PHILOSOPHY
and the world of materials
Combination of two Greek word Philia and Sophia
which means love for wisdom
Study of fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and
existence especially in academic discipline
A particular theory that someone has, it is about how to
live or how to deal with a particular situation
Academic discipline concerned with investigating the
nature of significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs
SOCRATES
Father of Philosophy and was a Greek philosopher
Was concerned with the problem of the self
Dualistic approach - every man is composed of body
and soul
Wanted to discover the essential nature of knowledge,
justice beauty, and goodness
However, he was not a writer, a lot of his thoughts were
only known through Plato’s writing (The Dialogues)
There is a soul before the body, existing in the realm of
ideas
Once the soul comes into the material world (world
where we exist), the soul forgets everything
Socratic Method/Dialectic Method
Is considered to be the foundation of critical thinking
This is his way of discovering what is essential in the
world and in people
It involves the search for the correct/proper definition of
a thing
Teaching by asking questions (Psychology)
“An unexamined life is not worth living”. - Socrates
PLATO
Was the student of Socrates and supported his ideas
about the dualistic nature of man
Founded The Academy (considered as prototype of
today’s universities)
Real name was Aristocles, he was nicknamed Plato
(because of his body built) which means “wide/broad”
Dichotomy between ideal/real world (Theory of Forms)
Theory of Forms – refers to what are real and not
objects that are not encountered with senses but can only
be grasped intellectually
Three (3) Components of the Soul
1. The reason (mind) – rational and is the motivation
for goodness and truth
2. The spirited (emotions) – non-rational and the will
or the drive toward action, is initially neutral but can be
influenced or pulled in two directions
3. The appetites (wants/needs) - are irrational and lean
towards the desire for pleasures of the body
ARISTOTLE
ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
Was a Christian philosopher
The concern was with God and man’s relationship with
God
The world of materials is not our final home but only
temporary one because the real world is the one where
God is
The self is in search of happiness because humans have
eudaemonic characteristics (our satisfaction in life is
derived from happiness)
Two (2) Aspects of a Person
1. Soul – capable of reaching immortality, a world
where we should strive to be in because that is the world
where God is
2. Body - dwells in the world and is imperfect
RENE DESCARTES
Father of modern philosophy
He stated that the self is composed of body and mind
Considered as one of the Rationalist Philosopher of
Europe
Mind and body problem
Mind is a thing that thinks while Body is extension of
the mind that works for its thoughts, it is like a machine
that that is controlled by the will and aided by the mind
“I think, Therefore I Am” - Rene Descartes
Hyperbolical Doubt
Also known as cartesian doubt
To doubt is to think and to think is to live or to exist
JOHN LOCKE
His interest is on the workings of the human mind,
particularly the acquisition of knowledge
He believed that knowledge results from ideas produced
a posteriori (objects that were experienced)
Tabula Rasa - blank state; nothing exists in the mind
that was not first in the senses
2 Forms of How We Attain Knowledge
1. Sensation – experienced through senses
2. Reflection – how the mind looks at the objects that
were experienced
DAVID HUME
After reading the philosophy of Locke, he never again
entertained any belief in religion
He was an empiricist and was given credit for giving
empiricism its clearest formulation
His analysis proceeded that the mind receives materials
from the senses and called it perceptions
Perception -make up together the content of human
mind
Two (2) Types of Perceptions
1. Impressions – are immediate sensation of external
reality - all begins here, without it, there will be no
formation of ideas
2. Ideas – recollections of these impressions
According to Hume, words are only meaningful if and
only if they can be traced to impressions and ideas or
ideas that copy impressions
IMMANUEL KANT
Argued that the mind is not just a passive receiver of
sense experience but rather actively participates in
knowing the objects it experiences
Instead of the mind conforming to the world, it is the
external world that conforms to the mind
For Kant, a self must exist or there could be no memory
or knowledge
Transcendental apperception - term Kant used for the
experience of the self and its unity with objects
SIGMUND FREUD
Is NOT the father of Psychology
Is the father of Psychoanalytic Theory
He believes that the behavior of a person is influenced
by childhood experiences and unconscious behavior
For Freud, a person is governed by two unconscious
drives, Eros (sex/pleasure) and Thanatos
(death/pain/aggression)
Three Provinces of the Mind (probably inspired by
Plato)
1. Id – pleasure principle (ex: reason why you want to
sleep during discussion)
2. Ego – reality principle, one in contact with reality.
Allows you to think about something before doing it)
3. Superego – morality principle, tells you what to do
and what should not do
GILBERT RYLE
Contradicted Cartesian Dualism
He argued that dualism involves category mistake and is
a philosophical nonsense
Argued that what truly matters is the behavior that a
person manifests in his day-to-day life
Distinguished between knowing-that and knowing-how
Knowing-that -knowing facts or information
Knowing-how - using facts in the performance of some
skill or technical activities (behavior) Just knowing-that
is considered as empty intellectualism
PATRICIA AND PAUL CHURCHLAND
Patricia Churchland – known for her claims that a
person’s brain is responsible for the identity known as
self, the biochemical properties of the brain is
responsible for man’s thoughts, feelings and behavior
Neurophilosophy
Was coined by Patricia Churchland who together with
her husband, Paul Churchland
The study of philosophy of the mind, philosophy of
science, neuroscience and psychology
Aims to explore the relevance of neuroscientific
experiments or studies to the philosophy of the mind
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
Denies the dualistic ideas
He stated that the mind and body cannot be separated
because both give humans a sense of self
Phenomenology of Perception - one of his written
works where he described the nature of man’s
perceptual contact with the world
Phenomenology - it provided a direct description of
human experiences
Perception -forms the background of experience which
serves to guide man’s conscious actions
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
SOCIOLOGY
One of the disciplines in the social sciences which aims
to discover the ways by which the social surrounding or
environment influences people’s thoughts, feelings and
behavior
Though the main focus is in understanding, the need to
know and be aware of social processes may make people
see themselves better when they realize how the social
world impacts on their existence
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
His main interests were philosophy and psychology
Wrote and published many articles and book reviews but
did not publish any book, it was his students who put
together his numerous writings and edited them for
publication
Used Social behaviorism to describe the power of the
environment in shaping human behavior
Described the self as “dimensions of personality that is
made-up of the individual’s self awareness and self-
image”
Stated that the self can’t be separated from the society
Theory of the Social Behaviorism
Self is not present at birth but begins as a central
character in a child’s world
Children see themselves as the center of their universe
and is having difficulty understanding other around them
As these children grow and mature, there is a change in
the self, they begin to see other people and is now
concerned about people’s reactions
Stages of Mead’s Social Self
1. The Preparatory Stage
Children’s behavior are primary based on imitation
Children become familiar with the symbols (verbal and
non-verbal) that people use in their interactions
Symbols are the basis of communication
2. The Play Stage
Skills at knowing and understanding the symbols of
communication is important for this constitutes the basis
for socialization
Children begin to role play and pretend to be other
people
Role-taking (role playing) is the process of mentally
assuming the perspective of another person to see how
this person might behave /respond in a given situation
3. The Game Stage
The child is about eight or nine years old and does more
than just a roletake
The child begins to consider several tasks and various
types of relationships simultaneously
The child now has the ability to respond not just to one
but several members of his social environment
Generalized others - was what Mead used to explain
the behavior of the person when he/she sees considers
other people in the course of his actions
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY
Was an American sociologist who made use of the
sociopsychological approach to understanding how
societies work
In his written work Human Nature and The Social Order,
he discussed the formation of the self through
interaction
He stated that people learn who they are though their
social interaction with other people
Looking-glass self
The self that is a product of social interaction
Asserts that the view we have of ourselves comes from
the contemplation of personal qualities and impressions
of how others perceive us
Three (3) Phases of Process of Developing
1. People imagine how they present themselves to others
2. People imagine how others evaluate them
3. People develop some sort of feeling about themselves
as a result of those impressions
“Today, I am not what I think I am; I am not what you
think I am; I am what I think you think I am” - Charles
Cooley
ERVING GOFFMAN
Was a Canadian-American sociologist known for his
role in the development of Modern American Sociology
Dramaturgical Approach - people doing real social
interaction like that of a theatrical presentation
Impression Management - process of altering how the
person presents himself to others
Face Work – usually observed in situations where face-
saving measures are resorted to in he maintenance of a
proper image of the self in frustrating and embarrassing
situations
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE
SELF
ANTHROPOLOGY
Field of social sciences that focuses on the study of man
Does not pertain only to one aspect of man but rather on
the totality of what it means to be human
Physical and biological characteristics, social
relationships and influences of his culture from the dawn
of civilization to the present
Four (4) Subfields of Anthropology
1. Archaeology
2. Biological Anthropology
3. Linguistics
4. Cultural Anthropology
Suggests that human beings are the same and very
different at the same time
ARCHAEOLOGY
Its focus is the past and how it may have contributed to
the present ways of how people conduct their daily lives
Archaeological data suggest that in many places around
the world homo sapiens did not become extinct because
of their ability to think, use tools and learn from
experience, they have adapted and gained dominance
over all of earth’s creatures
Survival – most important aspect of human nature
BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Focus primarily on how the human body adapts to the
different earth environments, how biological
characteristics of human beings affect how they lived
their life
Looks at the probable causes of disease, physical
mutation and death
Knows how human beings might have evolved from
their early forms
Where comparative studies on human beings both dead
and living and other primates are done
LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY
Study how language and modes of communication
change over time
Language identifies a group of people, the words,
symbols, writings and signs that are used are reflections
of a group’s culture
Focuses on using language as a means of to discover a
group’s manner of social interaction and his world view
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Culture – described as a group of people’s way of life,
including behavior, beliefs, values, and symbols that
they accept that are socially transmitted through
communication and imitation from generation to
generation
Interested in knowing what makes one group’s manner
of living particular to that group and forms as essential
part of the member’s personal and societal identity
Theory of Cultural Determinism
The contention that culture has a strong impact on how a
person view himself
Human nature is determined by the ideas, meanings,
beliefs and values learned as member of a society
Ways in which culture may manifest itself in people
1. Symbols
Are the words, gestures, pictures or objects that have a
recognized/accepted meaning in a particular culture
Can be shaped or copied by other cultures
2. Heroes
Are persons from the past or present who have
characteristics that are important in a culture; models for
behavior; may be real or fictitious
3. Rituals
Are activities (may be religious/social) participated in by
a group of people for the fulfillment of desired
objectives and are considered to be socially essential
4. Values
Considered to be the core of every culture
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE
SELF
PSYCHOLOGY
Field of the social sciences that deals with the
description, explanation, prediction and control of
behavior
Believes that the world of material things including
people exists independently of the perceiving human
mind
Connected to the study of human behavior is the concept
of the self
Psychologist have provided their own explanation of the
self to have a clearer and better understanding of the
individual and human behavior
NATURE V.S NURTURE
Are we born with our capabilities, knowledge, morals
and values or does society shape, cultivate and support
our infant into a full member of humanity?
One of the most controversial debates/issues in
psychology
The basic tenet of this debate is centered on whether the
child is born with the capacities and abilities that
develop naturally over time regardless of upbringing, or
whether the child needs social interaction and society in
order to shape them
Nature – the role of genetics in forming our behavior,
personality or any other part of ourselves
Nurture – the role of family, society, education and
other social factors in forming our behavior, our
personality or any other part of ourselves
WILLIAM JAMES
Was an American philosopher and psychologist known
for being one of the greatest pragmatists
Known for his Theory of the Self, written in his
published book entitled, “The Principles of Psychology”
Wrote many articles on both Philosophy and Psychology
Five (5) Characteristics of Thoughts
1. All human thoughts are owned by some personal self
2. All thoughts are constantly changing or are never
static
3. There is a continuity of thoughts as its focus shifts
from one object to another
4. Thoughts deal with objects that are different from and
independent of consciousness itself
5. Consciousness can focus on particular objects and not
others
The Me and I
1. Me Self/Empirical me
Can be considered as a separate object or individual that
the person refers to when discussing or describing their
personal experiences
Ex: The gifts were sent to ME. The person is smiling at
ME.
2. I Self/Pure go/Thinking self
Self that knows and recognizes who they are and what
they have done
Similar to the person’s soul/mind
Comprises the totality of the person’s identity; takes into
account the past, present and future selves of the
individual
Ex: I borrowed the book from the library. I won the
game.
Three (3) components of the ME self
1. The Material Self
Things/objects that belong to the person or entities that a
person belongs to
Ex: person’s body(is the core of material self), family,
clothes, books, money
2. The Social Self
Who the person is in a particular social situation
depending on who is he/she with
3. The Spiritual Self
Self that is more concrete/permanent when compared to
the other two
Most subjective and intimate part of the self Ex:
personality, values, morals
Introspection (self-observation)
A process where the spiritual self is always engaging
A method that includes reflecting or looking inward to
study and understand the how and why of the self
GLOBAL AND DIFFEENTIATED SELF
Global Self – represents the overall value that a person
places upon himself; this affects how he/she views and
feels about himself/herself
Differentiated Self – can separate feelings and thoughts
though still affected by the presence of others; enables
the person to develop and sustain unique identity, make
own choices and accept responsibility but still able to
stay emotionally connected with significant people
MURRAY BOWEN
Was an American Psychiatrist and Professor of
Psychiatry
Was among those who developed Family Therapy and
Systematic Therapy
Two (2) Forces Affecting a Person
1. Togetherness
2. Individuality
A balance should be maintained between these two.
Too much togetherness creates friction and conflict and
prevents the development of the sense of self
Too much individuality results in distant and estrange
feelings towards other people
CARL ROGERS
An American Psychologist who proposed the
personality theory known as the Person-Centered
Theory
Person-Centered Theory – Stated that there should be
congruence between self concepts for a person to be
happy and satisfied with his/her life; if the real self is
very different from the ideal self then the person will
experience dissatisfaction and may see itself as a failure.
Self-concept – used to refer to how a person thinks
about or perceives himself
Two (2) types of Self-Concept
1. Real self-concept (Who am I?)
All information and perception of the person has about
himself; who he/she is
2. Ideal self-concept (Who do I want to be?)
Model version the person has of himself, what the
person aims to be
E. TORY HIGGINS
The Self-Discrepancy Theory
Stated that people use self-guides but when the self is
found to be deviating/diverting from these, the result is
self-discrepancy
Self-guides
Provide directions for how a person should present
himself
Internalized standards to which people compare
themselves
Self-discrepancy
May cause emotional discomfort to the individual and
can be manifested as guilt or worst as indifference
MULTIPLE AND UNIFIED SELVES
Multiple Selves Theory
Suggests that there are different aspects of the self
existing in each individual
Makes sense that the self is a whole made up of parts
Unified being
Essentially connected to consciousness, awareness and
agency
A person who is able to deal with and accept the
complexities and the perceived unfairness that exist in
life
Able to adjust, adapt, evolve and survive well
D. W. WINNICOTT
Donald Woods Winnicott
Was and English pediatrician and psychoanalyst who
studied child development
Looked into the significance of play in child
development
He observed children/people as having true and false
selves through play
True and false selves are present in all individuals
TRUE AND FALSE SELVES
True Self
One in which the self is seen as creative, spontaneously
experiencing each day of their lives, appreciating being
alive, real, integrated and connected to the whole of
existence
Characterized by a high level of awareness of a person
of who he is and what he is capable of and is not afraid
to let others know his weaknesses and imperfections
False Self
May be manifested as a form of defense; lacks
spontaneity and is dead and empty
Mask that hides the true person for fear of the pain of
rejection and failure
Usually surface when the person is forced to comply
with existing social norms and standards
At times, this enables the person to form superficial but
productive social relationship
ALBERT BANDURA
Proponent of the personality theory known as The
Social Cognitive Theory
Human agency is the essence of being human
Triadic Reciprocal Causation Paradigm
Where he explained how human beings are affected by
the interaction among environmental events, behavior
and personal factors
The Social Cognitive Theory
In his theory, the person is seen as proactive and agentic
which means that he has the capacity to exercise control
over his life
The basic principle involved in human learning is
learning through observation
Suggested that human beings are proactive, self-
regulating, self reflective and self-organizing
Four (4) Features of Human Agency
1. Intentionality – refers to the actions performed by
the person intentionally or with full awareness of his
behavior
Ex: Kenneth went online to apply for a passport because
he wants to travel outside of his country
2. Forethought – refers to the person’s anticipation of
likely outcomes of his behavior; allows him to select
from a repertoire of behaviors and determine which one
will lead to a positive outcome
Ex: Kenneth chose an interview date for his passport
application where most likely he will be on-leave
3. Self-Reactiveness – refers to the process in which the
person is motivated and regulates his behavior as he
observes his progress in achieving his goals.
Ex: Kenneth saves a larger portion of his salary in the
back so he can have enough cash to travel to Japan.
4. Self-Reflectiveness – refers to the person looking
inward and evaluating his motivations, values, life goals
and other people’s effect on him
Ex: Kenneth believes that he has to enjoy and
experience life a little while still able and capable
Self Efficacy – important aspect of self-reflectiveness THE SELF IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT
which is the person’s belief that he is capable of
behavior that will produce desired positive results Confucius

Self Regulation - allows the person to set goals that are The name Kong Zhongni of China was known
better and higher that the former, challenging his
capabilities and making him a wiser and self-actualized Also known as Master Kong and as Great Sage and
individual Teacher

SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHT Was born in the period of Zhou Dynasty in the small
state of Lu
INTROSPECTION/REFLECTION
Had a proper education
Through this process, man begins to search for clues as
to the probable purpose of his existence and the role he Has a philosophy known as Humanistic Social
plays in the general order of the things of the world Philosophy

As a result of this, he/she decides that since he has only Zhou Dynasty
one life to live and that death is inevitable, he/she should
make the most of his/her life Was characterized by political, social and moral
disintegration of China.
INDIVIDUALISTIC SELF
Humanistic Social Philosophy
A person seeing himself as being capable of living his
own life, doing the things that he loves to do and making The primary focus is on human beings and the society
his own mistakes and learning from his experiences but he finds himself in
still aware that he is not alone and that he exists with
others in the society Considers the society and its communities as the main
source of values of both human beings and the society
The development of this begins after birth and is
observed in the child-rearing practices of parents in the Confucianism
West
Way of life propagated by Confucius which is centered
COLLECTIVE SELF on the ren which make human beings different from
beasts
Identity of individual is lost and does not exist except as
a part of the group. Ren

The family and society control how the group members Has no specific definition because Confucius believed
should think, act and generally conduct themselves in that this reflects the person’s own understanding of
society humanity

THE SELF IN WESTERN THOUGHT Guides human actions and to go against this means
abandoning what is truly human
Ecological Self
Makes life worth living
Sees the self as a process that is undergoing
development introduced by the West Involves feeling and thinking which serves as the
foundation of all human relationships
Self is seen as dynamic, different and unique and is
constantly exposed to an ever-changing world Signifies the Chinese culture’s emphasis on feelings or
the heart as the most important instead of the head in
Factors that influence self-development are human human nature
biological and environmental characteristics such as:
Ren can only be realized through:
1. Race
2. Gender 1. Li (Propriety)
3. Social status
4. Education In order to guide human actions, rules of propriety
5. Culture should be followed; conforms to the norms of humanity
2. Xiao (Filiality)

Virtue of reverence and respect for family

3. Yi (Rightness)

Right way of behaving; unconditional and absolute

Right is right and what is not right is wrong

Li, Xiao, and Yi are virtues observed in a person

whose humanity developed, morally cultivated and
aware.

The cultivation of these 3 will lead to a person of virtue.

According to Confucianism, virtuous people result in a

well-rounded, civilized, humane society