Environmental Science (EV10003)

Water Pollution - 2

Sudha Goel
Dept. of Civil Eng., IITKgp
Kharagpur 721 302

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 Contents

 Water use: quantity and quality

 Sources of water pollution; Classification of water pollutants;
Overview of water pollution mitigation measures
 Overview of water and wastewater treatment plants; Potable
water quality requirements (IS 10500)
 Applicable wastewater discharge standards (new standards by the
National Green Tribunal/CPCB)
 Typical flow schemes for sewage treatment plant
 Water quality index
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 Single point discharge
of wastewater at t = 0

Masters and Ela, 2012

 Mohanta and Goel, 2016

6.00

Multiple point 5.00

NH4+ Nitrite Nitrate

and non-point
Concentration, mg/L

4.00
discharges of
3.00
wastewater
along the river 2.00

1.00

0.00 4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Masters and Ela, 2012 Distance, km
 Table 1 : Use based classification of surface waters in India
Class of
Designated-Best-Use water Criteria
Drinking Water Source without A 1. Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less
conventional treatment but after
disinfection 2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
3. Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C 2mg/l or less
Outdoor bathing (Organised) B 1. Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 500 or less

2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5

3. Dissolved Oxygen 5mg/l or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C 3mg/l or less
Drinking water source after C 1. Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 5000 or less
conventional treatment and
disinfection 2. pH between 6 to 9
3. Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more
4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C 3mg/l or less
Propagation of Wild life and D 1. pH between 6.5 to 8.5
Fisheries 2. Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more
3. Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less
Irrigation, Industrial Cooling, E 1. pH between 6.0 to 8.5
Controlled Waste disposal 2. Electrical Conductivity at 25°C micro mhos/cm Max.2250
3. Sodium absorption Ratio Max. 26
4. Boron Max. 2mg/l
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CPCB
River Ganga: BOD and DO levels from Gangotri to Diamond Harbor
(CPCB, 2011; Sharma and Goel, 2018)

BOD ≤ 3 mg/L for Class B

DO ≥ 6 mg/L for Class A

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 7

Masters and Ela, 2012

 Problem
A river with a flow rate of 1000 cumecs (m3/sec) has a BOD of 10 mg/L and
receives multiple discharges of wastewater from both sides. One wastewater
discharge has a flow rate of 10 cumec and a BOD of 300 mg/L (it is untreated
sewage) while the other discharge from the opposite bank is 50 cumecs and
200 mg/L of BOD (wastewater after primary settling). Calculate the BOD
downstream of the two discharges. The DO levels in the river upstream of the
wastewater discharges is 5 mg/L and wastewaters have zero DO. Calculate the
DO levels downstream of the two discharges.
Wastewater discharges:
Initial flow of the river,Qi=1000m3/s Q1=10m3/s Q2=50m3/s
Initial BOD of river, BODi=10mg/L BOD1=300mg/L BOD2=200mg/L
Initial DO of river, DOi=5mg/L DO1=0mg/L DO2=0mg/L

Flow rate of the river downstream of the discharges, Qf=Qi+Q1+Q2= 1060 m3/s
BOD of the river downstream of the discharges, BODf=[∑BODj.Qj]/Qf = 21.70 mg/L
DO of the river downstream of the discharges, DOf=[∑DOj.Qj]/Qf = 4.72 mg/L

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 Dissolved oxygen sag curve

Oxygen inputs (gains) into water – oxygenation or aeration or reaeration: from the
atmosphere and photosynthesis (aquatic plants and algae)
Oxygen outputs (losses) from water - deoxygenation: bacterial degradation of
organic matter, respiration by phytoplankton
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Goel (2019) Water and Wastewater Engineering, Cambridge University Press, Delhi.
 Dissolved oxygen sag curve
D = DO Deficit in water
D = DOs - DO

10
Goel (2019) Water and Wastewater Engineering, Cambridge University Press, Delhi.
 Dissolved oxygen sag curve

11
Goel (2019) Water and Wastewater Engineering, Cambridge University Press, Delhi.
 12
Masters and Ela, 2012
 Self-purification capacity of a river

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Masters and Ela, 2012
 Rate constants
Theta (kd) = 1.047
Theta (kr) = 1.024

Masters and Ela, 2012

 15

Masters and Ela, 2012

 Dissolved oxygen sag curve
Factors affecting the DOsag curve
• Seasonal changes: During summer, due to decrease in water level, wastewater
concentration increases, resulting in higher BOD concentration in the river or stream,
thereby bringing down DO levels.
• Temperature effect: With an increase in temperature, wastewater decomposition is
faster. Thus, rate of deoxygenation increases and DO level decreases. The critical time is
achieved sooner in summer compared to winter due to difference in water
temperature.
• Effect of photosynthesis: Photosynthetic organisms like algae and aquatic plants add
DO during the daytime, and consume DO during night time due to respiration.
• Nitrification: Another secondary dip in DO sag curve is observed downstream of the
discharge point due to conversion of organic nitrogen and ammonia to nitrites and
nitrates.
• Wastewater concentration: As wastewater concentration increases, the amount of
DO consumed also increases leading to greater depletion in DO levels.
16
Goel (2019) Water and Wastewater Engineering, Cambridge University Press, Delhi.
 Masters and Ela, 2012

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Effluent discharge standard for BOD3 to an inland river is 30 mg/L. Determine the
ultimate CBOD (L0) that can be discharged assuming kd = 0.4 1/d and kr = 0.3 1/d. Using
this Lo value, DO saturation = 8 mg/L and an initial DO deficit of 2 mg/L, calculate the
minimum DO and the distance at which it occurs. Assume river velocity = 10 km/h. Plot
the DO sag curve for these conditions and determine the time or distance taken for the
river to recover completely. What stretch of the river will be completely anaerobic?

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DO conc., mg/L

5
DO conc., mg/L

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

-5

-10

-15
time, days

Solution
Time to reach minimum DO, tc = 2.76 days
Distance to reach minimum DO, xc = 662.7 km
Stretch of the river that is completely anaerobic = 100.8 to 2028 km
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 Eutrophication

• Eutrophication: excessive growth of phytoplankton and plants due

to high nutrient concentrations in a water body
• Eutrophication is a natural aging process that all lakes (and
reservoirs) undergo
• Cultural eutrophication  accelerated eutrophication of natural
water bodies due to human activities
• All lakes accumulate silt and organic matter  increase in nutrient
levels  increase in primary productivity  increase in turbidity
due to microbial growth (algae and bacteria)
• Oligotrophic lakes  low nutrient levels  low primary productivity

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 Eutrophication

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 Water quality impacts associated with
eutrophication
• Noxious algal growth: leads to increase in scum, exudates that may be
toxic, color, taste and odor, turbidity, and NOM levels
• NOM leads to disinfection by-product formation during disinfection
with halogenated compounds like chlorine
• Creates an anaerobic zone below the algal layer
Bacterial growth and organic decomposition:
 low pH and DO levels
 loss of habitat for fish and fish food
• Excessive macrophyte (weeds) growth: loss of open water
• Excessive organic matter production due to algal and bacterial growth
(smothers eggs and bugs)
• Cyanobacteria are inedible by some zooplankton (reduced food chain
efficiency)
• Toxic effects of algal blooms
• "Toxic" gases (ammonia, H2S) in bottom water (more loss of fish
habitat) 21
 Water use and reuse
Well or
surface Water treatment Distribution
water plant network
intake

Recycle
Reuse for Wastewater Sewer system
Consumer
irrigation treatment plant

Discharge to
land, surface
water or sea
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 Conventional drinking water treatment

 Design or primary objectives are removal of

 Microbial pathogens (coliforms) – health concerns
 Particles (color and turbidity) – health and aesthetic concerns
 Total dissolved solids removal (hard waters) - health and aesthetic
concerns
 Secondary objectives are removal of dissolved pollutants – health concerns
(based on IS:10500)
 General: Odor, taste, pH
 Inorganic
 Hardness, Alkalinity, Fe, Cl, F, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn, SO42-, NO3-, Hg, Cd, Se,
As, CN-, Pb, Zn, Cr(VI), Al, B, radioactive materials, residual free
chlorine, TDS
 Organic
 Pesticides, Oils, PAHs, Anionic detergents, Phenols
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 Indian Standards for drinking water
(IS 10500: 2012)

 Coliforms: 0/100 mL
 Fecal coliforms: 0/100 mL desirable
 Virus: min 0.5 mg/L free chlorine residual for 1 h is expected to
inactivate all viruses even in polluted waters
 Residual free chlorine at a minimum of 0.2 mg/L or 1 mg/L when no
alternative source is available
 Other biological contaminants are regulated
 Giardia and Cryptosporidium should be absent when 10 L of water
are tested

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 Conventional drinking water treatment

 Groundwater: In comparison to surface waters

 Tends to have lower dissolved oxygen compared to surface waters
 Generally, higher water quality than surface waters
 Can have very little microbial contamination especially if GW is from a
deep aquifer
 Much higher concentrations of inorganic compounds (or ions)
 Anions: chlorides, carbonates, sulfates (sulfides), bromides, nitrates,
fluorides
 Cations: Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, …..(Hardness is the conc of all multivalent
cations – mainly Ca and Mg in GW)
 Surface waters
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 High turbidity and microbial concentrations
 Differences between GW (mainly deep aquifers) and
SW (or shallow GWs)

Water quality parameter Deep Ground water Surface water

Dissolved oxygen Lower Higher
Other gases like carbon Higher Lower
dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide
Microbes Lower Higher
Turbidity Lower Higher
Cations like Ca, Mg, Fe, Higher Lower
Mn
Anions like F, As, etc Higher Lower
Total dissolved solids Generally higher Lower

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 Water intake or infiltration well

Screening or pre-sedimentation tank: Turbidity, TSS

removal

Coagulation and flocculation: Turbidity, colloid

removal

TURBID
Settling tank: floc removal
SURFACE
WATER
Filtration: Turbidity, TSS, floc removal

Disinfection and storage: Pathogen removal

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 HARD GROUNDWATER
Aeration
Low DO levels, presence of other gases, precipitation of minerals like Fe,
As, Mn due to oxidation

Softening
Removal of calcium and magnesium hardness

Filtration
Turbidity, TSS, colloid removal, chlorine to prevent biological growth on filter
media

Disinfection and storage: pathogens are destroyed; provides contact time

for disinfection apart from water storage
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 Aeration Clariflocculation
IIT Kharagpur Water Works
Rapid sand
Sludge Drying beds Distribution network filtration

Backwash water
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 Conventional municipal wastewater treatment
Sewage

Screening Biogas

Wastewater Primary Sludge

Sedimentation

Aerobic treatment Anaerobic digestion

• Activated Sludge process (ASP)
• Trickling filters, etc.
Liquid Dewatering of
sludge
Secondary Sludge
Clarification Solids
Landfill/
Discharge incineration
 Coarse
inclined
screens
(Bhadreswar
Treatment Plant,
2010)

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 Pune Wastewater Treatment
Plant, 2014

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 Surface aeration (wastewater)

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http://www.wastewater-treatment-plants.com/surface-aerators.html
 Floating aerators (wastewater)

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http://www.wastewater-treatment-plants.com/surface-aerators.html
Conventional municipal wastewater treatment:
Anaerobic digestion

DC Water and Sewer Authority

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 Wastewater parameters of importance and their
average values in untreated domestic wastewater

 BOD5 = 100 to 300 mg/L

 COD = 250 – 1000 mg/L
 Solids:
 Total solids = TSS + TDS
 Suspended solids (TSS) = 100 to 350 mg/L
 Total dissolved solids (TDS) = 200 to 1000 mg/L
 TKN: organic N and ammonia species = 20 to 80 mg/L
 Total phosphorus = 5 to 20 mg/L

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 National Green Tribunal

 The National Green Tribunal was established on 18.10.2010 under the

National Green Tribunal Act 2010
 Goal: effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to
environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural
resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to
environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons
and property and for matters connected.
 Specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise and not bound
by the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but guided by principles of natural
justice.
 The Tribunal’s endeavor for disposal of applications or appeals finally
within 6 months of filing of the same.
 New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal and Bhopal,
Pune, Kolkata and Chennai shall be the other 4 places of sitting of the
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Tribunal.
 Standards for wastewater discharges, India (CPCB)
S. No. Parameter Inland surface water Public Land for Marine/coastalareas
sewers irrigation
. 2 3 . .
. . (a) (b) (c) (d)
1 Colour and odour See 6 of Annexure-1I See 6 of See 6 of Annexure-1I
Annexure-1I
2 Suspended solids mg/l, max. 100 600 200 (a) For process waste water
(b) For cooling water effluent 10 per
cent above total suspended matter
of influent.
3 Particle size of suspended shall pass 850 micron - - (a) Floatable solids, solidsmax. 3
solids IS Sieve mm
(b) Settleable solids, max 856
microns
4 pH value 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0
5 Temperature Shall not exceed 5oC Shall not exceed 5oCabove the
above the receiving receiving water temperature
water temperature
6 Oil and grease, mg/l max, 10 20 10 20
7 Total residual chlorine, mg/l 1 - - 1
max
8 Ammonical nitrogen (as 50 50 - 50
N),mg/l, max.
9 Total kjeldahl nitrogen (as 100 - - 100
N);mg/l, max. mg/l, max.
10 Free ammonia (as NH3), 5 - - 5
mg/l,max.
11 Biochemical oxygen demand 30 350 100 100
(3 days at 27oC), mg/l, max.

12 Chemical oxygen demand, 250 - - 250

mg/l, max.
 Revised Sewage discharge standards (NGT Order, 2018)
Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) - (Applicable to all modes of disposal)
1 2 3 4
Mega and
Metropolitan Deep Marine
cities Class I cities Others outfalls
pH 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD) 10 20 30 30
Total Suspended Solids
(TSS) 20 30 50 50
Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) 50 100 150 150
Nitrogen-Total 10 15 - -
Phosphorus-Total 1 1 1 -
Fecal Coliforms (MPN/100 mL)
Desirable 100 230 1000 1000
Permissible 230 1000 10000 10000
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 Classification of cities in India
Class Population Size No.of UAs/Towns No.of UAs/Towns
2001 2011
Metropolitan cities Out of above, more 35 53
than 10,00,000
Class I 1,00,000 above 393 465

All classes 5161 7935

i Statutory Towns 3799 4041

Ii Census Towns 1362 3894

•All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area
committee, etc. known as Statutory Town. All other places which satisfied the following criteria
known as Census Town: A minimum population of 5,000; At least 75 per cent of the male
main workers engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; A density of population of at least 400 per
sq. Km. The number of metropolitan cities having
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million plus population has increased from
35 to 53 as per 2011 census.
• https://mohua.gov.in/cms/number-of-cities--towns-by-city-size-class.php
 Classification of cities in India

1. Class 1 towns with more than 1, 00,000 population,

2. Class II towns with 50,000 to 99,999 population,
3. Class III towns with 20,000 to 49,999 population,
4. Class IV towns with 10,000 to 19,999 population,
5. Class V towns with 5000 to 9,999 population
6. Class VI towns with less than 5,000 population.

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 Water Quality Index

 Water quality indices (WQI) provide a uniform scale for comparison of water
quality in any part of the world with a single value since it is difficult to compare
several water quality parameters for different water sources at the same time.
 WQI can be used to compare water quality spatially as well as temporally.
 Several water quality indices are available in the literature.
 Earliest one is by Horton (1965) followed by the USA-National Sanitation
Foundation (NSF) in 1970.
 The NSF-WQI was based on the Delphi approach where a panel of 142 experts
from all over the United States with expertise in various aspects of water quality
management provided a list of the most important water quality parameters and
their relationship with water quality (Canter 1999).
 Charts correlating the value of each water quality parameter with a quality index
were generated by averaging the responses of experts and are available in the
same text or on various websites. 43
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Goel, 2019
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Goel, 2019
Goel, 2019 46
 END
Of
Part 2
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