Higher Education Full Material

HIGHER EDUCATION
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

The Vedic Education
In ancient India, education emerged from Vedas because the Vedas are the sources
of Indian philosophy of life. Veda means knowledge. During the Vedic period it was
believed that knowledge is the real power in the world.
In the Vedic system of education, the Vedic knowledge was imparted by the Guru or
the teacher. Vedic literature consisted of eight different forms such as,
• Four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda).
• Six Vedangas (Shiksha , Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas , Jyotisha).
• Four Upavedas
o Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda.
o Architecture (Sthapatyaveda), associated with the RigVeda.
o Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the
Samaveda.
o Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Atharvaveda.
• Four Brahmanas
Brahmanas are prose commentaries on Vedas with detailed observations on
prayers and ceremonies
• One hundred and eight Upanishads
• Six systems of philosophy, Bhagavat Gita and three Smritis
Two methods of teaching were being practiced during the Vedic period:
1. Oral (sruti) - what is heard &
2. Chintan (smriti) - what is remembered.

There were mainly three steps of learning according to Vedic system.
1. Sravana :
It means listening towards the text as uttered by the teacher. By this method of
education, knowledge was conserved and transmitted to the oncoming generation.
2. Manana:
It means to internalize or to assimilate what was given to the pupils. It is the process
of deliberation and Reflection on the topic.
3. Nididhyasana:
It means (Meditation) by who is truth is realised and attended. It was considered in
indispensable for the realisation of Supreme reality.
The place of learning was called Gurukul. The admission was made by the formal
ceremony called Upanayana or initiation by which the pupil will leave the home. The
ceremony was performed for three days. After the ceremony of upanayana the pupil
emerges as a dwija or twice born. This upanayana ceremony, unfolds his mind and
soul. The word upnayana means to take close to, or to being in touch with. The age
limit for upanayan ceremony was eight years, eleven years and twelve years,
respectively for Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. After the Upanayana ceremony
the pupils was called as Brahmachari. The discipline of brahmacharya or celibacy was
compulsory in Gurukul system. There were of two types of Brahmacharis who
attended such Gurukulama, they were:
• Upakurvana Brahmachari: who remains a student for a limited time period
after which he marries and becomes a householder and
• Naishtika Brahmachari who remains a student and celibate throughout life
dedicated to the pursuit of learning.
Married youth was entitled to get education, yet he was denied the right of being the
residential pupil.
Gurukulas: It was the dwelling houses of gurus situated in natural surroundings
away from noise and bustle of cities. Parents sent their wards at the age of five years
to nine years according to their castes after celebrating their Upanayan Sanskar.
Pupils lived under the roof of their guru called ‘antevasin’ under the direct
supervision of their Guru.
Gurukulas and Ashrams were generally situated on the river banks or on the lake. The
whole atmosphere was quiet, calm and peaceful. A student had to pay nothing in
return for education he received in a Gurukula or Ashram. Access to good education
depended not on wealth but on talent. The student was expected, if desired but
never compelled to offer a field, cow, horse or even vegetables to his teacher
according to his financial position in the society.
Parishads (Academies): Parishads were bigger educational institutions where several
teachers used to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college
parishad in Upanishads, has been used for a conference of learned men, assembled
for deliberations upon philosophical problems.
Later on the ‘Parishads’ were set up at the places where learned men lived in good
number and gradually these institutions became permanent centres of imparting
knowledge.
Sammelans (Conferences): In that age-Sammelan literally means getting together for
a particular purpose. In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at one
place for learned discussions and competitions generally on the invitation of the
king. Scholars were appropriately rewarded.
Besides these regular schools of instructions, there were special institutions of
advance study and research called in the Rig Veda as Brahmana- Sangha.
During the Vedic period one could choose a particular profession as he liked and
accordingly his Varna was determined. But during the later Vedic period Varna came
to be determined by birth. Consequently the whole society was divided into four
Varna- Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.

The Vedas
The Vedas are a large body of religious texts that are composed in Vedic Sanskrit.
Vedas constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and is the
oldest scriptures of Hinduism.
Also called śruti ("what is heard") literature, distinguishing them from other religious
texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered"). In the Hindu Epic
the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.
Vyasa is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the four kinds of mantras into
four Samhitas (Collections).

Four Vedas Name and Features
The four Vedas and their features, in brief, are given in the table below:
Types of Vedas
Name of the Veda Key Features of the Veda
Rig Veda It is the earliest form of Veda
Samaveda The earliest reference for singing
Yajurveda It is also called the book of prayers
Atharvaveda The book of magic and charms
Four Vedas in detail:
1. Rigveda: The oldest Veda is the Rigveda. It has 1028 hymns called ‘Suktas’ and is a
collection of 10 books called ‘Mandalas.’ It is the collection of Vedic Sanskrit
hymns along with associated commentaries. The text is layered consisting of
the Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. The Rigveda Samhita is the core
text, and is a collection of 10 books (maṇḍalas) with 1,028 hymns (sūktas) in about
10,600 verses. The Rigveda is the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text. Its early layers are
one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language.
The Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the bulk of the Rig-Veda
Samhita was composed in the north western region (Punjab) of the Indian
subcontinent, most likely between c. 1500 and 1200 BC

2. Samaveda: Known as the Veda of melodies and chants, Samaveda dates back to
1200-800 BCE. This Veda is related to public worship. It is a liturgical text which
consists of 1,549 verses. All but 75 verses have been taken from the Rigveda. The
Samaveda is shortest of all the four Vedas. It is closely connected with the Rigveda.
It is important to note that the Samhita of the Samaveda is an independent collection
(Samhita), yet it has taken many verses, a large number indeed, from the Samhita of
Rigveda. These verses are chiefly derived from the eighth and the ninth Mandalas of
the Rigveda. The Samaveda is compiled exclusively for ritual application, for its
verses are all meant to be chanted at the ceremonies of the Soma-sacrifice and
procedures derived from it. The Samaveda is, therefore, specially intended for
the Udagatr priest. Its stanzas assume their proper character of musical samans or
chants only in the various song-books called Ganas. According to the Jaiminiya Sutra
– ‘Melody is called Saman.
3. Yajurveda: The Yajurveda (yajurveda, from yajus meaning
"worship", and veda meaning "knowledge") is the Veda primarily of prose mantras
for worship rituals. An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual-offering
formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such
as those before the yajna fire. The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two – the
"black" or "dark" (Krishna) Yajurveda and the "white" or "bright" (Shukla) Yajurveda.
The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses in
Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which implies the "well arranged, clear"
Yajurveda. The black Yajurveda has survived in four recensions, while two recensions
of white Yajurveda have survived into the modern times. The earliest and most
ancient layer of Yajurveda Samhitas includes about 1,875 verses that are distinct yet
borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.
4. Atharvaveda: The Atharva Veda is the "knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the
procedures for everyday life. The text is the fourth Veda, but has been a late addition
to the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism. The Atharvaveda is composed in Vedic Sanskrit,

and it is a collection of 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20 books.
The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas", In contrast to
the 'hieratic religion' of the other three Vedas, the Atharvaveda is said to represent a
'popular religion', incorporating not only formulas for magic, but also the daily rituals
for initiation into learning (upanayana), marriage and funerals. Royal rituals and the
duties of the court priests are also included in the Atharvaveda. Ayurveda, the
traditional system of medicine in ancient India, suggests a link between this Veda
and medicine.
Each Veda has been sub classified into four major text types
1. Samhitas (mantras and benedictions).
2. Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices).
3. Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices.
4. Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).
Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).

INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING IN ANCIENT INDIA
The educational institutions called Gurukulas. In those days, some monasteries and
huge sacred places had been established. Inspired by the Buddhist system, in Hindu
temples and monasteries too, the educational institutions were started. Lord Buddha
was the person who had realized the necessity of education for devotees at large and
so he established the monasteries and Vihars, where education was also imparted.
University Location
Takshila Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Nalanda Bihar
Valabhi Gujarat
Mithila Darbhanga, Bihar
Odantapuri Bihar
Somapura Bangladesh
1. Takshila Or Taxila
According to Valmiki Ramayana, Prince Bharat founded this city and appointed his
son Taksha as the ruler of the territory. Takshashila was an ancient Indian city, which
is now in north-western Pakistan. It is an important archaeological site and the
UNESCO declared it to be a World Heritage Site in 1980. Its fame rested on the
University, where Chanakya is said to have composed his Arthashastra. Archaeologist
Alexander Cunningham discovered its ruins in the mid-19th century. It was an early
Buddhist center of teaching. Well known graduates of this university include
Chanakya, Panini, Charaka, Vishnu Sharma, Jivaka etc. This is the world's oldest
university. It was a noted centre of learning, including religious teachings of
Buddhism, for several centuries. It continued to attract students from around the
world until its destruction in the 5th century CE. Being situated at the distance of 20
miles in the West of Rawalpindi, Taxila was the capital of Gandhar Kingdom.
2. Nalanda
In the province of Bihar, situated at a distance of 40 miles southwest of modem
Patna and seven miles north of Rajgriha, Nalanda was a famous cultural and
educational centre of northern India. Nalanda was an ancient centre of higher
learning in Bihar from 427 BCE to 1197 CE. The university was established in the 5th
century CE. It was dedicated to Buddhist studies, but it also taught fine arts,
medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of war. Nalanda reached its
zenith of progress at the hands of the kings of Gupta dynasty. Kumaragupta I (414-
445 AD) built a monastery there. A big and strong enclosing wall having only one
gateway marked off the entire university area.
The centre had a nine-story library and dormitories for students, housing 10,000
students in and providing accommodations for 2,000 professors. Hsuan Tsang, the
famous pilgrim from China studied and taught for 5 years in the 7th century CE. The
admittance examination in Nalanda was not easy and according to Hieun-Tsang only
about 20 percent of the students succeeded in this examination. The minimum age
limit was twenty years for admission into the university. Education, board and
lodging were provided to the students free of cost by the university. For around 700
years, between the 5th and 12th centuries, Nalanda was a centre of Buddhist studies
in the ancient world It is said that a great fire wiped out the library of over 9 million
manuscripts and at the beginning of the 12th century. It fell a prey to barbarism of
the Bakhtiar Khilji towards the end of the 12th century A.D. He destroyed the
University and put the library on fire and the innocent monks and students were
ruthlessly massacred.
3. Valabhi
Valabhi is the capital seat of the Maitraka Kings between 475 and 775 A.D. It can
aptly be regarded as the rival of Nalanda in fame and educational importance.
Hiuen-Tsang, I-Tsing too had found Valabhi in the western side of India as glorious
as Nalanda and students from every part of India would flock there for education.
This University was known for its training in secular subjects and had students from
all over the. Owing to its high quality of education, graduates of this university were
generally offered higher posts.

4. Mithila
In the Upanishadic age Mithila became a prominent seat of Brahmanical system of
education. It was named as Videha. Raja Janak used to hold religious conferences,
wherein learned Rishis and pandits took part in religious discussions. From 12th
century to 15th century, Mithila had been an important centre of learning and
culture; and besides literature and fine arts, scientific subjects were also taught there.
There was a Nyaya Shastra too. Gangesha Upadhyaya founded a school of New
Logic (Navya-Nyaya). Even up to the period of Mughal Emperor Akbar, it continued
to flourish as an important centre of education and culture credited with county-wide
repute. It was famous especially for its Nyaya (jurisprudence) and TarkaShastra
(Logic).
5. Odantapuri
In ancient times a celebrated Buddhist centre of learning (vihara) in India, identified
with modern Bihar Sharif in Bihar state. This was established by Dharmapala of Pala
dynasty during late 8th century in Magadha. According to the ancient Tibetan
records there were about 12,000 students studying at this university. Odantapuri
served as a model and inspiration for Tibetan Buddhists. Tibetan sources indicate
that in 749 the Sam-Ye (Bsam-Yas) monastery was modelled upon it and that several
distinguished Tibetan scholars studied there. It fell into decline during the 11th
century, and it was probably sacked and destroyed, along with Nalanda. It was
destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji.

6. Somapura
This was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty during late 8th century in
Bengal. The University spread over 27 acres of land of which the main complex was
one of the largest of its kind. It was a major centre of learning for Buddhism, Jainism
and Hinduism. Ornamental terracotta on its outer walls depicts the influence of these
three traditions.
EVOLUTION OF HIGHER LEARNING AND RESEARCH IN POST INDEPENDENT

INDIA
India has always been identified as knowledge hub since the beginning of human
civilization. Indian higher education system has been witnessing metamorphic
changes and challenges through the years, i.e., from ancient Gurukula system to the
modern technology-based learning system have changed the life of millions of
people. This is evident from centres of learning which existed in the 7th century BC
were the Buddhist monasteries and in the 3rd century AD was Nalanda. Few of these
centres were very large having several faculties. Invasions and disorder in the country
has extinguished ancient Indian education system. Before moving to the topic of
higher learning in post independent India, Let’s have a look into the details of
education in Pre independent India.

• Education In Pre-Independent India
The development of higher education in India can trace its roots during British
period. As part of gaining emotional support of India’s various communities, the
British laid down foundation of Madrasa in Calcutta under the leadership of Warren
Hastings in 1780. Also in 1791 Jonathan Duncan introduced the Banaras Hindu
College. Later on, the British in 1857 brought the system of European higher
education in India by establishing Universities at Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
English also became the medium of instruction at the higher education level. The
British education in India was established with an objective to produce English
educated manpower to serve the large British administration. British and other
foreign education had its beginning in India with the activities of Christian
Missionaries. The first of the Missionaries to come to India was the Roman Catholic
Sect.
The British enacted and set up many committees or commissions as well as acts,
given below:-
• Charter Act 1813
The Charter Act was renewed every 2 years in the British Parliament. When it came
for renewal in the year 1813, it directed the company to sanction 1 Lakh rupees
annually for promoting knowledge of modern sciences and encouraging young
Indians. A modest amount of 1 Lakh rupees were allotted for this purpose.
• Macaulay’s minute, 1835
Thomas Babington Macaulay was appointed as the law member of then Governor
General William Bentick’s Executive Council. He was entrusted with the job of solving
conflicts between the orientalists and the anglicist. According to Macaulay Minutes,
oriental culture was defective and western culture was supreme. It emphasised on
Downward Filtration Theory which meant to educate a very small number of upper
and middle class students and they must spread education to the masses (trickling
down of education) Macaulay wanted to create “ A class of persons, Indian in blood
and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.

Government funds are not to be spent on printing oriental works. Funds were to be
spent on imparting knowledge to Indians in English literature and Science.

• Woods Despatch (1854)
Also called as the Magna Carta of English Education in India. It asked the British
Government to take up the responsibility of education of the Indian masses. They
wanted Indians to be made suitable for British Government. Therefore, they needed
to increase the intellectual and moral character of Indians.
o Use Indian languages to make indians learn western knowledge.
o Emphasised the usage of native languages at school level and English at
higher education.
o There should be scholarship for excellence.
o Every district must at least have one government school.
o Affiliated schools to be granted aids.
o Department of Public Instruction should be there in every province to inspect
schools and guide teachers.
o Emphasised on Women education, Vocational education and Teachers
Training.
o Establishment of Universities of Madras, Calcutta and Bombay in 1857
They also stressed on religious neutrality in Indian education system improving
minorities. They also preferred educated people for government jobs.

• Hunter commission (1882-1883)
Lord Ripon appointed the Indian Education Commission on 3rd February 1882, with
Sir Willium Hunter as its Chairman. It is known as Hunter Commission of 1882. It was
basically constituted to check the progress of Woods Despatch 1854. The
commission recommended that the responsibility for the Primary Education must be
given to the Local Boards and Municipal Boards. It also recommended grant-in-aid
for promoting private participation in secondary education. There should be literary
and vocational training in secondary education.

• Indian Universities Act -1904
The quality of education was deteriorating under private management. In 1902,
Rayleigh Commission was set up to improve the working conditions of universities.
Indian Universities Act was passed in the tenure of Lord Curzon.
Recommendations:
• Universities were given the right of teaching along with the right of
conducting examination.
• University had the right to make provision for promotion of study and
research to appoint university professors and lectures.
• Number of University fellows to be between 50-100 and hold office only for a
period of 6years.
• Number of seats in senate was fixed between 50-100 and tenure for 5years.
• Introduce the principle of election in the constitution of Senate.
• Rules with regard to granting recognition to colleges were made strict.
• Territorial jurisdiction of universities was fixed.
• Govt. has right to amend, reform and approve senate-made rules. It can also
frame its own rules if senate fails.
• Saddler Commission -1917-1919

The commission was appointed under the chairmanship of M.E. Saddler. Sadler
Commission was basically set up to fix the problems of Calcutta University and their
recommendations were supposed to be applied in all other universities also. The
Saddler University Commission reported that the condition of the secondary
education needs to be improved in order to improve the standard of University
Education.
• It introduced 12 years school program and 3 years degree program.
• It emphasised centralised functioning of universities
• It also gave importance to women education, teach training, scientific and
technological education.
• Dividing line between University and Secondary courses must be drawn at
Intermediate Examination rather than Matriculation. So Govt. must create
institutions called Intermediate colleges
• Intermediate colleges must offer various courses like Arts, Science, and
Engineering etc.
• After the intermediate examination, students can enter university.
• It concentrated in growing number of new universities in towns and as a result
number of universities in 1930 increased up to 30.
Some of the newly created universities were Universities of Osmania, Hyderabad,
Aligarh, Delhi, Dacca, Lucknow, Agra, and Annamalai.

• Hartog Commission, 1929
It was felt that large number of schools and colleges deteriorated education
standards. So there is a need for proper emphasis on Primary education with no
hasty expansion. Deserving students should get into high school and average
students should get vocational courses after 8th standard.

• Wardha Scheme of Basic Education , 1937
Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) which is also known as Nai Talim /
Buniyadi talim was the outcome of thinking of Mahatma Gandhi. The main principle
behind this scheme was ‘learning through activity’. All India National Conference for
education conducted on 22 October 1937, whose President was Gandhi discussed
about education reforms. It made deals with India’s reformers and educationalists to
engage in imparting free and compulsory education for 7 years.
Basically, this kind of education was based on some productive activity revolving
around a handicraft which suited the child’s environment to make him self-sufficient.
• Zakir Hussain Committee, 1937
Following Wardha conference, a committee under Dr.Zakir Hussain was appointed to
formulate the scheme of basic education. The aim was to develop qualities of Ideal
Citizenship and more aspect of Indian Culture than the literary.
• There should be no place for English in curriculum.

• There was no place for religious education in the scheme.
• Economic goals of basic education to be achieved by manual handicrafts of
the children for a period of 7 years.
This scheme did not materialize because Muslim League was against it for not
offering religious education which was of major importance to their belief system.
• Sergeant plan of Education 1944
The Sergeant plan was worked out by the Central Advisory Board of Education in
1944. It was the first attempt to establish a nation-wide education system in India. It
recommended
• Pre-primary education for 3-6 age groups through nursery schools.
• Free, universal and compulsory elementary education for 6-11 years age
group.
• High schools to be of two types:
o Technical and vocational-Gave industrial and commercial education,
o Academic-education on arts, pure science etc.
• It abolished intermediate course.
• It gave attention on education for handicapped.
Establishment of University Grants Committee in 1945 to look after 3 Central
Universities like Aligarh, Banaras and Delhi. After 2 years was given charge of all
Universities in the country. Preliminary training in Technical High Schools &
Technological departments of Universities or technical institutes will improve quality
of workers for industries and vocational fields.
• Recommended for training colleges and training institutes to provide well
trained teachers.
• Employment Bureaus to be set up to provide employment opportunities for
students.
• Mother tongue to be made medium of instruction but English has to be a
compulsory second language.

First college was set up in 1918 in Serampore in Bengal imparting western education
in India. In 1857, three Central Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set
up, 27 colleges were affiliated. In 1947, 19 Universities were there in India. (CABE,
2005). The Higher education system in India has grown in remarkable way after post-
independence period and become the largest Higher Education System in the world.
Evolution of higher learning and research in Post Independent India occurred
through following provisions
• Commissions
• Committees
• Policies, Frameworks
• Government Departments
• Regulatory Bodies
Some important educational bodies in India are explained below.

• University Grants Commission (UGC)
UGC was established by UGC Act, 1956, Ministry of HRD. Statutory mandate of UGC is
coordination and determination of standards in higher education and research in the
country. The primary function is to release grants to universities and colleges. Other
functions of UGC include recognition of Universities and colleges, specification of

degrees; minimum standards of instruction, common pay scales, common facilities and
institutional accreditation through NAAC.
The types of universities controlled by the UGC include:
1. State Universities are run by the state government of each of the states and
territories of India, and are usually established by a local legislative assembly
act.
2. Deemed University, or “Deemed-to-be-University”, is a status of autonomy
granted by the Department of Higher Education on the advice of the UGC,
under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956.
3. Private Universities are approved by the UGC. They can grant degrees but they
are not allowed to have oﬀ-campus aﬃliated colleges.

• Distance Education Council (DEC)
Distance Education Council was established by Sec. 25 of IGNOU Act, 1985, Ministry of
HRD.
Statutory Mandate of DEC includes promotion, coordination and determination of
standards of the open universities and distance education systems in the country. The
primary function is the release of grants to open universities and correspondence
course institutes. Other functions include initiated assessment and accreditation
activities.
• All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE).
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) was established by AICTE Act, 1987,
Ministry of HRD. Statutory mandate includes planning and coordinated development
of technical education in the country. Primary function is approval of degree and
diploma programs in engineering, architecture, and pharmacy and hotel management.
Other functions:
i. Funding for institutional and faculty development, pay scales and qualifications
of teachers accreditation through NAAC.
ii. It was established by an Act of Parliament to develop, promote and co-ordinate
technical education in the country.

iii. Technical education broadly covers the field of engineering & technology,
architecture & town planning, management, pharmacy and applied arts &
crafts.
iv. The council grants approval for starting new technical institutions and
introduction of new programs in consultation with the agencies concerned.
v. It governs the Boards of Architecture, Hotel Management and Catering
Technology, Information Technology, Post Graduate Education and Research in
Engineering and Technology, Undergraduate Studies in Engineering etc.
vi. Recently it has also created a separate body-National Body of Accreditation
(NBA) that gives accreditation to institutions and grades the courses offered by
them.
• Medical Council of India (MCI)
Medical Council of India (MCI) was established by MCI Act, 1953, Ministry of Health.
Statutory mandate is to establish standards in medical education and to define medical
qualifications in India and abroad.
Primary function of MCI is registration of medical practitioners and recognition of
medical institutions. Other functions are eligibility criteria for admissions; exam, for
recognition of foreign qualifications for practice in India.

• The Council of Architecture
The Council of Architecture (COA) was established by The Architects Act, 1972, Ministry
of Urban Development. Statutory mandate includes regulate profession and practice
of architects and town planners in India. Primary functions are registration of architects,
maintaining standards of education, recognized qualifications and standards of
practice.
Other Functions includes:
1. Maintaining the register of architects and make recommendations with regard
to recognition and de-recognition of a qualification.

2. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous
organisation under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education
(DARE), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
3. It keeps the information and provides consultancy on agriculture, horticulture,
resource management, animal sciences, agricultural engineering, fisheries,
agricultural extension, agricultural education, home science, and agricultural
communication.
4. It has the mandates to coordinate agricultural research and development
programmes.
5. Further, the DARE/ICAR has got a good number of new initiatives such as
Farmer FIRST, Student READY, ARYA, Consortia Research Platforms, etc. to
facilitate agricultural research through innovation and integration.

• Indian Nursing Council
Indian Nursing Council (INC) was established by the INC Act, 1947, Ministry of Health.
Statutory mandate is uniform standards of training for nurses. Primary function is
accepting qualifications awarded by universities within and outside India. Other
functions include collection and compilation of data relating to nurses, midwives,
health visitors.
• Rehabilitation Council of India
Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) was established by RCI Act, 1992, Ministry of Social
Justice. Statutory mandate is to standardize and regulate the training of personnel and
professions in the field of rehabilitation and special education. Primary function is
recognition of institutions for physiotherapy and related fields. Other functions
includes registration of professionals, assessment and accreditations; promotion of
barrier free environment.
• National Council for Teacher Education
National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), NCTE Act, 1993

Statutory mandate is planned and coordinated development of the teacher
education in the country. Primary function is recognition of teacher education
institutions.
Other Functions
• Lay down norms and standards
• NCTE is a national-level statutory body of the Government of India,
Established in 1995.
• Its objective is to plan coordinated development of the teacher education
system, regulate, maintain and monitor norms and standards in teacher
education throughout the country.
• The National Council for Teacher Education, in its previous status since 1973,
was an advisory body for the Central and State Governments on all matters
pertaining to teacher education, with its Secretariat in the Department of
Teacher Education of the National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT).
• It lays down norms for teacher education courses, accredits institutions,
frames recruitment norms, and carries out surveys, research and innovations.
• The mandate given to the NCTE is very broad and covers the whole gamut of
teacher education programmes including research and training of persons for
equipping them to teach at pre-primary, primary, secondary and senior
secondary stages in schools, and non-formal education, part-time education,
adult education and distance (correspondence) education courses.

• Indian Council for Agricultural Research
Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), Ministry of Agriculture, is not a
statutory body.
Statutory mandate include coordinate agricultural research and education. Primary
function includes coordinating and funding agricultural education and research in 30

states and one central and several deemed universities for agriculture. Other functions
are- accredits agriculture universities, hold joint admission tests.

• Bar Council of India
Bar Council of India (BCI) established by The Advocates Act, 1962, Ministry of Law.
Statutory mandate includes laying down standards of professional conduct and
standards of legal education. Primary function includes laying down standards of
professional conduct and standards of legal education.
Other Functions
i. Listing of members of bar; listing of foreign universities whose qualifications are
approved in India.
ii. The Bar Council of India is a statutory body created by Parliament to regulate
and represent the Indian bar. It performs the regulatory function by prescribing
standards of professional conduct and etiquette and by exercising disciplinary
jurisdiction over the bar.
iii. BCI also sets standards for legal education and grants recognition to
Universities whose degree in law will serve as qualification for enrolment as an
advocate.
iv. As of now Bar Council of India conduct an All India Bar Examination that tests
an advocate’s ability to practice law. It is required for an advocate to pass this
examination to practice law.
v. BCI founded the National Law School of India University for Research and
instruction of law.
• National Testing Agency (NTA)
NTA was established in November 2017. Main function is to conduct entrance
examinations for higher educational institutions. Vineet Joshi was the first Director-
General of the agency.
NTA conduct following tests
1. NEET (Medical)
2. GPAT (Pharmacy)
3. CMAT (Management)
4. JEE (Engineering)
5. UGC – NET
• AIMA- All India Management Association
o The All India Management Association (AIMA) is the national apex body of the
management profession in India. AIMA was created with the active support of
the Government of India and Industry in 1957.
o The All India Management Association (AIMA) in India with over 30,000
members through 67 Local Management Associations affiliated to it.
o AIMA has formed over 60 years ago and is a non-lobbying, not for profit
organisation, working closely with industry, Government, academia and
students, to further the cause of the management profession in India
o AIMA carries out a range of management related activities and initiatives such
as Distance Management Education, Management Development Programs,
Research and Publications, Testing Services, and National events and
competitions.
• CSIR – Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research abbreviated as CSIR was established
by the Government of India in September of 1942 as an autonomous body that has
emerged as the largest research and development organisation in India. CSIR’S
objective is to develop new tools and applications for the industrial segment of the
country and to accelerate the scientific and technological progress of the country.
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), India, a premier national R&D
organisation, is among the world’s largest publicly funded R&D organisation.
Theme Directorates have been formed and cover following specific sectors: Aerospace,
Electronics, and Instrumentation & Strategic Sectors, Civil Infrastructure & Engineering;
Ecology, Environment, Earth & Ocean Sciences and Water; Mining, Minerals, Metals
and Materials; Chemicals (including leather) and Petrochemicals; Energy (conventional
and non-conventional) and Energy devices; Agri, Nutrition & Biotech; and Healthcare.
The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) is a collaborative project between
CSIR & the Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government
of India. The main objective of this network project is to prevent misappropriation of
India’s rich heritage of traditional knowledge.
APEX EDUCATIONAL BODIES IN INDIA
1. All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
2. Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH)
3. Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM)
4. Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
5. Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET)
6. Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages (CIEFL)
7. Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL)
8. Council of Architecture (COA)
9. Distance Education Council (DEC)
10. Dentist Council of India (DCI)
11. Indian Council of Philosophical Research (ICPR)
12. Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR)
13. Indian Institute of Advanced Study (IIAS)
14. Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)
15. Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS)
16. Medical Council of India (MCI)
17. National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
18. National Book Trust
19. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
20. National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA)
21. National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
22. National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)

23. Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS)
24. National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
25. National Literacy Mission
26. Pharmacy Council of India (PCI)
27. Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
28. Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan
29. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
30. University Grants Commission (UGC)
Elementary Education in India
Main institutions controlling school education in India:
1. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
2. Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
3. National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)

National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
NCERT is an autonomous organization of the Government of India established on 1
September 1961. Its headquarters are located at Sri Aurobindo Marg in New Delhi.
NCERT is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India.
Objectives: -
1. Undertake, promote and coordinate research in areas related to school education
2. Prepare and publish model textbooks, supplementary material, newsletters, and
journals and develops educational kits, multimedia digital materials, etc.
3. Organise pre-service and in-service training of teachers; develop and disseminate
innovative educational techniques and practices.
4. Collaborate and network with state educational departments, universities, NGOs and
other educational institutions; act as a clearinghouse for ideas and information in
matters related to school education; and act as a nodal agency for achieving the
goals of Universalization of Elementary Education.

Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
Established on 3rd November 1962.
Main functions include:
• To define appropriate approaches of academic activities to provide stress-free,
child centred and holistic education to all children without compromising on
quality
• To analyse and monitor the quality of academic activities by collecting the
feedback from different stakeholders
• To adapt and innovate methods to achieve academic excellence in conformity
with psychological, pedagogical and social principles.
• To encourage schools to document the progress of students in a teacher and
student friendly way
• To propose plans to achieve quality benchmarks in school education consistent
with the National goals

National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
NIOS was established in November 1989 as an autonomous organisation in pursuance
of National Policy on Education 1986 by the Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD), Government of India. This board meets the educational needs of students
who cannot attend regular schools.
NIOS is providing a number of Vocational, Life Enrichment and community oriented
courses besides General and Academic Courses at Secondary and Senior Secondary
level. Anybody can appear for the board examinations, it is most suitable for
sportspersons, physically handicapped, candidates suffering from chronic medical
illness and those with learning disorders or other psychiatric conditions. It also caters
to rural populace in an inexpensive manner.

CDAC – Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) is the premier R&D
organization of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) for
carrying out R&D in IT, Electronics and associated areas. C-DAC has been at the
forefront of the Information Technology (IT) revolution, constantly building capacities

in emerging/enabling technologies and innovating and leveraging its expertise,
caliber, skill sets to develop and deploy IT products and solutions for different sectors
like:
• -PARAM: series of supercomputers
• -Anvaya : Workflows, a workflow environment for automated genome analysis.
• -Namescape: The search engine for the Aadhaar unique-ID project.
• -GARUDA, India’s National Grid Computing Initiative
• -TaxoGrid: A grid-based molecular phylogenetics and drug discovery system
• -GIST: Graphics and Intelligence based Script Technology
• -DARPAN: A real-time network monitoring, visualization and Service Level
Agreement monitoring tool developed by C-DAC Thiruvananthapuram
• -Bharat Operating System : Solutions, a Linux-based general purpose operating
system
• -Punarjjani: A web-based integrated assessment tool for mentally challenged
children.
CIET – Central Institute of Educational Technology
Central Institute of Educational Technology(CIET), a constituent unit of NCERT, came
into existence in the year 1984 with the merger of the Centre for Educational
Technology and Department of Teaching Aids. Its major aims are
• To promote utilization of educational technologies viz., radio, TV, satellite
communications and cyber media either separately or in combinations and its
appropriate use to enhance learning and improve productivity in classrooms
and schools.
• To advise and coordinate (a) academic and technical programmes of the five
State Institutes of Educational Technology (SIETs) (b) implementation of the
National Policy of ICT for School Education, ICT @ Schools Scheme. The Institute
undertakes various activities to widen educational opportunities promote
equity and improve the quality of educational processes at the school level.
• Developed ICT curriculum for students and teachers
CIEFL – Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages
The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, was founded in 1958 as the
Central Institute of English (CIE). Gradually the Institute extended the scope of its goals,
viz. to improve the standard of teaching of English; to undertake relevant research;
and, to introduce foreign languages. It was therefore renamed the Central Institute of
English and Foreign Languages (CIEFL) in 1972 with the addition of three major foreign
languages – German, Russian and French.
The CIEFL is the only university in India of its kind exclusively devoted to learning and
teaching of English and other Foreign languages in demand. As of Now, CIEFL offers
language programmes in English, Arabic, French, German, Japanese, Russian and
Spanish. Presently, the CIEFL has three campuses – Hyderabad, Luck now and Shillong.
They also offer programs in English, French and German. Now it is known as English
and Foreign Languages University (EFLU).
• Types of Universities
Different types of universities are listed below:
1. Central Universities
2. State Universities
3. Deemed to be Universities
4. Private Universities
5. Autonomous Colleges
Total Number of Universities in India as of February 2020
Universities Total No
Central University 50
State University 409
Deemed to Be Universities 127
Private Universities 349

Total 935
1. Central University
• A central university is established by an Act of Parliament
• Under the direct purview of the Department of Higher Education (DHE) under
Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD).
• As of now there are 48 Central universities in our country.
• Salient features:
1. Conducts admission procedure
2. Can decide their own syllabus
3. Conducts their own exams
4. Grants degrees to the students

2. State University
• Established, run and funded by the state government.
• Established by a local legislative assembly act.
1. Conducts their own admission procedure
2. Grants degrees to the students

3. Deemed to be Universities
• Status of autonomy granted to a university by DHE under MHRD, on the advice
of UGC.
• Universities enjoy full autonomy or independence in deciding courses, syllabus,
admissions and fees.
• Some Deemed to be Universities can also grant degrees on their own.
• Deemed-to-be Universities, which continue to perform well, can get the status
of a full-fledged University.

4. May or may not grant degrees to the students

4. Private Universities
• UGC approved institutes.
• Do not run on central or state funds.
• They can grant degrees but cannot have off-campus colleges or affiliate an
institution/college.
• “They can establish off-campus centre(s) within the concerned State after their
existence of five years and with the prior approval of the University Grants
Commission,”
• Unlike state and central universities which have a ‘Chancellor’ as the head, a
private university is always headed by ‘President’ or ‘Chairperson’.
4. Can grant degrees to the students

5. Autonomous Institutes & Colleges
Autonomous institutes and colleges exercise independent control over their daily
operations, syllabus, courses offered and admission procedure. They fall under the
administrative control of Department of Higher Education (DHE), MHRD.
• Autonomous Colleges
o Affiliated to a certain university.
o These colleges can conduct their own admission procedure and exams.
o However, at the end of course completion, they cannot issue their own
degree or diploma.
o The final degree or diploma is issued by the affiliated university.
• Autonomous Institutes
o Similar to deemed-to-be universities, enjoy full autonomy or independence
in deciding courses, syllabus, admissions and fees.
o However, they can grant diplomas like in the case of Indian Institutes of
Management (IIMs).
o Now IIMs are also be able to grant degrees after Union Cabinet approved
the IIM Bill 2017.
o However, some autonomous institutes are permitted to award degrees,
though they are not referred to as Universities.
o These institutes include Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian
Institutes of Information Technology (IIITs), National Institutes of
Technology (NITs), All India Institutes of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), etc.
o Conducts their own admission procedure
o Can decide their own syllabus
o Conducts their own exams
o May or may not grant diploma or degree to students
A brief information of various universities is mentioned in the form of a table below.

Meta university concepts:
This is concept that was adopted by India and is no longer a foreign method. It basically
shows us the idea of ‘Whole is Greater than Sum of Parts.” Members of this concept
can move between universities. They also have the option of studying two different
subjects at two universities simultaneously.
The credits that the member earns will be shared between universities. The Union
Ministry of Human Resource Development (HRD) has brought this concept from 2012
to 2013 academic session. In India, Meta University was brought in Delhi University,
Indian Institute Technology (IIT), Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) and Jamia Milia
Islamia (JMI) (in the last year).

• Commissions and Committees in Post Independent India.
1. Radhakrishnan Commission
Radhakrishnan Commission (1948-49) also called as University Education
Commission was the first major commission to study the state of the universities in
India after independence.
The Commission was appointed with the specific aim 'to report on Indian University
Education and suggest improvements and extensions that may be desirable to suit
present and future requirements of the country. The commission studied in detail
about the (language) of instruction at the university level.
The most significant recommendation of the Commission was that a University Grants
Commission modelled on the University Grants Committee in Great Britain be set up
as a liaison between the central government and the universities. This last
recommendation became a reality in 1956 when the University Grants Commission
(UGC) was established by an act of Parliament

2. Secondary education Commission ( Mudaliar Commission)
Commission was appointed in 1952 under the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami
Mudaliar, Vice-Chancellor of Madras University. Objective of the commission was to
examine the prevailing system of secondary education in the country.
It aimed to suggest measures for its reorganization and improvement with reference
to the aims, organisation and content of secondary education, its relationship to
primary and higher education and the interrelation of secondary schools of different
types
3. Kothari Commission
Commission was appointed in 1964 and Dr. D.S. Kothari, chairman of the U.G.C. was
appointed as the chairman of the commission. It has been hailed as referred for all
change and reform in Education. New National Policy on Education (1986) has been
mainly based on its recommendations. It is termed as Bible for Teachers.

Important Recommendations
1. Free and Compulsory Education:
2. Status, Emoluments and Education of Teachers
3. Development of Languages
4. Equalization of Educational Opportunity
5. Work-experience and National Service
6. Science Education and Research
7. Education for Agriculture and Industry
8. Examinations
National Education Policy

National Education Policy was formulated to promote education amongst India’s
people. The policy covers basic education to colleges in both rural and urban India.
First National Policy on Education was in 1968, Second in 1986 and Third in 1992.
Key highlights of 1968 NEP

• Compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14, as specified by the
Constitution of India.
• Better training and qualification of teachers.

• More attention on learning of regional languages, outlining the “three language
formula” to be applied in secondary education and that was: Hindi ,English,
Regional language
• The policy also stimulated the teaching of the ancient Sanskrit language, which
is an essential part of India’s culture and heritage.
• The NPE of 1968 also include increase in education spending to six per cent of
the national income.

• Expand scholarships.
• Promote adult education.
• Employing more teachers from the SCs and STs Communities.
• Provide incentives for poor families to send their children to school regularly.
• Develop of new institutions
• For primary education the NPE called “child-centred approach”
• “Operation Blackboard” was launched to expand primary schools nationwide
• Under this policy the Open University system was expanded with the Indira
Gandhi National Open University, which had been created in 1985.

• All India bases common entrance examination for admission in all professional
and technical programmes in the country.
• Three – Exam Scheme For admission to Engineering and Architecture/Planning
programmes:
• JEE AIEEE at the National Level
• SLEEE State Level Engineering Entrance Examinations
• State Level Institutions have option to join AIEEE

Ramamurthy Review Committee
The committee to review the National Policy on Education 1986 was formed on 7th
November 1990 with Acharya Ramamurthy as Chairman. It bears the title —Towards
an Enlightened and Human Society. The Committee was appointed to review the
National Policy on Education 1986 and make recommendations regarding the revision
of the policy and action necessary for implementation of the revised policy within a
time-frame.
The following are the major recommendations of Ramamurthy committee:
1. Development of a common school system: A very vital component for securing
equity and social justice in education is the functioning of a common school system.
In order to achieve this objective, the existing Government schools and schools aided
by local bodies have to be transformed through quality improvement, into genuine
neighbourhood schools.
2. Removing disparities in education: The rural areas in general and the tribal areas
in particular, have suffered in terms of resources, personnel and infrastructure
facilities. Therefore the need of the hour is planning for, and implementation of,
educational development programmes in terms of disintegrated targets, area, and
community and gender specific activities.
3. Promotion of women education: In order to promote participation of the girls
and women in education at all levels, there is need for an integrated approach in
designing and implementing the schemes that would address all the factors that
inhibit their education.
4. Value education: Value education is to be conceived as a continuous process.
Value education should ensure that education does not alienate the students from
the family, community and life.
5. Early childhood care and education (ECCE): The scope of the constitutional
Directive (Article 45) should be enlarged to include ECCE.
6. Right to education: Right to Education should be examined for inclusion among
the fundamental rights.
7. Operation Black board: The state governments should develop all decision
making power concerning operation black board for planning and implementing the
scheme.
8. Navodaya Vidyalayas: The committee recommends that the Government may
take an appropriate decision from out of the following three alternatives:
• No further Navodaya Vidyalaya need be opened. The existing 261 Navodaya
Vidyalayas may be restructured and continued with provision of adequate
resources.
• All the existing 261 Navodaya Vidyalayas may be transferred to the state
sector for the states to run them as residential centres on the Andhra Pradesh
model.
• The Navodaya Vidyalaya scheme may be transformed into a Navodaya
Vidyalaya programme of broad based talent nurturing and pace setting (A day
school each under the Common School system can function in the premises of
Navodaya Vidyalayas).
9. Work experiences/ SUPW: work experience or socially useful Productive Work
should be integrally linked with various subjects both at the level of content and
pedagogy.
10. Resources for education: the first step should be to provide for at least 6% of
the GNP for education. All technical and professional education should be made self-
financing.
Professional ,Technical and Skill Based Education
Nodal bodies for Skill Development in India
• NSDC
• Sector Skill Councils
• Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship

• MHRD
• Central Ministries
NSDC
The National Skill Development Corporation India (NSDC) is a public private
partnership organization (now under the Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship) that was incorporated in 2009 under the National Skill Policy. The
NSDC has been operating through partnerships with other stakeholders in skill
formation and thereby creating a skilling ecosystem viz. It partners with the private
sector players, Central Ministries, State Governments, universities and schools etc.
NSDC is working with 21 universities for aligning education and training to National
Skill Qualification Framework (NSQF). The main objectives of the NSDC are to:
• Upgrade skills to international standards through significant industry
involvement and develop necessary frameworks for standards, curriculum and
quality assurance
• Enhance, support and coordinate private sector initiatives for skill
development through appropriate Public-Private Partnership (PPP) models;
strive for significant operational and financial involvement from the private
sector
• Play the role of a "market-maker" by bringing financing, particularly in sectors
where market mechanisms are ineffective or missing
• Prioritize initiatives that can have a multiplier or catalytic effect as opposed to
one-off impact.
Sector Skill Councils
Sector Skill Councils are set up as autonomous industry-led bodies by NSDC. They
create Occupational Standards and Qualification bodies, develop competency
framework, conduct Train the Trainer Programs, conduct skill gap studies and Assess
and Certify trainees on the curriculum aligned to National Occupational Standards
developed by them.
There are currently 38 Sector Skill Councils are operational. There are over 600
Corporate Representatives in the Governing Councils of these SSCs.
The Ministry has been actively engaging with these SSCs.
• Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship under the Chairmanship of
the Hon'ble MoS (I/C) held meetings with all the Sector Skill Council (SSC) in
the month of January, 2018 to integrate them into the National Agenda on
Skilling.
• The Ministry also organized meetings at the Joint Secretary level with the line
Ministries of Sector Skill Councils like Food Processing, Healthcare, Agriculture,
IT/ITeS, Telecom, Retails etc. to align the activities of the SSC completely with
these Ministries.
• The Ministry, along with NSDC and Sector Skill Councils, organized sectoral
workshops on Apprenticeship.
• The Ministry has issued a notification that enables SSCs to join the list of non-
statutory bodies which issue nationally recognised skills certificates.

Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
The Ministry is responsible for co-ordination of all Skill Development efforts across
the country, removal of disconnect between demand and supply of skilled
manpower, building the vocational and technical training framework, skill up-
gradation, building of new skills and innovative thinking not only for existing jobs but
also jobs that are to be created.
The Ministry aims to skill on a large scale with speed and high standards in order to
achieve its vision of a 'Skilled India'.

MHRD
In the school education space, NSDC expanded its footprint to 2 new states of
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, taking the total count of states and UTs engaged to
28 with a total of 9182 schools. NSDC has worked with MHRD to restructure the
implementation model of skill development trainings in schools from 4-year (1 entry
at 9th class and 1 exit at 12th class) to 2-year model (entry at 9th and exit at 10th;
again entry 11th and exit at 12th class). 73 Job roles (pegged at NSQF Level 2 to 4)
were identified across 21 Sectors will be offered in schools. NSDC also roped-in Delhi
Public School to initiate implementation of Skill Development courses. NSDC
partnered with Kunskapsskolan (Swedish multinational school education
organization) and Manav Rachna International University – a unique model of
imparting education & learning in India. NSDC ran a pilot project in 100 schools of
Haryana in 3 Sectors - Beauty & Wellness, IT-ITeS & Retail. Model IT Labs have been
developed in 5 schools across 5 districts in Haryana. We have facilitated placements
of students, successfully completed training, through ‘Job Melas’, organized along
with Education Departments across 5 States viz. Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan,
Haryana and West Bengal.
In the higher education space, NSDC is working with All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) for facilitation of its flagship initiative of PMKVY-TI (Pradhan
Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana – Technical Institute).

Central Ministries
Participation in flagship programmes like Make in India, Swachh Bharat, Pradhan
Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, Smart City, Digital India and Namami Ganga, among many
others.
ORIENTAL, CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL LEARNING
PROGRAMMES IN INDIA
• Oriental Learning
Indology is the science of study of culture in all its aspects. Oriental studies is the
academic field of study that embraces Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies and
cultures, languages, peoples, history and archaeology. The study of subjects related
to indology is oriental learning, these subjects are based on history and culture of
India.
o Characteristics of oriental learning
o Necessity of revamping Knowledge
o Initiated by Western Scholars

o Establishment of Institutes.
o The work of these institutes consisted chiefly in collecting and collating rare
manuscripts in the oriental languages like Prakrt and Sanskrit dealing with
religion, philosophy, literature, grammar, arts and sciences, editing them and
publishing them with or without translations and explanatory notes.
Institutes of Oriental Learning in India are listed below:
1. Adyar Library and Research Center
2. Asiatic Society
3. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
4. Ganganath Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth
5. Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute
6. Madras Sanskrit College
7. Mythic Society
8. Oriental Institute
9. Oriental Manuscripts Library
10. Oriental Research Institute
11. Sanskrita Academy
12. Sanskrita Sahitya Parishat
13. The Government Sanskrit College
14. Sarasvati Mahal Library
15. Vishveshvaranand Vishvabandhu Institute of Sanskrit and Indological Studies

• Conventional Learning
It is also called Traditional education, Conventional education or Customary
education. Conventional Learning system refers to teaching method involving
instructors and students. Conventional teaching and learning is done within a brick-
and –mortar classroom facility.
Characteristics:
o Normally carried out with chalk and blackboard.

o Notes are prepared in Notebooks.
o Only aim to pass the examination.
Merits Demerits
Cheaper Limited Knowledge
Better clarity More time
More interaction
More disciplined
Constant feedback
• Non- Conventional Learning
Non-conventional learning is also called Non-Traditional Education. It is a kind of
self-education or education outside typical college or university school. It promotes
learner oriented education with more flexible curriculum and learner can take his/her
own learning pace.
Main characteristics are evening courses, independent learning, and online learning.
Therefore Non-Conventional Learning is a creative way of transforming knowledge.
Here the learners have an indefinite access to unlimited information in varying
degrees of quality. It’s a cost effective education system.
Institutes of Non- conventional Learning in India.
Institute Non-conventional learning
Vasantdada Sugar Institute, Maharashtra Alcohol Technology
Indian Astrobiology Research Centre, Astrobiology
Mumbai
Bhavnagar University, Gujarat Bachelor in Rural Studies
The Indian Institute of Carpet Carpet Technology
Technology
Mumbai University, Mumbai Gardening Programme

Indian School of Ethical Hacking, Ethical Hacking
Kolkata
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open Gandhian Thoughts
University, Nasik
National Institute of Mountaineering Mountaineering
Mumbai University Puppetry
VALUE EDUCATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
According to C.V Good- “ Value –education is the aggregate of all the process by
means of which a person develops abilities, attitudes, and other forms of behaviour
of the positive values in the society in which he lives”. According to the Father of
Indian Nation M.K. Gandhi: “ If wealth is lost nothing is lost if health is lost something
is lost if character is lost everything is lost”.
Value Education can be broadly divided into two.
1. Explicit Value Education: Directly relates to our teaching system when it comes
to value questions like how the teachers or educators use different teaching
pedagogies, methods or programmes that teachers use inorder to create learning
experience for students.
2. Implicit Value Education: It is value influencing learning, which can be related to
the concept of hidden curriculum.

Objectives of Value Education
• Main objective of Value Education is to improve integral growth of people.
• It helps in the growth of sustainable lifestyle of human beings.
• Value Education helps to increase the awareness about our country, its history,
constitutional rights and national integration.
• Develop a democratic way to improve level of thinking.
• To develop tolerance and understanding of different religious faiths.

Types of values:
1. National value or constitutional value:
Each country has its own independent constitution in which specific values are
included. They are called national values or constitutional values, e.g. Liberty,
Equality, Fraternity, Socialism, Secularism, Democracy are some the values mentioned
in Indian Constitution.
2. Social value:
Each country preserves some values according to its culture and these values are
preserved and protected. Dr. Chilan has fixed the following values of Indian society
viz. Pity, Self-control, Universal brotherhood, honesty, respect and faith.

3. Professional Values:
Many professional are in existence and each profession has got its own independent
values.eg: Following are the values of the teaching profession.; knowledge thrust,
sincerity in profession, regularity and faith.

4. Religious Value:
Each religion has got its independent status, principles, and rules. E.g. following
values are included in Boudha religion.; Wisdom, Character and Pity. Some values are
common to all religions, whereas some values are attached to as particular religion
only and they are the specialties of that religion.

• Environmental Education
Environmental education is the process that allows individuals to explore
environmental issues, engage in problem solving and take action to improve the
environment. As a result individuals develop a deeper understanding of
environmental issues and have the skills to make informed and responsible decisions.
Environmental education empowers learner by enabling them to participate in a
sustainable future.
• Meaning of Environmental Education
The concept of Environmental education (EE) was first formalized by the international
Union for the Conservation Of Nature (IUCN), in 1970 at a meeting in Nevada, USA,
as process of recognizing values and classifying concepts in order to develop skills
and attitude necessary to understand and appreciate the inter-relatedness among
man, his culture and his biophysical surroundings. Subsequently, EE was recognized
and its development was recommended by the World Community as admeasure for
the understanding, protection, and improvement of the environment and its quality.
The world’s first Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education was held
in Tbilisi, Georgia. In 1991, EE was made compulsory at all levels of Indian Education
System by the Honourable Supreme Court.
Under Article 48 A of Indian Constitution, the responsibility of every citizen in the
form of fundamental duties has been laid down. As per the Constitution, “The State
shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the
forests and wildlife of the country. There is a paramount need to create a
consciousness of the environment- stated by National Policy on Education in 1986.
A distance education course on Environment Education – “Green Teacher” was
launched by Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad, India for already
practicing teachers. It’s a diploma course for 1 year for teachers. Now Environment
Education is a formal education system in India which is handled at 3 levels, at
primary schools, secondary schools and colleges.

Importance of Environmental Education
• To develop basic Knowledge of environment and its various challenges.
• To make Awareness of environment sensitivity and environmental challenges.
• Develop Skills to identify environmental challenges and resolve them.
• Collect Values and Feelings with regard to environment and participate in
improvement and protection activities of environment.
• To resolve environmental problems and encourage citizens to participate in
environmental benefits.
• Slowly the concept of Environment Education was developed to Environment
Education for Sustainable Development (EESD) which has a broader
implication for poverty, population, development and gender.
• Accreditation & Ranking

• Accreditation
The idea of quality assurance in higher education in India emerged through the
National policy on Education in 1986 which led to the establishment of the National
Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) under UGC. And the National Board of
Accreditation (NBA) under AICTE. These evaluate the institutes from time to time and
encourage them for quality improvement in order to attain better score. Students
can also judge the quality and standard of an institute from its accreditation.
• NAAC
o NAAC is an autonomous instituting established by the UGC in 1994.
o The prime agenda of NAAC is to assess and accredit institutions of higher
learning with all objective of
o Helping them to work continuously to improve the quality of education.
o The NAAC accreditation does not cover distance education units of HEIs and
offshore campuses.
Criteria for selecting under NAAC
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), with a record of at least:-
1. 2 batches of students graduated
2. Been in existence for six years, whichever is earlier,
Are eligible to apply for the process of Assessment and Accreditation (A&A) of
NAAC, and fulfil the other conditions or are covered by the other provisions, if any.
Mentioned below: Criteria for considering under NAAC

National Board of Accreditation (NBA)
NBA was established in 1994 for accreditation of technical programs under AICTE (All
India Council of Technical Education). In January 2010, NBA became an independent
body. Its aimed of Assurance of Quality and Relevance of Education, especially of the
programs in professional and technical disciplines, i.e., Engineering and Technology,
Management, Architecture, Pharmacy and Hospitality, through the mechanism of
accreditation of programs offered by technical institutions

NIRF Ranking
The National Institutional Ranking Framework is a methodology adopted by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development. It ranks institutions of higher education
in India. The Framework was approved by the MHRD and launched by Minister of
Human Resource Development on 29 September 2015.

• India Ranking 2020: Overall
1. Indian Institute of Technology Madras
2. India Institute of Science Bengaluru
3. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
4. Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
5. Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur

• NIRF Ranking 2020: University
1. Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru
2. Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi
3. Banaras Hindu University, Varnasi
4. Amritha Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore
5. Jadavpur University, Kolkata

• NIRF Ranking 2020: Colleges
1. Miranda House, Delhi
2. Lady Sriram College for Women, Delhi
3. Hindu College, Delhi
4. St.Stephen’s College, Delhi
5. Presidency College, Chennai

• NIRF Ranking 2020: Engineering
1. Indian Institute of Technology Madras
2. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
3. Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
4. Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

• NIRF Ranking 2020: Management
1. Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad
2. Indian Institute of Management Bengaluru
3. Indian Institute of Management Calcutta
4. Indian Institute of Management Lucknow
5. Indian Institute of Management Kharagpur

• NIRF Ranking 2020: Pharmacy
1. Jamia Hamdard, Delhi
2. Punjab University
3. National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Mohali
4. Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai
5. National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Hyderabad

• NIRF Ranking 2020: Medical Institutes
1. All India Institute of Medical Sciences New Delhi
2. Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research Chandigarh
3. Christian Medical College Vellore
4. National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences Bangalore
5. Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences Lucknow

• NIRF Ranking 2020: Law
1. National Law School of India University, Bengaluru
2. National Law University, New Delhi
3. Nalsar University of Law, Hyderabad
4. Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
5. National Law University, Jodhpur

• NIRF Ranking 2020: Architecture
2. Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
3. National Institute of Technology Calicut
4. Centre for Environmental Planning & Technology Universities
5. School of Planning & Architecture

• NIRF Ranking 2020: Dental
1. Maulana Azad Institute of Dental Sciences Delhi
2. Manipal College of Dental Sciences, Udupi.
3. Dr. D Y Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune.
4. Saveetha Institute of Medical & Technical Sciences, Chennai.
5. ABSM Institute of Dental Sciences, Mangalore.
Parliament
The Parliament consists of three parts via, the President, the Council of States and the
House of the People. In 1954, the Hindi names Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha were
adopted by the Council of States and the House of People respectively.
The Rajya Sabha is the Upper House (Second Chamber or House of Elders) and the
Lok Sabha is the Lower House (First Chamber or Popular House). The President of
India is not a member of either House of Parliament and does not sit in the
Parliament to attend its meetings; he is an integral part of the Parliament. The
president summons and pro- rogues both the Houses, dissolves the Lok Sabha,
addresses both the Houses, and issues ordinances when they are not in session, and
so on.
Composition of Rajya Sabha
The maximum strength fixed at 250, out of which, 238 are to be the representatives
of the states and union territories (elected indirectly) and 12 are nominated by the
president.
1. Representation of States
• The representatives of states elected by the elected members of state
legislative assemblies.
• Held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means
of the single transferable vote.
• The seats are allotted to the states on the basis of population.
2. Representation of Union Territories
• The representatives of each union territory are indirectly elected by members
of an electoral college specially constituted for the purpose.
• Out of the seven union territories, only two (Delhi and Puducherry) have
representation in Rajya Sabha.
• The populations of other five union territories are too small to have any
representative in the Rajya Sabha.
3. Nominated Members
• The president nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from people who
have special knowledge or practical experience in art, literature, science and
social service
Composition of Lok Sabha
The maximum strength fixed at 552. Out of this, 530 members are to be the
representatives of the states, 20 members are to be the representatives of the union
territories and 2 members are to be nominated by the president from the Anglo-
Indian community.
1. Representation of States
The representatives of states are directly elected by the people from the territorial
constituencies in the states.
• Based on the principle of universal adult franchise.
• The voting age was reduced from 21 to 18 years by the 61st Constitutional
Amendment Act, 1988.

2. Representation of Union Territories
The Constitution has empowered the Parliament to prescribe the manner of
choosing the representatives of the union territories in the Lok Sabha. Accordingly,
the Parliament has enacted the Union Territories (Direct Election to the House of the
People) Act, 1965, by which the members of Lok Sabha from the union territories are
also chosen by direct election.

3. Nominated Members
The president can nominate two members from the Anglo-Indian community if the
community is not adequately represented in the Lok Sabha. Originally, this provision
was to operate till 1960 but has been extended till 2020 by the 95th Amendment Act,
2009.
System of Elections to Lok Sabha
The various aspects related to the system of elections to the Lok Sabha are as
follows:
Territorial Constituencies
In this respect, the Constitution makes the following two provisions:
• Each state is allotted a number of seats in the Lok Sabha in such a manner
that the ratio between that number and its population is the same for all
states. This provision does not apply to a state having a population of less
than six millions.
• Each state is divided into territorial constituencies in such a manner that the
ratio between the population of each constituency and the number of seats
allotted to it is the same throughout the state.
Duration of Two Houses
Duration of Rajya Sabha:
The Rajya Sabha (first constituted in 1952) is a continuing chamber, that is, it is a
permanent body and not subject to dissolution. One-third of its members retire
every second year. Their seats are filled up by fresh elections and presidential
nominations at the beginning of every third year. The retiring members are eligible
for re-election and denomination any number of times. The Parliament in the
Representation of the People Act (1951) provided that the term of office of a
member of the Rajya Sabha shall be six years.
Duration of Lok Sabha:
The Lok Sabha is not a continuing chamber. Its normal term is five years from the
date of its first meeting after the general elections, after which it automatically
dissolves. The President is authorised to dissolve the Lok Sabha at any time even
before the completion of five years and this cannot be challenged in a court of law.
The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended during the period of national emergency
be a law of Parliament for one year at a time for any length of time. This extension
cannot continue beyond a period of six months after the emergency has ceased to
operate.
Membership of Parliament
The Constitution lays down the following qualifications for a person to be chosen a
member of the Parliament:
• He must be a citizen of India
• To bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India +
• He must be not less than 30 years of age in the case of the Rajya Sabha and
not less than 25 years of age in the case of the Lok Sabha.
• He must possess other qualifications prescribed by Parliament.
Disqualifications
• If he holds any office of profit under the Union or state government (except
that of a minister or any other office exempted by Parliament).
• Unsound mind and stands so declared by a court, undercharged insolvent, not
a citizen of India or has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign state.
• He must not have been found guilty of certain election offences or corrupt
practices in the elections.
• He must not have been convicted for any offence resulting in imprisonment
for two or more years
Disqualification on Ground of Defection
The Constitution also lays down that a person shall be disqualified from being a
member of Parliament if he is so disqualified on the ground of defection under the
provisions of the Tenth Schedule. A member incurs disqualification under the
defection law:-
• If he voluntary gives up the membership of the political party on whose ticket
he is elected to the House;
• If he votes or abstains from voting in the House contrary to any direction
given by his political party;
• If any independently elected member joins any political party; and

• If any nominated member joins any political party after the expiry of six
months.
The question of disqualification under the Tenth Schedule is decided by the
Chairman in the case of Rajya Sabha and Speaker in the case of Lok Sabha (and not
by the president of India). In 1992, the Supreme Court ruled that the decision of the
Chairman/Speaker in this regard is subject to judicial review.

Vacating of Seats
In the following cases, a Member of Parliament vacates his seat.
• Double Membership a person cannot be a member of both Houses of Parliament
at the same time. Thus, the Representation of People Act (1951) provides for the
following:
1. If a person is elected to both the Houses of Parliament, he must intimate
within 10 days in which House he desires to serve. In default of such
intimation, his seat in the Rajya Sabha becomes vacant.
2. If a sitting member of one House is also elected to the other House, his seat in
the first House becomes vacant.
3. If a person is elected to two seats in a House, he should exercise his option for
one. Otherwise, both seats become vacant. Similarly, a person cannot be a
member of both the Parliament and the state legislature at the same time. If a
person is so elected, his seat in Parliament becomes vacant if he does not
resign his seat in the state legislature within 14 days.
• Resignation: If a member resigns from his/her seat.
• Absence: A House can declare the seat of a member vacant if he is absent from all
its meetings for a period of sixty days without its permission.

Speaker of Lok Sabha
• Election and Tenure
The Speaker is elected by the Lok Sabha from amongst its members. Whenever the
office of the Speaker falls vacant, the Lok Sabha elects another member to fill the
vacancy. The date of election of the Speaker is fixed by the President. Usually, the
Speaker remains in office during the life of the Lok Sabha. However, he has to vacate
his office earlier in any of the following three cases:
1. If he ceases to be a member of the Lok Sabha;
2. If he resigns by writing to the Deputy Speaker; and
3. If he is removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the then members
of the Lok Sabha. Such a resolution can be moved only after giving 14 days’
advance notice
• Role, Powers and Functions
The Speaker is the head of the Lok Sabha, and its representative. He is the guardian
of powers and privileges of the members, the House as a whole and its committees.
He is the principal spokesman of the House, and his decision in all Parliamentary
matters is final. He is thus much more than merely the presiding officer of the Lok
Sabha.
1. Allow a secret sitting of the House at the request of the Leader of the House.
2. Decides whether a bill is a money bill or not and his decision on this question
is final.
3. Decides the questions of disqualification of a member of the Lok Sabha,
arising on the ground of defection under the provisions of the Tenth
Schedule.
Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha
The Deputy Speaker is also elected by the Lok Sabha itself from amongst its
members. Deputy speaker is elected after the election of the Speaker has taken
place. The date of election of the Deputy Speaker is fixed by the Speaker. Whenever
the office of the Deputy Speaker falls vacant, the Lok Sabha elects another member
to fill the vacancy.

Speaker Pro Tem
As provided by the Constitution, the Speaker of the last Lok Sabha vacates his office
immediately before the first meeting of the newly- elected Lok Sabha. The President
appoints a member of the Lok Sabha as the Speaker Pro Tem .

Chairman of Rajya Sabha
Chairman is the presiding officer of the Rajya Sabha. The vice-president of India is
the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. During any period when the Vice-
President acts as President or discharges the functions of the President, he does not
perform the duties of the office of the Chairman of Rajya Sabha. However, the
Speaker has two special powers which are not enjoyed by the Chairman:
1. The Speaker decides whether a bill is a money bill or not and his decision on
this question is final.
2. The Speaker presides over a joint sitting of two Houses of Parliament

Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha
The Deputy Chairman is elected by the Rajya Sabha itself from amongst its members.
Whenever the office of the Deputy Chairman falls vacant, the Rajya Sabha elects
another member to fill the vacancy.

Leader of the Opposition
In each House of Parliament, there is the Leader of the Opposition. The leader of the
largest Opposition party having not less than one-tenth seats of the total strength of
the House is recognized as the leader of the Opposition in that House. In a
parliamentary system of government, the leader of the opposition has a significant
role to play. Therefore, the leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya
Sabha were accorded statutory recognition in 1977. They are also entitled to the
salary, allowances and other facilities equivalent to that of a cabinet minister.

Sessions of Parliament
• Summoning
The president from time to time summons each House of Parliament to meet. The
maximum gap between two sessions of Parliament cannot be more than six months.
1. The Budget Session (February to May);
2. The Monsoon Session (July to September); and
3. The Winter Session (November to December).
• Adjournment
A sitting of Parliament can be terminated by adjournment or adjournment sine die or
prorogation or dissolution (in the case of the Lok Sabha). An adjournment suspends
the work in a sitting for a specified time, which may be hours, days or weeks.
o Adjournment Sine Die
Adjournment sine die means terminating a sitting of Parliament for an indefinite
period. In other words, when the House is adjourned without naming a day for
reassembly, it is called adjournment sine die. The power of adjournment as well as
adjournment sine die lies with the presiding officer of the House.
He can also call a sitting of the House before the date or time to which it has been
adjourned or at any time after the House has been adjourned sine die.
o Prorogation
The presiding officer (Speaker or Chairman) declares the House adjourned sine die,
when the business of a session is completed. Within the next few days, the President
issues a notification for prorogation of the session. However, the President can also
prorogue the House while in session.
• Dissolution
Rajya Sabha, being a permanent House, is not subject to dissolution. Only the Lok
Sabha is subject to dissolution. Unlike a prorogation, dissolution ends the very life of
the existing House, and a new House is constituted after general elections are held.
• Quorum
Quorum is the minimum number of members required to be present in the House
before it can transact any business. It is one-tenth of the total number of members in
each House including the presiding officer. It means that there must be at least 55
members present in the Lok Sabha and 25 members present in the Rajya Sabha, if
any business is to be conducted.
• Lame-duck Session
It refers to the last session of the existing Lok Sabha, after a new Lok Sabha has been
elected. Those members of the existing Lok Sabha who could not get re-elected to
the new Lok Sabha are called lame-ducks.

Devices of Parliamentary Proceedings
1. Question Hour
The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for this. During this time, the
members ask questions and the ministers usually give answers.
2. Zero Hour
Unlike the question hour, the zero hour is not mentioned in the Rules of Procedure.
It is an informal device available to the members of the Parliament to raise matters
without any prior notice. The zero hour starts immediately after the question hour
and lasts until the agenda for the day (ie regular business of the House) is taken up.
Legislative Procedure in Parliament
The legislative procedure is identical in both the Houses of Parliament. Every bill has
to pass through the same stages in each House. A bill is a proposal for legislation
and it becomes an act or law when duly enacted.
• Ordinary Bills
Every ordinary bill has to pass through the following five stages in the Parliament
before it finds a place on the Statute Book:
1. First Reading
2. Second Reading : Stage of General Discussion, Committee Stage,
Consideration Stage
3. Third Reading
4. Bill in the Second House
In the second House also, the bill passes through all the three stages, that is, first
reading, second reading and third reading. There are four alternatives before this
House:
o It may pass the bill as sent by the first house (i.e., without amendments);
o It may pass the bill with amendments and return it to the first House for
reconsideration;
o It may reject the bill altogether; and
o It may not take any action and thus keep the bill pending.
5. Assent of the President
Every bill after being passed by both Houses of Parliament either singly or at a joint
sitting, is presented to the president for his assent. There are three alternatives
before the president:
o He may give his assent to the bill; or
o He may withhold his assent to the bill; or
o He may return the bill for reconsideration of the Houses.
o If the president gives his assent to the bill, the bill becomes an act and is
placed on the Statute Book.
o If the President withholds his assent to the bill, it ends and does not become
an act.
Joint Sitting of Two Houses
Joint sitting is extraordinary machinery provided by the Constitution to resolve a
deadlock between the two Houses over the passage of a bill. A deadlock is deemed
to have taken place under any one of the following three situations after a bill has
been passed by one House and transmitted to the other House:
o If the bill is rejected by the other House;
o If the Houses have finally disagreed as to the amendments to be made in the
bill; or
o If more than six months have elapsed from the date of the receipt of the bill
by the other House without the bill being passed by it.
The Speaker of Lok Sabha presides over a joint sitting of the two Houses and the
Deputy Speaker, in his absence. If the Deputy Speaker is also absent from a joint
sitting, the Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha presides. If he is also absent, such other
person as may be determined by the members present at the joint sitting, presides
over the meeting.

The budget goes through the following six stages in the Parliament:
1. Presentation of budget.
2. General discussion.
3. Scrutiny by departmental committees.
4. Voting on demands for grants.
5. Passing of appropriation bill.
6. Passing of finance bill

Multifunctional Role of Parliament
In the Indian politico-administrative system‘, the Parliament occupies a central
position and has a multifunctional role. These include:
1. Legislative Powers and Functions
2. Executive Powers and Functions
3. Financial Powers and Functions
4. Constituent Powers and Functions
5. Judicial Powers and Functions
6. Electoral Powers and Functions
7. Other powers and functions.

1. Legislative Powers and Functions
The primary function of Parliament is to make laws for the governance of the
country. It has exclusive power to make laws on the subjects enumerated in the
Union List (which at present has 100 subjects, originally 97 subjects) and on the
residuary subjects (that is, subjects not enumerated in any of the three lists).
With regard to Concurrent List (which has at present 52 subjects, originally 47
subjects), the Parliament has overriding powers, that is, the law of Parliament prevails
over the law of the state legislature in case of a conflict between the two. The
Constitution also empowers the Parliament to make laws on the subjects enumerated
in the State List (which at present has 61 subjects, originally 66 subjects) under the
following five abnormal circumstances:
o When Rajya Sabha passes a resolution to that effect.
o When a proclamation of National Emergency is in operation.
o When two or more states make a joint request to the Parliament.
o When necessary to give effect to international agreements, treaties and
conventions.
o When President‘s Rule is in operation in the state.

2. Executive Powers and Functions
The Parliament exercises control over the Executive through question-hour, zero
hour, half-an-hour discussion, short duration discussion, calling attention motion,
adjournment motion, no-confidence motion, censure motion and other discussions.
It also supervises the activities of the Executive with the help of its committees like
committee on government assurance, committee on subordinate legislation,
committee on petitions, etc. The Lok Sabha can also express lack of confidence in the
government in the following ways:
o By not passing a motion of thanks on the President‘s inaugural address.
o By rejecting a money bill.
o By passing a censure motion or an adjournment motion.
o By defeating the government on a vital issue.
o By passing a cut motion.

3. Financial Powers and Functions
The budget is based on the principle of annuality, that is, the Parliament grants
money to the government for one financial year. It facilitates effective financial
control by the Parliament as no reserve funds can be built without its authorisation.
4. Constituent Powers and Functions
The Parliament is vested with the powers to amend the Constitution by way of
addition, variation or repeal of any provision. The major part of the Constitution can
be amended by the Parliament with special majority, that is, a majority (that is, more
than 50 per cent) of the total membership of each House and a majority of not less
than two-thirds of the members present and voting in each House
Some other provisions of the Constitution can be amended by the Parliament with
simple majority, that is, a majority of the members present and voting in each House
of Parliament. Only a few provisions of the Constitution can be amended by the
Parliament (by special majority) and with the consent of at least half of the state
Legislatures (by simple majority).

5. Judicial Powers and Functions
The judicial powers and functions of the Parliament include the following:
o It can impeach the President for the violation of the Constitution.
o It can remove the Vice-President from his office.
o It can recommend the removal of judges (including chief justice) of the
Supreme Court and the high courts, chief election commissioner, comptroller
and auditor general to the president.

Position of Rajya Sabha
The Constitutional position of the Rajya Sabha (as compared with the Lok Sabha) can
be studied from three angles:
1. Where Rajya Sabha is equal to Lok Sabha.
2. Where Rajya Sabha is unequal to Lok Sabha.
3. Where Rajya Sabha has special powers that are not at all shared with the Lok
Sabha Equal Status with Lok Sabha.

In the following matters, the powers and status of the Rajya Sabha are equal to
that of the Lok Sabha:
1. Introduction and passage of ordinary bills.
2. Introduction and passage of Constitutional amendment bills.
3. Introduction and passage of financial bills involving expenditure from the
Consolidated Fund of India.
4. Election and impeachment of the president.
5. Election and removal of the Vice-President..

6. Making recommendation to the President for the removal of Chief Justice and
judges of Supreme Court and high courts, chief election commissioner and
comptroller and auditor general.

In the following matters, the powers and status of the Rajya Sabha are unequal
to that of the Lok Sabha:
1. A Money Bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha and not in the Rajya
Sabha.
2. Rajya Sabha cannot amend or reject a Money Bill. It should return the bill to
the Lok Sabha within 14 days, either with recommendations or without
recommendations.
3. The Speaker of Lok Sabha presides over the joint sitting of both the Houses.
The Lok Sabha with greater number wins the battle in a joint sitting except
when the combined strength of the ruling party in both the Houses is less
than that of the opposition parties
4. A resolution for the discontinuance of the national emergency can be passed
only by the Lok Sabha and not by the Rajya Sabha.

Special Powers of Rajya Sabha
Due to its federal character, the Rajya Sabha has been given two exclusive or special
powers that are not enjoyed by the Lok Sabha:
1. It can authorise the Parliament to make a law on a subject enumerated in the
State List
2. It can authorise the Parliament to create new All-India Services common to
both the Centre and states

• Constitutional Bodies
Constitutional bodies are important bodies in India that derive their powers and
authorities from the Indian constitution. They are mentioned in the Constitution.
Since they get their power from the constitution, any change in the mechanism of
the constitutional bodies would require a constitutional amendment. It’s given
below:
1. Election Commission
2. Union Public Service Commission
3. SPSC/JPSC
4. Finance Commission
5. Comptroller & Auditor General of India
6. Attorney General
7. Advocate General
8. National commission for schedule castes
9. National commission for schedule tribes
10. Special officer for linguistic minorities

1. Election Commission
Mentioned in Article 324
The institution of Election Commission presently consists of the chief election
commissioner and two other election commissioners, appointed by the President.
They hold office for a term of six years. The age of retirement is 65 years, whichever
comes earlier. Salary corresponds to Judge of a Supreme Court
Function: Superintendence, direction & control of elections in
o Parliament
o State legislatures
o Office of President of India
o Vice-President
Provisions for Independence
Article 324 provides the following safeguards for independent and impartial
functioning of EC:-
o CEC Removal -: Proved misbehaviour or incapacity same as a Supreme Court
Judge – a resolution in both houses with special majority
o Security of Tenure
o Service conditions of CEC cannot be varied after appointment

o Other EC can only be removed with prior recommendation of CEC.
o Some flaws noted :-
o Constitution has not prescribed the qualifications of the members of the EC
o Constitution not specified the term of the members of EC

2. Union Public Service Commission
Mentioned in Art 312 to 323, Part XIV of the Constitution (Article 315 mentions
about the public service commission for the union and the states). Appointment of
Members is done by President of India
Condition for Appointment: One half of members shall have held office for at least 10
years either under government of India or government of a state.
The term is of six years or the retirement age is 65 years, whichever is earlier. The
UPSC consists of a chairman and other members appointed by the president of India.
Provision for Independence
o Security of Tenure
o Service conditions not varied after appointment
o SAP- Consolidated fund of India – NOT subject to vote of Parliament
o Member can work further only as Chairperson UPSC/SPSC
The chairman of UPSC (on ceasing to hold office) is not eligible for further
employment in the Government of India or a state.
Functions
1. Conducting Exams: AISs [IAS…], CSs[IFS…], UT Public Services
2. Assistance to states on request by Governor & on President’s approval
3. Consultant in Personnel Management
o -Recruiting Methods
o -Principles in Making Appointments
o -Temporary Appointments exceeding ONE year
o -Extension or Re-employment
Limitations (UPSC not consulted)

1. Reservation for backward
2. Claims of SCs & STs
3. Diplomatic appointments
4. Group C & D
5. Temporary appointment less than one year
6. Presidential exclusion, but such to be laid to Parliament for 14 days
7. Role of UPSC
Role of UPSC
Watch-dog of merit system in India. It is not concerned with classification of services,
pay & service conditions, cadre management, training…(DoPT- central personnel
agency)
Advisory
A: Emergence of CVC affects the role of UPSC
R: Both are consulted by Gov. on disciplinary matters

3. SPSC (State Public service commission)
SPSC consist of chairman and other members. A State Public Service Commission
consists of a chairman and other members appointed by the governor of the state.
The term of office is 6 years or retirement age is 62 years, whichever is attained
earlier. They offer their respective resignations to the governor. The chairman and
members can be removed only by the President, though they’re appointed by the
Governor. The ground for removal is same as that of a chairman or member of the
UPSC. No qualifications for members except one-half 10 years’ service under Gov. of
India/state.
Provision for Independence
1. Security of Tenure
2. Service conditions not varied after appointment
3. SAP- Consolidated fund of state , NOT subject to vote
4. Chairperson not eligible for further employment in GoI/s

5. Member can further work only as Member/Chairperson UPSC & Chairperson
of SPSC
6. Chairperson/ Member are not allowed for 2nd term
Functions
1. Conducting Exams for state services
2. Consultant in Personnel Management
o Recruiting Methods
o Principles in Making Appointments
o Suitability for appointments, transfers, promotions(SPSC to ratify)
o Disciplinary Matters
o Any claim
o Any other personnel management

JPSC
Created by the Law of Parliament if agreed by the concerned states and requested
for creation by the resolution of the state. Members are appointed by president
.Condition for appointment same as UPSC/SPSC. The term of office is 6 years or
retirement age is 62 years.

4. Finance Commission
Article 280 of the constitution of India provides for a Finance Commission. It acts a
quasi-judicial body. It Comprises of Chairman and 4 members- Chairman and
members are appointed by the President.
1. Hold office for such period as specified by the President.
2. All members are eligible for reappointment.
3. Constitution authorizes parliament to determine the qualifications of
members of the commission and the manner in which they should be
selected.
Functions:-FC needs to make the following recommendations to the President
1. Distribution of net proceeds of taxes to be shared between the centre and the
states, and allocation between the states.

2. Principles governing the grant in aid ( Out of the consolidated fund of India)
3. Measures needed to augment the consolidated fund of state to supplement
the resources of Panchayat and Municipality on the basis of recommendation
made by Finance Commission.
4. Any other matter to refer to it by President. Commission submits report to the
President.
5. Comptroller & Auditor General of India
Article 148 – Provides for an independent office of CAG
CAG is the guardian of Public Purse. Duty is to uphold the constitution of India and
laws of parliament in the field of Finance Administration. He is one among the
bulwarks of democratic system of government – Others being the Supreme Court,
Election Commission, and Union Public Service Commission
• CAG appointed by the President under his warrant and seal.
• Term- 6 years or 65 years
• Resigns by giving the resignation letter to the President.
• Removal on similar grounds as the Judge of Supreme Court.
Independence
• Security of tenure – Do not hold office till the pleasure of President though
appointed by him.
• Not eligible for further office
• Salary and other conditions determined by the Parliament. Salary equal to
judge of SC
• Salary or rights cannot be altered to his disadvantage
• Conditions of service of persons in Indian Audit and Account service
prescribed by the President after consultation with CAG
• Administrative expenses charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India
Duties and Powers

Parliament to prescribe in relation to accounts of Union, States and any other
authority or body 1971 Act, 1976 Act separated accounts from audit in the central
Gov.
• Audits Consolidated Fund of India/states/UTs having legislature.
• Audits Contingency fund of India/states, Public Account of India/states.
Attorney General
Article 76 -Highest law officer of the country
Attorney General is appointed by the President of India. He must be qualified to be
the Judge of Supreme Court (citizen of India, Judge of HC for 5 years, advocate for 10
years or an eminent jurist in the opinion of president)
• Term of office not fixed by constitution
• Constitution has no procedure for his removal
• Holds office during the pleasure of the President.
• Receives remuneration as president may determine
• Here instructions is given by the Chief Law officer of government of India
Duties & Functions
• Chief Law officer of government of India
• Give advice to GOI on legal matters
• Perform duties of a legal character
• Discharge functions conferred on him by constitution.
• President may assign the following duties to AG:-
• To appear on behalf of government
• To represent the government
• To appear when required by the government in any high court
Rights and Limitations
• Right of audience in all courts.

• Right to speak and take part in the proceedings of both the houses of
parliament, joint sitting, or any committee proceedings.
• Does not have the right to vote
• He enjoys all privileges and immunities that are available to a member of
parliament.
• Limitations
• Should not advice against the government of India
• Should not defend accused persons in criminal proceedings
• Should not accepts appointment as director in any company or corporation
without government permission.

Advocate General of State
• Article 165
• Highest law officer of the state
• Appointed by Governor
• Qualified to be judge of High Court (Citizen of India, held judicial office for 10
years or advocate of HC for 10 years)
• Term of office not fixed by constitution
• Constitution has no procedure for his removal.
• Holds office during the pleasure of the Governor
• Receives remuneration as governor ma y determine
• Here instructions is given by the government of state and the governor
Rights and limitations are same as attorney general

Solicitor General of India
They assist the attorney general in fulfilment of official responsibilities. Article 76
does not mention about such an office hence office not created by constitution.
6. NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR SC
• Article 338
• Consist of Chairperson, Vice Chair Person and 3 other members.
• Appointed by President by warrant under his hand and seal.

• Tenure of office determined by President.
Functions:
1. To investigate and monitor matters relating to SC
2. Inquire specific complaints relating to deprivation of rights
3. Participate and advice on the planning process.
4. To present the President the reports
5. To make recommendation for effective
6. Implementation of safeguards
NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR ST
• Article 338A (89th Constitutional Amendment)
• Consist of Chairperson, Vice Chair Person and 3 other members.
• Appointed by President by warrant under his hand and seal.
• Tenure of office determined by President
Function: Caters to functions related to ST

7. SPECIAL OFFICER FOR LINGUISTIC MINORITIES
• Inserted by 350B (7th Constitutional Amendment 1956)
• Should be special officer for Linguistic Minorities
• Appointed by the President of India
• Duty is to investigate all matters relating to safeguards for linguistic minorities
• Place the report to the President.
• Headquarters in Allahabad, 3 Regional Offices are in Belgaum, Chennai,
Kolkata
• Under Minority Affairs Ministry

• President, Vice President & PM
Election of the President
1. The President of India is elected by an electoral college consisting of:
2. Elected members of the two Houses of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies
of the States - Article 54

3. It includes the national capital territory of Delhi and the Union territory of
Pondicherry
4. The President‘s election is held in accordance with a system of proportional
representation by means of a single transferable vote
5. There shall be uniformity in the scale of representation of the different states
at the election of the President

Eligibility
1. The candidate should be a Indian citizen.
2. Should have completed the age of thirty-five (35) years.
3. Should be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha.
4. Should not hold any office of profit under the Union Government or any state
government or any local or other authority
5. The President should not be a member of any house of Union or State
legislature
Presidents’ Term of Office
• The oath of office to the President is administered by the Chief Justice of
India and in his absence, by the senior most judge of the Supreme Court
available.
• The President holds office for a five year term from the date on which he
enters the office.
• President can resign at any time by addressing the resignation letter to the
Vice-President of India.
• A person is eligible for re-election to Presidential office.

Presidents Impeachment
• President may be impeached from his office for violation of the Constitution
• The impeachment charges may be initiated by either Lok Sabha or Rajya
Sabha and it should be signed by at least 1/4th members.
• The resolution of the charges for impeachment of the President should be
passed by at least 2/3rd majority

The Powers and Functions of the President
Executive Powers - Article 53
All executive powers of the Union are vested in him. These powers are exercised by
him either directly or through subordinate officers in accordance with the
Constitution. The Supreme Command of the Defence Force is vested on the
President and the exercises it in accordance with law.
President appoints the Prime Minister and other ministers; and they hold office
during his pleasure.
He appoints the Attorney General of India, Comptroller and Auditor General of India,
the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners, the Chairman
and Members of the UPSC, the Governors of the states, the Chairman and the
members of the Finance Commissions etc. The President also receives the credentials
of Ambassadors and High Commissioners from other countries. The President is the
Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India can grant a
pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for one time, particularly in
cases involving punishment of death.
The Legislative Powers
The President can summon or end a session of the Parliament and dissolve the Lok
Sabha. He can address the Parliament at the commencement of the first session after
the general election and the first session of each year. He can also summon a joint
sitting of both the houses of Parliament which is presided over by the Speaker of the
Lok Sabha. The President can appoint a member of the Lok Sabha to preside over its
proceedings the positions of Speaker as well as Deputy Speaker are vacant.
Emergency Powers of the President
President may proclaim a state of emergency in the whole or part of India if he
realizes/feels that a grave situation has arisen in which the security of India on part of
its territory might get threatened by war or external egression or rebellion.

The President can declare three types of emergencies:
1. National Emergency
National emergency is caused by war, external aggression or armed rebellion in the
whole of India or a part of its territory. President can declare national emergency
only on a written request by the Cabinet Ministers headed by the Prime Minister and
the proclamation must be approved by the Parliament within one month.
National emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six
months by repeated parliamentary approval, up to a maximum of three years.
• 1962 (Indo-China war)
• 1971 (Indo-Pakistan war)
• 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi on account of "internal disturbance")

2. State Emergency or President’s Rule
• If that state failed to run constitutionally i.e. constitutional machinery has
failed
• If that state is not working according to the given direction of the Union
Government. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within
a period of two months.
• It can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with
repeated parliamentary approval every six months.

3. Financial Emergency: Article – 360
President can proclaim a Financial Emergency if financial stability or credit of India or
any part thereof is threatened. This proclamation must be approved by the
Parliament within two months. This type of Emergency has not been declared so far.
Financial Powers
A money bill can be introduced in the Parliament only with the President‘s
recommendation. The President lays the Annual Financial Statement i.e. the Union
budget before the Parliament. President can make advances out of the Contingency
Fund of India to meet unforeseen expenses. The President continues a Finance

commission after every five years to recommend the distribution of the taxes
between the centre and the States.

Military powers
The President is the supreme commander of the defence forces of India. The
President can declare war and conclude peace, subject to Parliaments ‘approval. The
President appoints the chiefs of Army, Navy and Air Force.

Judicial powers
The president appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary and other judges on
the advice of the Chief Justice. The President dismisses the judges if and only if the
two Houses of the Parliament pass resolutions to that effect by two-thirds majority of
the members present.
The president has the right to grant pardon.
The president enjoys the judicial immunity
• No criminal proceedings can be initiated against the president during the
term in office
• The president is not answerable for the exercise of his/her duties
When a bill is presented to the President for his assent, he has three alternatives
(under Article 111 of the Constitution):
• He may give his assent to the bill, or
• He may withhold his assent to the bill, or
• He may return the bill (if it is not a Money bill) for reconsideration of the
Parliament. However, if the bill is passed again by the Parliament with or
without amendments and again presented to the President, the President
must give his assent to the bill.

Veto Power of the President
The veto power enjoyed by the executive in modern states can be classified into the
following four types:
• Absolute veto that is, withholding of assent to the bill passed by the
legislature.
• Qualified veto, which can be overridden by the legislature with a higher
majority.
• Suspense veto, which can be over ridden by the legislature with an ordinary
majority.
• Pocket veto that is, taking no action on the bill passed by the legislature.
Absolute Veto
• Refers to the power of the President to withhold his assent to a bill passed by
the Parliament.
• The bill then ends and does not become an act.
• Usually, this veto is exercised in the following two cases:
1. With respect to private members‘ bills (i.e., bills introduced by any member of
Parliament who is not a minister); and
2. With respect to the government bills when the cabinet resigns (after the
passage of the bills but before the assent by the President) and the new
cabinet advises the President not to give his assent to such bills.
Suspensive Veto
The President exercises this veto when he returns a bill for reconsideration of the
Parliament. However, if the bill is passed again by the Parliament with or without
amendments and again presented to the President, it is obligatory for the President
to give his assent to the bill. This means that the presidential veto is overridden by a
re-passage of the bill by the same ordinary majority (and not a higher majority as
required in USA).
The President does not possess this veto in the case of money bills.
The President can either give his assent to a money bill or withhold his assent to a
money bill but cannot return it for the reconsideration of the Parliament.
Normally, the President gives his assent to money bill as it is introduced in the
Parliament with his previous permission.
Pocket Veto
In this case, the President neither ratifies nor rejects nor returns the bill, but simply
keeps the bill pending for an indefinite period. This power of the President not to
take any action (either positive or negative) on the bill is known as the pocket veto.
The President can exercise this veto power as the Constitution does not prescribe any
time-limit within which he has to take the decision with respect to a bill presented to
him for his assent.
In USA, on the other hand, the President has to return the bill for reconsideration
within 10 days. Hence, it is remarked that the pocket of the Indian President is bigger
than that of the American President. It should be noted here that the President has
no veto power in respect of a constitutional amendment bill. The 24th Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1971 made it obligatory for the President to give his assent to a
constitutional amendment bill.
Presidential Veto over State Legislation
The President has veto power with respect to state legislation also. A bill passed by a
state legislature can become an act only if it receives the assent of the governor or
the President (in case the bill is reserved for the consideration of the President).
When a bill, passed by a state legislature, is presented to the governor for his assent,
he has four alternatives (under Article 200 of the Constitution):
1. He may give his assent to the bill, or
2. He may withhold his assent to the bill, or
3. He may return the bill (if it is not a money bill) for reconsideration of the state
legislature, or He may reserve the bill for the consideration of the President.
Ordinance-making Power of the President
Article 123 of the Constitution empowers the President to promulgate ordinances
during the recess of Parliament. These ordinances have the same force and effect as
an act of Parliament, but are in the nature of temporary laws. The ordinance-making
power is the most important legislative power of the President. It has been vested in
him to deal with unforeseen or urgent matters.

But, the exercises of this power is subject to the following four limitations
Pardoning Power of the President
Article 72 of the Constitution empowers the President to grant pardons to persons
who have been tried and convicted of any offence in all cases where the:
1. Punishment or sentence is for an offence against a Union Law;
2. Punishment or sentence is by a court martial (military court); and
3. Sentence is a sentence of death.
The pardoning power of the President is independent of the Judiciary; it is an
executive power. But, the President while exercising this power, does not sit as a
court of appeal. The object of conferring this power on the President is two-fold:
1. To keep the door open for correcting any judicial errors in the operation of
law; and,
2. To afford relief from a sentence, which the President regards as unduly harsh.
• Pardon
• Commutation
• Remission
• Respite
• Reprieve
VICE-PRESIDENT OF INDIA
The Vice-President of India is the second highest constitutional office in the country.
He serves for a five-year term, but can continue to be in office, irrespective of the
expiry of the term until the successor assumes office.
Art. 63 declare: ―There shall be a Vice-President of India That is the office cannot
remain vacant.
Election
The Vice-President, like the president, is elected not directly by the people but by the
method of indirect election. He is elected by the members of an electoral college
consisting of the members of both Houses of Parliament. Thus, this Electoral College
is different from the Electoral College for the election of the President in the
following two respects:
The Vice-President, like the president, is elected not directly by the people but by the
method of indirect election. He is elected by the members of an electoral college
consisting of the members of both Houses of Parliament. Thus, this Electoral College
is different from the Electoral College for the election of the President in the
following two respects
1. It consists of both elected and nominated members of the Parliament (in the
case of president, only elected members).
2. It does not include the members of the state legislative assemblies (in the case
of President, the elected members of the state legislative assemblies are
included)
Qualifications
A person cannot be elected as Vice-President unless he is a citizen of India has
completed the age of 35 years, and is qualified for election as a member
Superintendence of the Election of the Vice-President
The Election Commission of India conducts the election to the office of the Vice-
President.
Powers and Functions
The functions of Vice-President are two-fold:
1. He acts as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. In this capacity, his powers
and functions are similar to those of the Speaker of Lok Sabha. In this respect,
he resembles the American vice-president who also acts as the Chairman of
the Senate—the Upper House of the American legislature.
2. He acts as President when a vacancy occurs in the office of the President due
to his resignation, removal, and death or otherwise. He can act as President
only for a maximum period of six months within which a new President has to
be elected. Further, when the sitting President is unable to discharge his

functions due to absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice-President
discharges his functions until the President resumes his office.

PRIME MINISTER
Prime Minister is the real executive authority (de facto executive). He is the head of
the government
Appointment of the Prime Minister
• The Constitution does not contain any specific procedure for the selection and
appointment of the Prime Minister.
• Article 75 says only that the Prime Minister shall be appointed by the
president.
• The President haste appoint the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha
as the Prime Minister
• But, when no party has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha- the President may
exercise his personal discretion in the selection and appointment of the Prime
Minister.
Role of Cabinet
1. It is the highest decision-making authority in our politico-administrative
system.
2. It is the chief policy formulating body of the Central government.
3. It is the supreme executive authority of the Central government.
4. It is chief coordinator of Central administration.
5. It is an advisory body to the president and its advice is binding on him.
6. It is the chief crisis manager and thus deals with all emergency situations.
7. It deals with all major legislative and financial matters.
8. It exercises control over higher appointments like constitutional authorities
and senior secretariat administrators.

• The Constitution
The constitution of India was adopted on the 26th of November, in the year 1949. It
came to effect on the 26th of January, 1950. 26th of January is celebrated as the
Republic Day of India. It was adopted by the Constitution Assembly. Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar, the chairman of the Drafting Committee, is widely considered to be the
architect of the Constitution of India.

Features of Constitution
1. Lengthiest Written Constitution: Indian Constitution is the lengthiest
constitution in the world initially with 395 Articles, 22 chapters and 8 schedules.
At present there are about 470 articles,25 parts and 12 schedules.
2. Various sources: Indian Constitution adopts various concepts from various
nations’ constitution like Fundamental Rights from USA, Parliamentary system
from UK, Directive Principles of State Policy from Ireland etc.
3. Rigid and Flexible: It is very hard to amend the constitutional ir fundamental
laws but there are provisions to amend certain provisions of Indian
Constitution.
4. Federal System: Federalism is a system of governance where powers are
divided and distributed among the Central and State Governments.
5. Secular State: it means equal respect for all religions with guaranteed
freedom of faith, worship and follow of any religion.
6. Parliamentary Democracy: here executive is accountable to the legislature.
Constitution of India provides a bicameral legislature containing 2 Houses-
Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
7. Independent Judiciary: Judiciary should be free from any kind of influence
from other parts of Government.
8. Fundamental Rights: There are 6 fundamental rights ensuring equality of all
citizens in the eyes of law in the Indian Constitution.

9. Fundamental Duties: Fundamental duties are incorporated in Indian
Constitution so as to remind Indian citizens that they have to not only
consider their rights but also their duties. Noncompliance of Fundamental
Duties won’t bring any legal action against any citizen.
10. Directive Principles of State Policy: These are principles commanding the
state and every agency to follow certain fundamental principles while framing
policies. It aims the Central and State Governments to establish and maintain
a social order.
11. Emergency: The President of India can bring emergency rule in any or all
Indian States if any or whole state is exposed under war or external aggression
or armed rebellion.
Constitutional Provisions Adopted from different sources:
• Govt. of India Act 1935: Federal Structure, Office of Governor, Judiciary,
Public Service Commission
• Britain : Parliamentary system, Rule of Law, Single Citizenship, Office of CAG,
Legislation, Cabinet, Prerogative writs and bicameralism
• USA: Fundamental Rights, Judicial Review, Office of Vice President,
Independence of Judiciary, Impeachment of President, Impeachment
process of SC & HC judges.
• USSR: Preamble & Fundamental Duties
• Canada: Quasi Federal Structure with strong Centre, Appointment of State
Governors by Centre and review role of Supreme Court.
• Australia: Concurrent List, Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Interstate
Trade, Joint Sitting of Parliament
• South Africa: Amendment Procedure ,Indirect Election of Rajya Sabha
• Ireland: Directive Principles of State Policy, Election Process of President &
Nomination of members by President

• Russian Revolution 1917: Idea of Social, Educational, Economic and Political
justice
• French Revolution 1789-99: Idea of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
• Weimer Constitution of Germany: Emergency
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
These are enshrined in Part III of the Indian Constitution under Articles 12 to 35.
These were borrowed from the US constitution (Bill of Rights). The fundamental
rights are justifiable. In the original Constitution 7 Fundamental Rights are
mentioned.
1. Right to Equality (14-18)
2. Right to Freedom (19-22)
3. Right Against Exploitation (23-24)
4. Right to Freedom of Religion (25-28)
5. Cultural and Educational Rights (29-30)
6. Right to property (31) (Deleted through the 44th amendment)
7. Right to Constitutional Remedies (32).
In the year 1978, through 44th amendment act Right to property was deleted from
the list of Fundamental Rights.
1. RIGHT TO EQUALITY (14-18)
Article 14: Equality before law and equal protection of laws.
1. Equality before law: The absence of any special privileges in favor of any
person Note: Equality before law is taken from the British Constitution.
2. Equal Protection of Laws: The equality of treatment under equal
circumstances. Note: This is taken from the US Constitution.
Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on the grounds only of religion, race, caste,
sex, or place of birth.(Access to various places).

Exceptions: Special provisions for children and Women, Socially and economically
backward sections Scheduled castes Scheduled Tribes
Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of Public employment.
Article 16(4) empowers the state to make special provisions for the reservation of
appointments or posts in favour of any ―backward class of citizens which in the
opinion of state are not adequately represented in the services of the state.
Article 17: Abolition of un-touch-ability and prohibition of its practice.
• Accordingly the Parliament passed untouchability (offences) Act, 1955.
• In the year 1976, this act is renamed as Civil Rights Act, 1955.
Article 18: Abolition of titles except military and academic.
Note: On December 23, 2013 the High Court of Andhra Pradesh ordered two cinema
personalities Mohan Babu and Bramhanandam to surrender 'Padma Sri' to the
President.
2. RIGHT TO FREEDOM (19-22):
ARTICLE 19: Protection of 6 rights.
Right to freedom of speech and expression 19 (1) (a) (freedom of expression means
the right to express one‘s opinion by words of mouth, writing, printing, picture, or in
any other manner)
1. Right to assemble peacefully and without arms
2. Right to form associations
3. Right to move freely throughout the territory of India
4. Right to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India
5. Right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or
business
6. Right to acquire, hold, and dispose of property (deleted through 44th
amendment)
Note: On November 20, 2012 the Maharashtra police arrested 2 women (Shaheen
and her friend) for twitting in Facebook for the expression of their opinion after the
demise of Shivasena leader Bal Thackery. This was objected many as the violation of
article 19 (1) (a) of the Indian Constitution
• Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences.
No ex-post-facto Legislation:
No Double Jeopardy
No Self-incrimination
• Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty except in accordance with the
procedures established in law. Right to live with human dignity, decent
environment, privacy, free education up to 14 years etc.
• Article 21 A: Right to free and compulsory education for all the children. Note:
This was present in Article 45 of the constitution. Through 86th amendment in
2002 it was made fundamental right. This came into force on April 1, 2010
• Article 22: Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Under punitive detention: right to be informed of the grounds of arrest,
consult a legal practitioner, and produce before the magistrate within 24
hours.
Under preventive detention: grounds of detention should be communicated,
provide an opportunity to make representation.
3. RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION (23-24)
• Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labor.
• Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories.
4. RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION (25-28)
• Article 25: All persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience, the right
to freely profess practice and propagate religion. Note: Propagation does not
include ̳forced conversions‘.
• Article 26: Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs:
o To establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable
purposes Own and acquire movable and immovable property.

o Right to administer the property
o Article 27: Freedom for Taxation for promotion of a religion.
o No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion and
maintenance of any religion
o Article 28: Freedom from attending religious instruction.
o No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institute
wholly maintained out of state funds. Religious instructions permitted if
it is established by endowments or trust.
o Article 28(3): No person attending any educational institution
recognised by the State or receiving aid out of State funds shall be
required to take part in any religious instruction that may be imparted
in such institution or to attend any religious worship that may be
conducted in such institution or in any premises attached thereto
unless such person or, if such person is a minor, his guardian has given
his consent thereto.
5.CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS (29-30)
• Article 29: Right to conserve language, script or culture.
The Article 29 grants protection to both religious and linguistic minorities.
• Article 30: Right of Minorities to Establish and administer Educational
Institutions:
All Minorities have the right to establish and administer educational
institutions of their choice.
6. RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES (32):
• The Supreme Court and High Courts can issue writs.
• Right to move Supreme Court for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights
including the writs of Habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and
Quo warren to.

• Under Article 359 of the constitution provides the right to move Supreme
Court can be suspended during national emergency.
• According B R Ambedkar Article 32 is the heart and soul of the Indian
Constitution.
Writs
Writs: The Indian Constitution empowers supreme court and high court to issue writs
for enforcement of any of the fundamental rights of Article32.Thus the power to
issue writs is primarily a provision made to make available the Right to Constitutional
Remedies to every citizen:

Writs in Brief
Habeas Corpus:
• You may have the body
• To release a person who has been detained unlawfully whether in prison or in
private custody.
Mandamus: We command
• To command an inferior court or a person to do a public or statutory duty.
Certiorari: To be certified
• To squash the order already passed by an inferior court, tribunal or quasi-
judicial authority.
Prohibition: Stay order
• To prohibit an inferior court from continuing the proceedings in a particular
case where it has no jurisdiction to try.
Quo Warranto: What is your authority or By what status?
• To restrain a person from holding a public office which he is not entitled

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY (PART IV, Articles 36-51)
The Directive Principles are the needs of the community. DPSP was borrowed from
Irish Constitution. These are the recommendations to the state in Legislative,

Executive and Administrative matters. DPSP embody the concept of a welfare state.
The idea of the principles is that realizing the high ideals of Justice, liberty, equality
and Fraternity as outlined in the Preamble.
• Article 39: The Right to adequate means of livelihood for all citizens, equal
Pay for equal work for both men and women.
• Article 40: To organize Village Panchayats.
• Article 41: Right to work, Public Assistance in the event of unemployment.
• Article 42: The provision for just and humane conditions of work and
maternity leave.
• Article 43: Living wage for workers.
• Article 44: Uniform Civil Code for the whole country.
• Article 45: Provision for early childhood care and education to children below
the age of 6 years.
• Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other backward classes.
• Article 47: To prohibit the consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs. It is
the duty of the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living
to improve public health.
• Article 48: To protect the environment and to safeguard the forests and
wildlife of the country.
• Added for 42nd Amendment , 1978
• Article 38 (1) : The State shall in particular, strive to minimise the inequalities
in income and endeavour to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and
opportunities, not only among individuals but also amongst groups of people
residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations.
• Directive Principles Mentioned in Other Parts

• Article 350(a) : It will be the duty of the officers of concerned states to provide
primary education in mother tongue to the people of minority particularly to
the children of minorities’ class.
• Article 351: It will be the duty of the Union to spread Hindi language amongst
the people of India which will develop our cultural and social element.
• Article 355 : It will be under consideration to appoint the people of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
• Tribes in Union or State services.

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
(Part IV A, Article 51 A)
These were added on the recommendation of Swaran Singh Committee (1976). This
committee recommended for the inclusion of 8 fundamental duties, the amendment
included. There are10 fundamental duties. The Fundamental Duties are borrowed
from erstwhile USSR. The 10 Fundamental Duties were added to the Constitution in
the year 1976 through 42nd amendment.
The 11th Fundamental Duty was added in the year 2002 through the 86th
amendment of the Indian Constitution.
THE 11 FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

These duties are laid down in the Article 51A.
1. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and National Anthem
2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom.
3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
4. To defend the country and render national service when called upon so
5. To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional
diversities to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.

6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
7. To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers
and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures
8. To develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform
9. To safeguard public property and abjure violence.
10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity,
so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and
achievement.
11. Every parent or guardian is to provide opportunities for education to his/her
child or ward between the age of 6 and 14.

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HIGHER EDUCATION

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

believed that knowledge is the real power in the world.

• Four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda).

• Six Vedangas (Shiksha , Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas , Jyotisha).

o Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda.

o Architecture (Sthapatyaveda), associated with the RigVeda.

o Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the

o Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Atharvaveda.

Brahmanas are prose commentaries on Vedas with detailed observations on

prayers and ceremonies

• One hundred and eight Upanishads

• Six systems of philosophy, Bhagavat Gita and three Smritis

1. Oral (sruti) - what is heard &

2. Chintan (smriti) - what is remembered.

education, knowledge was conserved and transmitted to the oncoming generation.

of deliberation and Reflection on the topic.

It means (Meditation) by who is truth is realised and attended. It was considered in

indispensable for the realisation of Supreme reality.

compulsory in Gurukul system. There were of two types of Brahmacharis who

attended such Gurukulama, they were:

• Upakurvana Brahmachari: who remains a student for a limited time period

after which he marries and becomes a householder and

• Naishtika Brahmachari who remains a student and celibate throughout life

dedicated to the pursuit of learning.

Gurukulas: It was the dwelling houses of gurus situated in natural surroundings

supervision of their Guru.

return for education he received in a Gurukula or Ashram. Access to good education

according to his financial position in the society.

Parishads (Academies): Parishads were bigger educational institutions where several

teachers used to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college

for deliberations upon philosophical problems.

number and gradually these institutions became permanent centres of imparting

Sammelans (Conferences): In that age-Sammelan literally means getting together for

a particular purpose. In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at one

king. Scholars were appropriately rewarded.

Besides these regular schools of instructions, there were special institutions of

Varna- Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.

Vedas constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and is the

oldest scriptures of Hinduism.

the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.

four Samhitas (Collections).

Name of the Veda Key Features of the Veda

Rig Veda It is the earliest form of Veda

Samaveda The earliest reference for singing

Yajurveda It is also called the book of prayers

Atharvaveda The book of magic and charms

Four Vedas in detail:

collection of 10 books called ‘Mandalas.’ It is the collection of Vedic Sanskrit

hymns along with associated commentaries. The text is layered consisting of

one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language.

subcontinent, most likely between c. 1500 and 1200 BC

It is important to note that the Samhita of the Samaveda is an independent collection

– ‘Melody is called Saman.

3. Yajurveda: The Yajurveda (yajurveda, from yajus meaning

for worship rituals. An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual-offering

borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.

4. Atharvaveda: The Atharva Veda is the "knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the