) is formed.
+
(Ag )

Lead(II) A yellow ppt. is formed, lead(II) iodide (PbI2), which is soluble in excess of KI.
(Pb2+)

Mercury(I) A yellowish green ppt. of mercury(I) iodide (Hg2I2 )is produced, which dissolves
(Hg22+ ) in excess of iodide and the solution turns grey due to separation of Hg.

3. Salt solution+ potassium chromate solution(K2CrO4)

Silver A brick red ppt. of silver chromate (Ag2CrO4) is formed.
+
(Ag )

Lead(II) A yellow ppt. of lead(II) chromate (PbCrO4) is formed.

(Pb2+)

Mercury(I) A brown ppt. of mercury(I) chromate (Hg2CrO4) is obtained, which is converted to

(Hg22+ ) a red crystalline form after heating.

6
 EXPERIMENT 2

Identification of Cations Group II

7
 Group ІІ: Copper and Arsenic Groups

- The metals of this group are characterized by being precipitated as sulphide, by a

solution of H2S in dilute HCl.
- The metals of group ІІ are divided to two sub-groups.

1. Sub-group ІІ-A: This group contains mercuric, bismuth, copper and cadmium.
The sulphides precipitate of these metals are insoluble in potassium hydroxide
solution (KOH).
2. Sub-group ІІ-B: This group contains antimony and tin. Their sulphides
precipitate are soluble in KOH solution.

Sub-Group II -A (Copper group)

Preliminary Test: Salt solution+ dil.HCl+ hydrogen sulphide solution(H2S)

Mercury(II) A white ppt. is formed directly, which changes color quickly to yellow, brown
(Hg2+) and finally black.
The black ppt. is mercury(II) sulphide (HgS), which is insoluble in KOH
solution.

HgCl2+H2S→HgS↓+2HCl

Bismuth(III) A brown ppt. of bismuth(III) sulphide (Bi2S3) is formed, which is insoluble in

(Bi3+) KOH solution.
2BiCl3+3H2S→Bi2S3↓+6HCl

Copper(II) A black ppt. of copper (II) sulphide (CuS), which is insoluble in KOH solution.
(Cu2+) CuSO4+H2S→CuS↓+H2SO4

Cadmium(II) A canary yellow or orange ppt. of cadmium(II) sulphide (CdS), which is

(Cd2+) insoluble in KOH solution.
CdCl2+H2S→ CdS↓+2HCl

8
Confirmatory Test:

1. Salt solution+ ammonium hydroxide solution (NH4OH)

Mercury(II) Produces a white ppt. of amino mercury(II) nitrate.

(Hg2+)
Hg(NO3)2+NH4OH→ Hg(NH2)NO3↓+ HNO3+H2O

Bismuth(III) Gives a white ppt. of bismuth(III) hydroxide (Bi(OH)3), which is insoluble in

(Bi3+) excess of NH4OH.

Copper(II) Gives at first a blue ppt. of copper (II) hydroxide (Cu(OH)2), which is soluble in
excess of NH4OH forming a blue solution.
(Cu2+)

Cadmium(II) Gives a white ppt. of cadmium (II) hydroxide (Cd(OH)2), which is soluble in
(Cd2+) excess of ammonia.

2. Salt solution+ sodium hydroxide solution(NaOH)

Mercury(II) A brownish red ppt. of basic mercury(II) salt is formed when few drops of NaOH
(Hg2+) are added.
However, a yellow ppt. of mercury(II) oxide HgO↓ is formed if NaOH is added
quickly

Bismuth(III) Gives a white ppt. of bismuth(III) hydroxide (Bi(OH)3 )

(Bi3+)

Copper(II) Gives at first a blue ppt. of copper(II) hydroxide Cu(OH)2, soluble in excess of
NH4OH forming a blue solution
(Cu2+)

Cadmium(II) A white ppt. of cadmium(II) hydroxide (Cd(OH)2) is form, which is insoluble in

(Cd2+) excess hydroxide.

3. Salt solution+ potassium iodide solution (KI)

Mercury(II) A red ppt. of mercury(II)iodide(HgI2) is formed.
(Hg2+)
HgI2 is soluble in excess of KI to give a colorless complex (K2[HgI4]).
Hg(NO3)2+2KI→HgI2↓+ 2KNO3
HgI2+2KI→K2[HgI4]

Bismuth(III) A black ppt. of bismuth(III) iodide (BiI3) is formed.

(Bi3+)

9
 BiI3 dissolve in excess of iodide to produce an orange solution.
BiCl3+3KI→BiI3↓+3KCl
BiI3+KI→K[BiI4]

Copper(II) A white ppt. of copper (II) iodide (CuI ) is formed, and the solution will turn
dark brown .
(Cu2+)
2CuSO4+4KI→2K2SO4+2CUI↓+I2

10
 EXPERIMENT 3

Identification of Cations: Group III

11
 Group III: (Iron and Zinc Group)

- Cations of group ІІI do not precipitate with the reagents used for precipitation of the group
I and II.cations.

- Group III cations are divided into two sub-groups:

1- Group III-A (iron group): This group includes iron (II) and (III), aluminium (III),
chromium (III) (precipitates in the form of hydroxides when their solutions are treated
with NH4OH as group reagent in the presence of NH4Cl).

2- Group III-B (The zinc group): This includes nickel(II), cobalt (II), manganese (II) and
zinc (II). (precipitates in the form of sulfides, when their solutions are treated with bya
solution of H2S in the presence of NH4OH, and NH4Cl).

Group III (iron and zinc group)

a. Sub-group ІІI-A ( iron group )

Preliminary Test: Salt solution + ammonium chloride (solid) (NH4Cl) + ammonium

hydroxide solution (NH4OH)

Aluminium Form a white gelatinous precipitate of aluminium (III) hydroxide Al(OH)3.

(Al 3+)
AlCl3+3NH4OH→ Al(OH)3↓+3NH4Cl

Chromium Produces a grayish green gelatinous ppt. of chromium (III) hydroxide Cr(OH)3.
(Cr+3)
CrCl3+3NH4OH→Cr(OH)3↓+3NH4Cl

Iron(ІІ) Forms a dirty green ppt. of Iron(ІІ) hydroxide Fe(OH)2.

(Fe+2) FeSO4+2NH4OH→Fe(OH)2↓+(NH4)2SO4

If the ppt. is left for a while in air, it tends to be oxidized to the brown Iron(ІІI)
hydroxide Fe(OH)3.

Iron(ІІІ) A reddish brown gelatinous ppt. of Iron(ІІI) hydroxide Fe(OH)3 is formed.

(Fe+3)
FeCl3+3NH4OH→ Fe(OH)3↓+3NH4Cl

12
Confirmatory Test:

1. Salt solution+ sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH)

Aluminium Gives a white gelatinous ppt. of Al(OH)3 , which is soluble in excess NaOH.
(Al 3+)
Chromium Gives a grayish green gelatinous ppt. of Cr(OH)3 , which is soluble in excess of
(Cr+3) NaOH.

Iron(ІІ) Forms a dirty green ppt. of iron(ІІ) hydroxide Fe(OH)2, which tern to brown
(Fe+2) If the ppt. is left for a while in air, it tends to be oxidized to the brown Iron(ІІI)
hydroxide Fe(OH)3.

Iron(ІІІ) Gives a reddish brown ppt. of Fe(OH)3 insoluble in excess of NaOH.

(Fe+3)

2. Salt solution+ sodium phosphate solution

Aluminium Produces a white gelatinous ppt. of aluminium (III) phosphate (AlPO4).

Al+3+

Chromium Gives a greenish ppt. of chromic(III) phosphate (CrPO4).

Cr+3

3. Salt solution+ potassium ferrocyanide solution K4Fe(CN)6:

Iron(ІІ) Gives a pale blue ppt. of potassium ferrous ferrocyanide (K2Fe[Fe(CN)6])

(Fe+2) FeSO4+K4Fe(CN)6→ K2Fe[Fe(CN)6]↓+K2SO4

Iron(ІІІ) Produces a dark blue ppt. of ferric ferrocyanide (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), which dissolves
(Fe+3) in excess of reagent forming a blue solution (Prussian blue).

4FeCl3+3K4[Fe(CN)6] → Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3↓+12KCl

4. Salt solution+potassium ferricyanide solution K3Fe(CN)6:

Iron(ІІ) A dark blue ppt. is formed potassium ferrous ferricyanide (KFe[Fe(CN)6])

(Fe+2) FeSO4+K3Fe(CN)6→ KFe[Fe(CN)6]↓+K2SO4

Iron(ІІІ) Forms a brown coloration due to ferric ferricyanide (Fe[Fe(CN)6])

(Fe+3)
FeCl3+K3[Fe(CN)6] → Fe[Fe(CN)6]+3KCl

13
 5. Salt solution+ammonium thioyanate NH4SCN:

Iron(ІІ) No coloration with pure iron(ІІ)salts . However, a faint red color may appear due
to presence of Iron(ІІІ) ions formed as a result of the partial oxidation of iron(II)
(Fe+2)
to iron (III).

Iron(ІІІ) Gives a blood red coloration due to iron(III) thiocyanate (Fe(SCN)3).

(Fe+3)

b. Sub-group ІІI-B (zinc group)

Preliminary Test: Salt solution + ammonium chloride (solid) (NH4Cl) + ammonium
hydroxide solution (NH4OH) + hydrogen sulphide solution(H2S)

Zinc (II) Gives a white ppt. of zinc (II) sulphide (ZnS).

(Zn+2)
ZnSO4 + H2S →ZnS↓ + H2SO4

Manganese Gives a buff ppt. of manganese (II) sulphide (MnS).

(II)
(Mn+2) MnCl2 + H2S → MnS↓ + 2HCl

Cobalt(II) Gives a black ppt. of cobalt (II) sulphide (CoS).

(Co+2)
Co(NO3)2 + H2S → CoS↓ + 2HNO3

Nickel (II) Gives a black ppt. of nickel (II) sulphide (NiS).

(Ni+2)
NiCl2 + H2S →NiS↓ + 2HCl

Confirmatory Test:

1. Salt solution+ sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH)

Zinc (II) Forms a white gelatinous ppt. of zinc (II) hydroxide (Zn(OH)2), which is soluble
+2
(Zn ) in excess of NaOH

Manganese A white ppt. of manganese (II) hydroxide (Mn(OH)2 )is formed, which is
(II) insoluble in excess hydroxide.
(Mn+2)
MnCl2 + 2NaOH → Mn(OH)2↓ + 2NaCl

The ppt. rapidly changes into brown in the air, due to oxidation to manganese (III)
hydroxide Mn(OH)3

4Mn(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 → 4Mn(OH)3

Cobalt(II) A blue ppt. of basic cobalt salt appears, which turns pink with heating in excess of
(Co+2) NaOH due to the formation of cobalt (II) hydroxide (Co(OH)2).

14
 Co(NO3)2 + NaOH →Co(OH)NO3↓ + NaNO3

blue ppt.

Co(OH)NO3 + NaOH →Co(OH)2↓ + NaNO3

pink ppt.

Nickel (II) Gives a greenish ppt. of nickel(II) hydroxide Ni(OH)2 , which is insoluble in
(Ni+2) excess of NaOH.

2. Salt solution+ ammonium hydroxide solution (NH4OH)

Zinc (II) Produces a white ppt. of Zn(OH)2 , which is soluble in excess of ammonia
(Zn+2) solution

Manganese Produces a white ppt. of Mn(OH)2, which turn brown in air.

(II)
(Mn+2)

Cobalt(II) Gives a blue ppt. of basic cobalt salt Co(OH)NO3 , which dissolves in excess of
(Co+2) ammonia solution.

Nickel (II) Gives a greenish ppt. of Ni(OH)2 which is soluble in excess of ammonia solution
(Ni+2) forming a blue solution of complex.

To differentiate between Co+2 and Ni+2:

Salt solution + dimethylglyoxime

Cobalt - ve
(Co+2)

Nickel Gives a red ppt. of nickel dimethylglyoxime.

(Ni+2)

15
 EXPERIMENT 4

Identification of Cations Group IV

16
 Group IV (calcium group)

- This group contains the three alkaline earth metals: calcium, strontium and barium.

- The group reagent, ammonium carbonate precipitates the carbonates of

metals in thepresence of NH4OH, and NH4Cl.

Preliminary Test:
Salt solution + ammonium chloride(solid) (NH4Cl) + ammonium hydroxide solution(NH4OH)+
ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3)

Calcium Gives whit ppt. of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

Ca2+
CaCl2+(NH4)2CO3→CaCO3↓+2NH4Cl

Strontium Gives whit ppt. of strontium carbonate (SrCO3).

Sr2+
SrCl2+(NH4)2CO3→SrCO3↓+2NH4Cl

Barium Gives whit ppt. of barium carbonate (BaCO3).

Ba2+ BaCl2+(NH4)2CO3→BaCO3↓+2NH4Cl

Confirmatory Test:

1. Salt solution+ calcium sulphate (CaSO4)

Calcium No ppt. is formed.
Ca2+

Strontium Gives white ppt. of strontium sulphate (SrSO4) on heating or after some time.
Sr2+

Barium A white ppt. of barium sulphate (BaSO4) is forme.

Ba2+

2. Salt solution + potassium chromate solution (K2CrO4)

Calcium No ppt. is formed from dilute solutions. However, a yellow ppt. of calcium
Ca2+ chromate (CaCrO4) is formed in conc. solutions. Calcium chromate is soluble in
acetic acid.

Strontiu Gives a yellow ppt. of SrCrO4, which is soluble in acetic acid.

mSr2+

Barium Gives a yellow ppt. of BaCrO4, which is insoluble in acetic acid.

Ba2+

17
 EXPERIMENT 5

Identification of Cations Group V

18
 Group V
- The cations of this group do not react with hydrochloric acid HCl, hydrogen sulphide
H2S, ammonium sulphide and ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3.

A. Ammonim (NH4+)
Preliminary Test: Salt solution + sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH)

Ammonim Ammonia gas is evolved, which can be recognized by its ammoniacal odor.
(NH4+)
NH4Cl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O + NH3

Test for ammonia gas:

Dip a clean glass rod into a bottle of conc. HCl, and hold it close to the mouth of
the test tube in which ammonia is being produced. Dense white fumes of
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) will be formed.
HCl +NH3 →NH4Cl
Confirmatory Test:

1. Salt solution + Nesslerˈs reagent:

Ammonim Gives a brown ppt. or yellow color even with very dilute solutions.
(NH4+)

2. Salt solution + sodium cobaltinitrite (solid) (Na3(CO(NO2)6):

Ammonim Gives a yellow ppt. of ammonium cobaltinitrite ((NH4)3(CO(NO2)6)).

(NH4+)

19
 B. Magnesium (Mg+2)
Preliminary Test: Salt solution + sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH)

Magnesium Gives white ppt. of magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2).

(Mg+2)
MgSO4 + 2NaOH → Mg(OH)2↓ + Na2SO4

Confirmatory Test:

i. Salt solution + ammonium carbonate solution ((NH4)2CO3)

Magnesium Gives white ppt. of magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
(Mg+2)

ii. Salt solution + sodium phosphate solution

Magnesium In presence of NH4Cl and NH4OH, it gives a white ppt. of magnesium ammonium
(Mg+2) phosphate (Mg(NH4)PO4).

C. Potassium (K+) and Sodium (Na+)

Preliminary Test: Salt solution + Sodium Cobaltinitrite (Na3Co(NO2)6

Potassium Gives a yellow ppt.

(K+)

Sodium No ppt. is formed

(Na+)

Flame test

Potassium Imparts a violet color (lilac) to the flame.

(K+)

Sodium Imparts a golden yellow color to the flame.

(Na+)

20
 a. Flame Test
Background:

The normal electron configuration of atoms or ions of an element is known as the “ground
state.” In this most stable energy state, all electrons are in the lowest energy levels available.
When atoms or ions in the “ground state” are heated to high temperatures, some electrons may
absorb enough energy to allow them to “jump” to higher energy levels.

The element is then said to be in the “excited state.” This excited configuration is unstable, and
the electrons “fall” back to their normal positions of lower energy (ground state). As the
electrons return to their normal levels, they emit energy in the form of a particle of light called
a photon. Different elements emit different emission spectra when they are excited because
each type of element has a unique energy shell or energy level system. Therefore, the color of
this light can be used as a means of identifying the elements involved.

How to Do the Flame Test:

1- Classic Wire Loop Method

a. Dip a clean wire loop (platinum or nickel-chromium loop) into hydrochloric or nitric
acid, followed by rinsing with distilled or deionized water. Test the cleanliness of the
loop by inserting it into a gas flame.

21
 b. Dip the clean loop in either a powder or solution of an ionic (metal) salt.

c. put the loop into the edge of the blue flame from a Bunsen burner

d. observe and record the flame colour produced.

2- Wooden Splint or Cotton Swab Method

a. Wooden splints or cotton swabs offer an inexpensive alternative to wire loops. To use
wooden splints, soak them overnight in distilled water.
b. Pour out the water and rinse the splints with clean water, being careful to avoid
contaminating the water with sodium (as from sweat on your hands).
c. Take a damp splint or cotton swab that has been moistened in water, dip it in the sample
to be tested, and wave the splint or swab through the flame.

Different metal ions produce different flame colors when they are heated strongly. Each
element has a signature emission spectrum based on their different electron configuration,
which allows them to be differentiated from each other. The table below lists the expected
colors for elements in the flame test.

Smbol Element Color

Ba Barium Pale/ apple green
Ca Calcium Orange to red
Cs Cesium Blue
Cu(I) Copper(I) Blue
Cu(II) Copper(II) non-halide Green
Cu(II) Copper(II) halide Blue-green
Fe Iron Gold
K Potassium Lilac to red
Mg Magnesium Bright white
Mn(II) Manganese(II) Yellowish green
Na Sodium Intense yellow
Pb Lead Blue
Bi Bismuth Blue
Sb Antimony Pale green
Sr Strontium Crimson
Zn Zinc Bluish green to whitish
green

22
 EXPERIMENT 7

Scheme for the identification of basic radicals

23
 Step (1): Salt solution or solid salt+ sodium hydroxide solution

1. Ammonia gas is evolved, which can be -ve

recognized by its ammoniacal odor.
2. White fumes will form with HCl. The cation is not NH4+
Go to step 2
Result: the cationic part could be ammonium ion.

Step (2): Salt Solution + dill. HCl

White ppt. insoluble in White ppt. insoluble White ppt., which turns to -ve
NH4OH sol. in NH4OH sol. black if NH4OH sol. is added.
The cation is
Result: Result: not from
Result: 1. The white ppt. is Hg2Cl2
1. The ppt. is AgCl. 1. The ppt. is PbCl2. group I
which turns to black (Hg).
2. The c\ ationic part 2. The cationic part 2. The cationic part could be Go to step 3
could be silver ion could be lead ion mercury(I) ion Hg22+
Ag+ Pb2+

Step (3): Salt solution + dill. HCl + H2S

A black ppt.,
A white ppt., which A brown ppt., which which is canary yellow
changes to yellow, brown -ve
isinsoluble in insoluble in ppt., which is
and finally black KOH sol. KOHsol.A insoluble in
Result: 1. The KOH sol. The
(insoluble in KOH)
ppt. is Result: cation is
Result: 1. The ppt. is
Result: 1. The ppt. is Bi2S3. CuS. 1.The ppt. is not from
HgS. 2. The cationic CdS. group II
2. The cationic part
3. The cationic part part could be 2. The
could be Go to
4. could b)e mercury(II) bismuth(III)ion copper(II)ion cationic
partcould
step 4
ion Hg+ Bi3+ Cu2+
be
cadmium(I
I) ion Cd2+

24
 Step (4): Salt solution + ammonium chloride NH4Cl (solid) + ammonium hydroxide
solution NH4OH

A dirty green ppt.

A white gelatinous A grayish green ppt. A reddish brown -ve
is formed, turns to
ppt. is formed is formed gelatinous ppt.is
brown (oxidized by The cation
formed.
Results ppt. is air) is not from
group III-A
Result: Result: Result:
Result:
3. The ppt. is 1. The ppt. is 1. The ppt. is Go to step 5
1. The ppt. is
Al(OH)3 Cr(OH)3 Fe(OH)3
Fe(OH)2
4. The cationic part 2. The cationic 2. The cationic
2. The cationic
could be part could be part could be
part could be
Aluminum(III) chromium(III) iron(III) ion
iron(II) ion
ion Al3+ ion Cr3+ Fe3+
Fe2+

Step (5): Salt solution + NH4Cl (solid) + NH4OH (sol.) + H2S (sol.)

A white ppt. is A buff ppt. is formed. A black ppt. is formed. -ve

formed.
Result: The cation is
Result: Result: 1. The ppt. is CoS not from
1. The ppt. is 1. The ppt. is MnS. or NiS. group III-A
ZnS 2. The cationic part 2. The cationic part
2. The cationic could be could be either Go to step 6
part could be manganese(II) cobalt(II) or
zinc ion Zn2+ ion Mn2+ nickel ions Co2+
or Ni2+

To differentiate between Co2+ and Ni2+

Salt sol. Dimethylglyoxime

Gives a red ppt. of nickel dimethylglyoxime -ve

Result: The cation is nickel ion Ni2+ Result: The cation is cobalt ion Co2+

25
 Step (6): Salt solution + NH4Cl (solid) + NH4OH (sol.) + (NH)4CO3 (solid)

Gives a white ppt. --ve

Result: The cationic part could be calcium, or strontium, or barium The cation is not
ions from group (IV)

Go to step 7
To differentiate between them, go
to step A, and B

No ppt. is formed
Result: The cation is calcium
ion Ca2+

A: Salt solution + calcium White ppt. is formed after

sulphate CaSO4 heat, or after a while.
Result:
1. The ppt. is SrSO4
2. The cation is strontium
ion (Sr2+)

A white ppt.is formed

Result:
1. The ppt. is BaSO4
B: Flame test
2. The cation is barium
ion (Ba2+)

Imparts a brick red (orange to Imparts a crimson red color to Imparts an apple green colored
red) color to flame. flame. flame.
Result: The cation is calcium Result: The cation is strontium Result: The cation is barium
ion (Ca2+ ) ion (Sr2+) ion (Ba2+)

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 Step (7): Salt solution + Sodium hydroxide solution

A white ppt.is formed -ve

Result: Go to step 8

1. The ppt. is Mg(OH)2

2. The cationic part could be magnesium
ion Mg 2+

Step (8): Salt solution + Sodium Cobaltinitrite (Na3Co(NO2)6

No ppt. is formed.
Gives a yellow ppt.
Result: The cationic part could be sodium ion
Result: The cationic part could be Na+

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 a. An example of recording experimental results for cationic part of unknown salt
(group I):

Physical Examination:

Aberrance: Colour: Solubility:

Test Observations Inference

1. Step 1: 1. A gas is evolved, 1. The gas is NH3 .
Solid salt ( )+ sodium hydroxide which can be 2. The cationic part in the unknown
solution. recognized by its salt could be ammonium ion
ammoniacal odour. (NH4+).

2. White fumes
will form with HCl.

1. Confirmation tests: Gives a brown ppt. or

1. Salt solution (..) + Nesslerˈs yellow color even with 1. The cationic part in the
reagent. very dilute solutions. unknown salt belongs to
Group V.

3. Salt solution + sodium cobaltinitrite Gives a yellow ppt. of 2. The cationic part is ammonium
(solid) ammonium ion (NH4+).
(Na3(Co(NO2)6) cobaltinitrite
((NH4)3(CO(NO2)6)).

b. An example of recording experimental results for cationic part of unknown salt

(group II)

Physical Examination:

Aberrance: Colour: Solubility:

Test Observations Inference

1. Step 1: -ve 1. The cationic part in the unknown salt is
Solid salt (..)+ sodium hydroxide not ammonium.
solution 2. Go to step 2

3. Step 2: …………… 1. The ppt. is ………… .

Solid salt (..)+ dill. HCl 2. The cationic part in the unknown salt
could be ……………………………

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3. Confirmation tests: …………….. 1. The cationic part in the unknown salt
a. ………………… belongs to group (I).
2. The cationic part is ............. ion …(……)

a. ………………….. ……………..

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