34

HISTORY OF ANCIENT IND,

3.1 LITERARY SOURCES
I. RELIGIOUS LITERATURE-The Brahaman Granth
The Brahamanas can be divided into two categories--Shrutiand Smriti. The
:the four Vedas, the Brahmanas and the Upnishdas; while the Epics, the Smritis Shrutis include
are called the Smriti Literature. and the Puranas
) THE VEDAS: The word Veda' is derived from the
thus the word veda' means storehouse of knowledge. The Sanskrit root vid' (to know) and
Vedas are four in
Rigveda is the oldest and the most important from historical point of view. Rik'number and the
composed on the basis of meters and grammar. The Rigveda throws light on the early means hymns
of the Aryans, their spread, the main tribes of the period, settlements
their internal and external clashes and
battles,their administrative set up, the democratic
the prominent dynasties or tribes (Puru, Krivi, Anu, institutions-Sabha and Samiti, duties of the King.
Yadu, Bharat, Matsya etc.), their social and
religious life and customs etc. The Rigveda has 10 chapters and
to the battle oftwokings with King Sudas. The 1028 Suktas. There is a reference
Samaveda, the Yajurveda and the
composed later on. Sam' means song. It means hymns which are meant to beAtharvaveda were
of 'soma' sacrifice. 75 hymns of Samveda are sung at the time
The Yajurveda lays down the procedure for the
original, the remaining hymns belongto the Rigveda.
composed by Sage Atharva. It has 40 chapters. Itperformance
of sacrifices. The Atharvaveda was
contains information about Ayurvedic system of
medicine, magic and charms, evil spirits and religious and social life of thepeople. these three Vedas
give us information about the religious, social, economic and political life of later Vedic Aryans.
These Vedas provide us information regarding the spread of
Aryans in Aryavarta, Ashram system
and caste system. Primarily, these are scriptures, stillthey provide us very valuable information about
the social, religious, economic and political life of the
(ii) THE BRAHMAN GRANTH:The word Aryans.
Brahaman means
propounded the theory of the Yajnas' came to be called the "Brahmanas".Yajna'. The works, that
They are commentaries
on the various hymns in the Vedas to which they are
appended.
The Aranyaka : The word Aranyaka means forest or jungle.
composed in the forests as a result of the meditation of the hermits andThose sages
books which were
Aranyakas. They are seven in number. They are the basis of the Upanishads. came be called
to
The Upanishadas : The word "up' means near and 'nishad' means to
the feet of the gurus, the disciples acquired knowledge about soul, God, sit. While sitting at
the transmigration of soul. The books that contain such type of creation of the Universe and
They are the storehouse of Indian philosophy. The main Upnishadas knowledge are called Upnishadas.
Mandukya, Mundak, Aitreya and Taitriya etc. are-Ish, Kain, Katho, Prashan.
The Sutras : The Sutras are divided into three parts :
(i) Kalap Sutra (Description of Vedic Yajnas)
(ii)The Grih Sutra (Rituals related to the family life)
(iii) The Dharam Sutra (They are related to the social,
Vedangas : The Vedangas helped in comprehending thepolitical and civil laws)
Vedas. They are six in number (0)
Shiksha, (ii) Kalpa, (iii)Vyakaran, (iv) Nirukta, (v) Chhand (Meter), (vi) Jyotish (astrology).
(iüi)THE SMRITIS:The Smritis were composed by
Manu, Vishnu, Narad, Yagyavalky
Brihaspati and Prashar. They throw light on the social, political and religious
second century A.D. to 7th century A.D. life of the people trou
 HHISTORY
3. SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN
difficulties while writing its history
The scholars of ancient Indian history have to face many
ndian, rigid caste system.
These difficulties are due to the lack of historical interest among the
changes and foreign
prevalence of several eras, destruction of historical sources due to climatic
difficulties
invasions. Lack of politicalunity and mixture of history with mythology. Despite these
travellers, coins.
the scholars, with the help of religious and secular literature, accounts of foreign
have
inscriptions, buldings, monuments, pottery, weapons, tools, idols, paintings, seals and skeletons
succeeded to a great extent in reconstructing the history of the period.
The historical sources can be classified into two categoriesi) Literary sources and (
Archaeological sources. Again, the literary sources can be classified into three categories
Religious literature; Secular literature and Accounts of foreign travellers. The religious literatur
consists of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain scriptures and secular literature consists of Biographico
literature,chronicles, dramas and folk literature. The accounts of foreign travellers consist of thk
Greek, the Chinese, the Tibetan and the Muslim travellers, who visited India from time to time. Coits
Incriptions,idols,monuments, pottery, paintings, seals and skeltons etc. come under the category°
Archaeological sources.
SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
Paintings
Scals 33
Folk
Lores/Literatbre
Idots
Sources
Archacological
Pottery
Foreign
Inscriptions
Romantic
Literature
Coins
Inscriptiors
Monuments
Personal
Inscriptions
HISTORY
Indian
Inscriptions Biographical
INDIAN Literature
Pali
Vamsas
(Buddhist)
Grccks.
Chincse,
'Tibetans
ANCIENT Account
ofIorcigncrs
&Muslim
Travellers Official
Inscipritons
Chronicles
or
historical
OF Sangam
Literaturc
SOURES Mahabharata
The Literature
Secuiar
Literature Literature (Hindu)
Puranas
Jain
Epics
Non-Hindu Literature
LiteratureBuddhist The
Ramayana
Law
Religious
Literature
Hindu
Literature Samriti
Brahaman
granths
Sourccs
Litcrary
Lpnishads
& Polity
Shruti Vedas.
 34 HISTORY OF ANCIENT IND

3.1 LITERARY SOURCES

1. RELIGIOUS LITERATURE--The Brahaman Granth
The Brahamanas can bedivided into two categories--Shruti and Smriti. The Shrutis include
:the four Vedas, the Brahmanas and the Upnishdas; whilethe Epics, the Smritis and the Puranas
are called the Smriti Literature.
() THE VEDAS: The word Veda' is derived from the Sanskrit root vid' (to know) and
thus the word veda' means storehouse of knowledge. The Vedas are four in number and the
Rigveda is the oldest and the most important from historical point of view. Rik' means hymns
composedon the basis of meters and grammar. The Rigveda throws light on the early settlements
of the Aryans, their spread, the main tribes of the period, their internal and external clashes and
battles, their administrative set up, the democratic institutions-Sabha and Samiti, duties of the King,
the prominent dynasties or tribes (Puru, Krivi, Anu, Yadu, Bharat, Matsya etc.), their social and
religious life and customs etc. The Rigveda has 10 chapters and 1028 Suktas. There is a
to the battle of two kings with King Sudas.The Samaveda, the Yajurveda and reference
the
composed later on. Sam' means song. It means hymns which are meant to beAtharvaveda were
sung at the time
of 'soma' sacrifice.75 hymns of Samveda are original, the
The Yajurveda lays down the procedure for the remaining hymns belong to the Rigveda.
performance of sacrifices. The Atharvaveda was
composed by Sage Atharva. It has 40 chapters. It contains information about Ayurvedic
system of
medicine, magic and charms, evilspirits and religious and social life ofthe people. these three
give us information about the religious, social, economic and Vedas
These Vedas provide us information regarding the spread of political life of later Vedic Aryans.
Aryans
and caste system. Primarily, these are scriptures, still they provide us in Aryavarta, Ashram system
the social, religious, economic and political life of the very valuable information about
(iü) THE BRAHMAN GRANTH:The word Aryans.
propounded the theory of the Yajnas' came to be called Brahaman means Yajna. The works, that
on the various hymns in the Vedas to which they are the "Brahmanas". They are commentaries
The Aranyaka : The word Aranyaka means forest appended.
or jungle. Those books which were
composed in the forests as a result of the meditation of the hermits
Aranyakas. They are seven in number. They are the basis of the and sages came to be called
The Upanishadas : The word "up' means near and Upanishads.
the feet of thegurus, the disciples acquired 'nishad' means to sit. While sitting at
the transmigration of soul. The books that knowledge about soul, God, creation of the Universe and
contain
They are the storehouse of Indian philosophy. The main such type uf knowledge are called Upnishadas.
Mandukya, Mundak, Aitreya and Taitriya ete. Upnishadas are-Ish, Kain, Katho, Prashan.
The Sutras : The Sutras are divided into
(i) Kalap Sutra (Description of Vedic three parts :
(ii) The Grih Sutra (Rituals Yajnas)
related
(iii) The Dharamn Sutra (They are to the family life)
Vedangas : The Vedangas helped inrelated the social,thepolitical and civil laws)
to
comprehending
Shiksha, (ii)Kalpa, (ii) Vyakaran, (iv) Nirukta, (v)
Vedas. They are six in number ()
(iii)THE SMRITIS:The Smritis were Chhand (Meter), (vi) Jyotish (astrology).
composed
Brihaspati and Prashar. They throw light on the social, by Manu, Vishnu, Narad, Yagyavalky
second century A.D. to 7th century A.D. political and religious life of the people iro
 MAJOR SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 35

I. The Ramayana
The Ramayana was composed by Maharishi Valmnikiji. It contains about 24000 verses. It
depicts the life story of Lord Rama in very beautiful words. It describes the war between Rama
and Ravna. Itportrays the character of Lord Rama as an ideal ruler, an idealson, ideal brother, ideal
wife, ideal friend and an ideal foe.
2. The Mahabharta
The Mahabharta was composed by Sage Veda Vyasa. It narrates the 18 day long battle at
Kurukshetrabetween the Kauravas the Pandavas of Puru dynasty. The Pandavas ultimately came
out victorious. The rulers of Panchala, Kashi, Kosala, Magadha, Matsya, Chedi and Mathura fought
in favour of the Pandavas, while the Kings of Kamboj,Yavan, Shaka, Madra, Kakeya, Sindhu, Prag
Jyotish, China, Kirat,Andhra, Avanti and few rulers of ti:e South fought in favour of the Kauravas.
Before the battle started Lord Krishna gave a great sermon of 'Geeta' to Arjuna. The philosophy
of Karma has been propounded in the 'Bhagvad Geeta'.
Though the Ramayana and the Mahabharta are primarily scriptures, we get useful information
regarding the polity, prominent dynasties, government officials, code of war, weapons, religious and
cultural traditions,Economic life, Practical forms of Indian philosophy during the Epic Age.
3. The Puranas
The word Purana' means old, ancient or primitive. They are 18 in number. But from the
historical point of view, the Bhavishya Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana, Vishnu Purana,
Brabmand Purana and Bhagwat Purana are important. The fifth part of the Puranas is important
from the historical pointof view. Each Purana is divided into Five Sections- Sarga(Creation of
Universe), Pratisarga (Recreation of the universe after deluge), Vansha (the genealogy of gods and
goddesses), Manvantar (an account of Mahayugas) and Vanshanucharit (History of Royal
dynasties). The Puranas throw light on the different forms of Hinduism, legends of gods and
goddesses, rituals,festivals and customs etc. We get useful information about the royal dynasties
such as; Suryavanshi; Chandravanshi, Royal dynasties of Magadha; the Purus of Hastinapur, Ikshvakus
of Koshala, the Nandas, the Kushanas, the Maurayas, the Andhras, Sishunaga dynasty and the
Guptas, Such type of useful information is not available anywhere else. Infact, the Puranas are the
most valuable literary source intervening the period between the Epics and the Rise of the Magadhan
Empire. They also provide us valuable Geographical information, such as; the location of important
towns, their distance from one another, the rivers and Mountains etc.
But the Puranas have sone short-comings as well. The dates and geneologies do not coincide
with one another. Some events have been mere fancies or exaggeration. The information contained
in the Puranas must be confirmed with other sources.
4. Buddhist Literature
The Tri-Pitakas are the most iumportant Buddhist scriptures. They were writen in Pali
language. Pitak means basket, so Tri-Pitakas mean three baskets of Buddhist knowledge. The
Pitakas are (i) Vmey Pitak--a commentary upon the Life of monks and organisation of Buddhist
 36 HISTORY OF ANCIENT IND.

Sangh. (i) Suta Pitak a commentary upon Buddhist principles.(ii) Abhidham Pitak--Itis.
analysis of Buddhist philosophy, The Iri-Pitakas also throw light on the contemporary socicty. The
are S40 Jatakas relatedwith the carlier births of Lord Buddha. They give us information abo
Social. Economic and Political life of the third century B.C. Deepvansha and Mahavansh,
Buddhist Seriptures were written in Ceylon in Pali language, during 4th and 7th century A)
respectivcly. These twoworks throw light on the Indo-Cylonese rclations and growth of Buddhis
in Sri Lanha. 'Lalit Vistar' is a biographical sketch of Lord Buddha. Divyadaan and "Manju Sr
Mulkalpa' were composed in Sanskrit. The former tells us about Ashoka and his successors ang
the latter one tells us about the political events from the Mauryas to King Harsha.
5. Jain Literature
The important Jain Scriptures are-12 Angas, 12 Up-Angas, 10 Prakaran, 6 Chhed Sutra
Nandi Sutra, AnuYoga Sutra,and Mula Sutra etc. The Jain work 'Parishishat Parva' written b:
Hem Chander is the most important of all. It was written in 12th century A.D. Bhadra Bahu Charit
throws light on the life of Chandra Gupta Maurya.
II. SECULAR LITERATURE

Theancient Indians wrote some secular lierature. The subjects of their works were Grammar:
History, Politics, Biographies of Kings, imaginative and gossip literature. These works throw ar
ample(i))light on the contemporary political, social, cultural and economic life of the people.
Works on Grammar : Panini's Ashtadhyayi' contains references to certain Kings and a

republican states. ´Mahabhashya' by Patanjali isa commentary upon Sanskrit Grammar. It gives us
information about the reign of Pushyamitra Shunga.
(ii) Historical literature and Biographies : Banabhatt, the poet laureate of Kirg
Harshavardhan, wrote Harshcharit, which portrays the life and achievements of King Harshavardhan
This work can be compared to Akbarnama. Kalhan wrote Raj Trangini, which depicts the histor
te
of 12th century A.D. of Kashmir. According to R.C. Majumdar, It is the only work in ancien
p
Indian literature that may be regarded as an historical text in the true sense of the word."
It giveschronological account of the kings of Kashmir. Several other prominent biographies compose:
by the scholars are- Sandhyakar Nandi's Ramcharit', Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya's Vikramank
Dev Charit. Someshwar's Rasmala and Kirti Kaumudi, Rajshekhar's
PrabandhkOsh, Vakpati a
Gaudvaho, Hemchandra's Kumarpal Charit, Jaychandra's Hamir Kavya; Jayanak's Prithv a
Raj Vijay', Padam Gupta's Navasahsank Charit, Ballal's Bhoj Prabandh, Chand Bardai'sPrith
Raj Raso. Gargi Samhita gives an account of Muslim (Yavan) invasion, while 'Chachnam! fo
throws light on the ancient history of Sindh. Mudrarakshas' by Vishakhdatta telis us about the ta
of the Nandas and the rise of the Mauryas. C
(iii) Pure Literature : Poetry, Drama and Romantic Literature :
Classical Sanskr
literature provides us alot of historical informationof the period,
tells us about Shunga dynasty and 'Abhigyan Shakuntalam' provides Malvikagnimitram by Kalid in S

us information about t
social and religious life of the contemporary period. King Harshvardhan was him
He wrote three plays; Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda. These selfa great wri tr
royal conspiracies of the period, Dandi's Dashkumar Charit and plays throw light on Y
Ayanti Sundri Kau
Bhash's 'Swapanvasvadatta' and 'Pratigya-Yogandharayan' are also important from historical
of view.
 MAJOR SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
37

(iv) Arthashastra: Arthashastra was written by Kautilya, the Prime Minister of

Chandragupta Maurya. It is agreat treatise on diplomacy. It is compared with Machiavelli's The
Prince'. The Arthashastra gives a detailed account of Mauryan administration, law,
Espionage
systenm, statesmanship, cconomic setup, weaponry, modes of warfare, social andeconomic life of
the people., duties of state government, appoint1ments of ministers, development of means of irrigation,
government's eftorts to increase agricultural produce, various taxes levied by the king and the Penal
system.

M. SANGAM LITERATURE 3o B 3ob9lobcE -sbE J

The most informative source about the ancient history of South India is Sangam
was written in Tamil. From First century A.D. to fourth century A.D., there used toLiterature.
It
be literary
assemblies of Tamil poets, under the patronage of South Indian rulers. These assemblies were called
Sangam assemblies and the literature composed during these assemblies was called 'Sangam
Literature'. This literature tells us about the social,economic, religious and cultural life of the period.
V. ACCOUNTS OF FOREIGN TRAVELLERS

In ancient times, several Greek, Persian, Chinese, Tibetan and Muslim travellers came to India.
Some of them visited India from cultural and religious point of view, while others visited it as
ambassadors or accompanied the foreign invaders. On their return to their respective countries they
recorded the accounts of their visits, which is very useful from historical point of view.
(i) Persian and Greek travellers : The Persian travellers fall in three categories-before
Alexander, those who accompanied Alexander, and those who came during the Post--Alexander
period. The Persian rulers sent Skylax in 501 B.C. to know about the geographical condition of lndia
as they had heard that India was a prosperous state. Herodotus, a Greek scholar, wrote Histories'
towards the end of Sth century B:C. It.contains information about the North-Western frontier
province of India. The basis of his work was Persian sources. He says that the North-Western
Frontier province of India was the 20th 'Kshtrap (Province) of Darius's èmpire. Persian phýsician
Ctesias's account of India is not considered trustworthy. The prominent among those who accompanied
Alexander were Nearchus, an Admiral and Aristobulus, an old sailor. But their accounts are not
available. Some Greek and Persian scholars made their information as the basis of their works. The
accoúnts of Curtius, Diodorus, Strabo, Arrian. Plutarch and Ptolemy throw a lot of light onthe pre
Alexander and Post-Alexander period in India. These Greek scholars have used the term Sandrokottus,
for Chandagupta Maurya. Chandragupta Maurya had defeated 'Selecus' a successor of Alexander.
Later on they signed a treaty of friendship. Selecus sent Magesthenese as his ambassador to the
court of Chandragupta Maurya. He spent 5 years at Patliputra, and wrote Indiça'. This book
contained information about the king, his capital Patliputra, administration and contemporary social
set up, but unfortunately 'Indica' is not available at present. Several extracts of this book have been
incorporated by Arrian, Straboand Justin in their works. Magasthenese's account isnot considered
trustworthy because it is based upon hearsay. Still, it is an important source of information about the
Mauryas. Periplus of the Erythrean Sea by an unknown Greek scholar of 80 A.D. contains
Information about the Indian Ocean, sea routes and external trade.
38 HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA

(i) Chinese travellers : Fa-hien, Hicun-Tsang and It-sing were the prominent Buddhist
Seholars whovisited lndia during ancicnt times. They were Buddhist pilgrims. Their aim was to gain,
knowledge regarding Buddhism and cary Buddhist literature to China. Their accounts contain
intormation about Buddhism. We get some information about pol1tical, social, cconomic and religiou,
liteof people. Fa-hienvisited India during the reign of ChandraguptaI| Vikramadityaand he stayed
in lndiator 14years. But he does not mention the name of Chandragupta IIeven once. He make
a reterencc to two Buddhist monastries at Patliputra, Aslhoka's Palace, benevolent government an
safe travelling. He writes that the Indians were prosperous and vegetarian. There was mutual co
operation among the Hindus and the Buddhists. Hieun-Tsang was the second Chinese traveller wh
\isited India, duringthe reign of KingHarsha. He stayed in india for 16years. His information abou
India is contained in his work 'Su-yu-ki (Records of the Western World). He tells us that Hars!.a
was benevolent ruler and was a follower of Mahayana Buddhism. He gives a detailed account o
his administration. land revenue system, taxes, punishments, unsafe roads, severe punishment
department of records and the assemblies of Kannauj and Paryag. He gives us further information
about the dwelling places, Monastries, food and drinks, dress and ornaments. caste system and social
customs. High moral standards, Nalanda University and the rapid declineof Buddhism. The third
Buddhist traveller to visit India was It-sing. He came to India in the 7th century A.D. He stayed
for long at the Nalanda and Vikramshila universities. He has written a lot about the contemporary
social life. Besides them Sang-yun and He-ulli too visited India.
(iii) Tibetan Traveller : Taranath Lama was a famous Tibetan traveller. His work Histor
of Buddhism" gives us useful information about Buddhism. His works Tangyur and Kangyur ar
important from historical point of view.
(iv) Muslim Travellers : From early &th century A.D. to 11th century A.D. the Arab an
the Turk invaders made inroads to India.
The Arabs started writing about India. Suleiman came to India in the middle of the 8th centur
A.D. He gives a very useful information about the Palas and the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers. A
Masoodivisited India during 10th century A.D, His information regarding the Rashtrakuta rulers
very useful. Abuzayyed's account tells us about India's trade links with eastern countries. The mo
prominent of Muslim travellers was Al-beruni who visited India along with Mahmud of Gazni. !
knew Arabic and Sanskritvery well. His book "Tehkik-i-Hind' contains detailed information abo
political, social and religious life of the people. His book throws light upon thegeography, philosop
and astrology of his imes. His account is not trust worthy as it is based on books and not on
personal knowledge.
Marco-Polo from Italy visited Indiaduring the 13th century A.D. His information about So
India is also praise-worthy.
3.2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

Importance of Archaeological sources :

(i)Archaeology has contributed a lot to the history ofancient India. Inscriptions, coins, monum
old buildings, temples, monastries, weapons and tools, idols, paintings, pottery, seals, skeleton=
remains of excavations etc. help a lot inwriting the history of ancient India. The modern sch
 MAJORSOURCÉS OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORy 39

give more preference to archaeological sources than literary sources. Several reasons can be
ascribed to this view :
(i) the archaeological sources are more trustworthy than the literary sources,because sometimes
an author's work is written from a selfish motive and it becomes difficult to find outtruth from the
untrue. A courtier's account regarding his King will certainly be full of flattery.
() lhdue course of time,some alterations were made in the literary works. They are not found
in their original form.
(i) The author of aliterary work writes from his own point of view.As the Chinese travellers
hadcome to India to acquire knowledge about Buddhism, so what they saw andwrote was
altogether from the Buddhist point of view. Their aim was to highlight Buddhism. They had no
interest in the contemporary social, political and economic life of the people.
(iv) There is no literary source of Pre-historic period which could give us definite information
about the period. Thus we have to depend upon archaeological sources.
(v) In order to gather information about Bronze Age or Proto history, we have to depend upon
archaeological material, because it is difficult to comprehend the literary works of that period. We
have been unable to decipher the pictographic script on the seals of Indus Valley Civilization.
(vi) The archaeologicalsources help in testifying and authenticating the sources gathered from
other sources.
I. Coins : Coins help us to build up the history of the country in many ways:
(i) They give us the names of the kings who issued those coins.
(ii) Many a time, the information gathered from the coins can be used to corroborate the
evidence gathered from the other sources.
(ii) The location of coins helps us to determine the extent of the territory of a king.
(iv) The coins help us to fix the exact date of birth, accession and the death of a king
() The coins give us an idea about the economic prosperity and flourishing trade of that period.
(vi) The coins give us information about the religious faith of rulers.
(vii) The coins provide us information about metallurgy, sculpture and script of the period.
The earliest coins of India have only symbols and no legends. A large number of coins with
legends were issued by the Indo-Bactrian rulers who held their sway over the North-Western
Frontier Province and Panjab. The nanmes of the kings, gods, goddesses and the dates were inscribed
on these coins. This artistic excellence influenced the Indian coinage system. The coins give us
useful information about the Bactrians, Indo-Parthians, the Malvas, the Yaudhyas, the Satvahans of
useful
the South, the Mauryas and the Guptas. The coins of the Gupta period give us a lot of
information. A coin of Samudragupta carries the impression (image) of a horse and an epithet
Ashavamedha Prakramah, which indicates that he performed Ashavamedha sacrifice. On
On some
another coin, he has been shown playing upon a flute, which indicates his love for music.
coins, Chandragupta II has been depicted as killing a lion and riding a horse. This indicates that he
Lakshmi and Garuda. This
was as brave as a lion. The Gupta coins carry the images of Vishnu,
have found 3268
shows that the Gupta rulers were followes of Vaishnavism. The archaeologists Andhra Pradesh,
of
coins at Eran in Madhya Pradesh, 8000coins at Amravati and Guntur district
Kushanas at
277coins of Ikshvaku kings at Nagarjuna Konda of Ongole Taluka; 110 coins of
Vikramaditya
Azamgarh and 1821l coins of the Guptas at Bayana. A gold coin of Chandra Gupta
carries the epithet Chakra-Vikram.
40 HISTORY OF ANCIENT INOIA

.Inseriptions : The inscriptions on rocks, caves, pillars and copper plates provjde us with
useful material about the history of India. Some of the inscriptions are official while a few are
personal. Ashoka's Edicts tell us about his administration, his theory of Kingship. his sermons, the
Extentof his empire, language and script of his times, and art and architecture. His edicts have been
found at Shabbazgarhi, Mansehra, Ginar, Bairat, Maski, Jaugad, Sidhpur, Dhauli,Sarnath, Rupnaih
Sanchi, Topra, Meerut, Rampurva, LorriyaEraraj and Lorriya Nandangarh ctc. Histwo edicts are
in Kharoshti seript (Shahbaz Garhi and Mansehra) while remaining are in Brahmi script. Besides.
the Hathigunphaincription of Kharvela of Kalinga, Allahabad Iron Pillar Inscription ofSamudrayupta
Melraulli lron Pillar lnseription of Chandragupta Il, Bhitari stone inscription and Junagarh,rock
inseription of Skandagupta, Aihole inscription ofChalukya king Pulkesin II, Mandsore stone inscriptior.
of Kumar Gupta II, Nasik cave inscription of Balashri, Girnar inscription of Rudradaman and
Gwalior inscription of kingBhoja give us very valuable historical information about these rulers. Had
wenot found Samudragupta'sAllahabad Iron Pillar inscription, we would have remained ignorant
about his military exploits. In fact, we would have been deprived of the information of the achievements
of great monarch of India. Similarly, in the absence of Hathigumpha inscription we would not get
any information about the Kharvela king of Kalinga. Copper plates (Tamar-Patras) inscriptions give
us information about land grants and landrevenue system of the period. Writings on pillars, pedestals.
images and walls of temples belonging to the Vaishnav, the Shaiva the Buddhist and the Jaina sects
have been found. The inscriptions belonging to the Pallavas, the Cholas, the Rashtrakutas, the
Pandayas and the Chalukyas throw a good deal of light on the life and achievements of the rulers
belonging tothese dynasties.Some alien inscriptions also give us useful information,e.g. the Bogaz
koi inscription (Central Asia) makes reference to deities such as, Mitra, Varun and Indra. Clay slates
found in Egypt mention the names of Babylonian kings, which are identical with the names of Indo
Aryan and Persian rulers. That a Persian ruler captured the territory along the Indus, is mentioned
in the inscription of Persepolis and Bhi-stun.
II. Monuments and Buildings : The ancient monuments like buildings, pillars, temples.
palaces, stupas and chaityas give us a lot of useful information about art and architecture. Nagar
style of architecture was adopted for temples in North Indi, while Dravid style was used for temples
in South India. The monuments, temples and stupas give us information about the religious beliels
of the people, dress and ornaments, deities, modes of worship and help us in determining the
chronology of events. There are several temples and Buddhist stupas in South-Eastern Asian
countries which are closely related with the Indian culture. The prominent among these monuments
are-the Buddhist stupa of Borobudar in Java and Vishnu temple of Angkorvat in Cambodia
IV. Sculpture and Painting : Several figurines of terracota and bronze have been found
during the excavations at Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro. Similarly, a large number of idols of Hindu
deities, Lord Buddha, Lord Mahavira, Kings and Queens,dancing girls, animals, birds, plants and
flowrs have been found in temples and places of worship situated in different parts of India. Thess
objects tell us about the religious beliefs, deities, dress and ornaments and fine arts of the people
In ancient times, Gandhara school of art and Mathura school of art were very popular. The
Gandhara school practised Greek style, while its subject matter was Indian. Mathura school of at
practised purely Indian style. The Ajanta and Ellora caves are the finest specimen in the field o
painting. The painting of dying Princess in cave no. XVI is unique. Similarly, the paintingsof mothe
with her baby, Buddha's meeting with his wife Yashodhara and son Rahul, and hunting scenes art
look life-like
very beautiful. The pictures oftemples, satupas, deities, plants, flowers, birds and animals
MAJOR SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 41

V Remains and Excavations: The findings of cxcavations at various places-help a lot in

constructing the history of any ancient civilization. In 1921-22 with the excavations at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro world'soldest and most prosperous civilization of Indus Valley came to light. The
findings tell us about the dwellings, public halls, Pottery, toys, food and drinks, means of amusement,
social, economic, religious and political life of the people. As arestult of excavations at arious places,
we have recovered black and red ware, Oclhre coloured ware, painted grey ware, Northern Black
polished ware and Roaletted ware and idols of teracota and bronze throw light on the development
of civilization of aparticular period. The skeletons help us ir determining the race of the people. The
experiments conducted onthe basis of carbon-14 help in determining the date and time of ancient
civilizations.
Thus we can surmise, though we have insufficient historical material, as the ancient Indians
lacked historicalinterest and history was so curiously mixed with philosophy, myth and religion that
it was difficuit to find out the truth from the untrue. Still, the scholars have been able to construct
the history of ancient India on the basis of the available literary and archaeological sources. The gaps
will befilled as and when we get historical data about thêconcerned periods.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What do you know about Indian concept of History ? Did they not have historical sense ?
Ans. Hint : See No. 1.
2. What type of difficulties are faced by a student of history, when he takes up the job of
compiling ancient Indian history ?
Ans. Hint : See No. 2.
3. Study the Literary sources of Ancient Indian history.
Ans. Hint : See all parts of I, II, II& IV of 3.1.
4. Examine historical value of Archaeological Sources.
Ans. Hint : See 3.2.
Jainism throw on
5. What light does the religious literature of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Ancient Indian History ?
Ans. Hint : See part Iof3.1.
source of ancient Indian History.
6. Describe the importance of secular-literature as a
Ans. Hint : See Part I, II, III of 3.1. ancient India
constructionof history of
7. How does the accounts of Foreignershelp us in the
Ans. Hint : Part IV of 3.1.
History.
8. Briefly describe the sources of Ancient Indian
Ans. Hint : All parts of 3, 3.1, 3.2.
9. Writë short notes on the following: Inscriptions, (iv)Coins, (v)
(i) Hindu Literature, (ii) Buddhist and Jain Literature, (iii)
Accounts of Chinese travellers.
(iii) See part II of 3.2. (iv)
Ans.": Hint : ()) See part I of 3. 1. (i) See all parts of 3.1.
See part I 3.2. ()See part IV of 3.1.