NEW OXFORD PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY

Eertilicate Phlsical
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Conversion Acres/ Hectares

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 NEW OXFORD PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY

Eertifiuate Physical
anil lluman Eeography
THIRD EDITION/METRIC
Goh Cheng Leong B.A.(Hons.) London, F. R.G.S.

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Oxford University hess, llalton Street, Oxford OX2 6DP
Oxford New York Toronto
Acknowledgements
Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi
Petaling Jaya Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo
Nairobi Dar es Salaam Cape Town
Melbourne Auckland
and associated companies in
Beirut Berlin lbadan Nicosia The author and publishers are grateful to the fol-
Oxford is a trade mark of Oxford University Ptess lowing for permission to reproduce copyright
photographs: Radio Times, Camera Press, Jabatan
@ Oxford University Press 1970, 1974, 1983 Penerangan Malaysia, G.C. Morgan, Philippine
First published 1970
Reprinted seven times Tourist and Travel Association, Paul Popper, Swiss
Secondedition 1974 National Tourist Office, J.K. St. Joseph. U.S. In-
Reprinted seven times formation Service, Australian Tourist Commis-
Third edition 1983
Fourth impression I986 sion, Institute of Geological Science, S.T. Fok,
N.Z. High Commission Malaysia, Royal Nether-
All rightsreserved. No part of this publication lands Meteorological Institute, Meteorologie
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any lorm or by any means, National Paris, J. Mondaine, Royal Observatory
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, Hong Kong, Government Information Services
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press Hong Kong, Primary Production Department Sing-
rsBN 0 19 58286r s apore, Australian News and Information Bureau, J.
Allen Cash, S.E.F. Torino, National Film Board of
Canada, Press Information Bureau lndia, Central
Office of Information London, Elizabeth Meyer,
Walkabout, Ministry of Culture Singapore, Stan-
dard Triumph, United Nations and Society for
Cultural Relations with U.S.S.R. and the Interna-
tional Society for Educational Information, Tokyo.
Acknowledgements are credited with their re-
spective reproductions in the book. Every effort has
been made to contact the holders of copyright to
the reproductions, but in some cases without suc-
cess. To these, the author and publishers offer their
apologies, trusting that they will accept the will for
the deed.

Printed in Hong Kong

(ii)
Preface
Certificate Physical and Human Georgraphy is writ-
ten especially for the Singapore-Cambridge Gen-
eral Certificate of Education O-Level and Malay-
sian Certificate of Education Examinations Paper 1.
The book covers the latest G.C.E. O-Level
Geography Syllabus 2228 and it should prove useful
as a reference book in the pre-university classes and
Sixth Form as well. The subject matter is divided
into three parts:
Part I Physical Geography
Part 2 Weather, Climate and Vegetation
Part 3 Human Geography
The book is illustrated with maps, diagrams,
graphs and photographs. The illustrations have
been carefully drawn to assist students in their in-
terpretation of geographical facts in the book. Lo-
cal examples are quoted wherever possible.
Part 2 on world climatic types and natural vegeta-
tion also includes the economic development of the
natural regions. The more important agricultural
activities of each region have been treated in grea-
ter detail.
Questions and exercises are included to serve as a
guide to the types of questions candidates can expect
in the actual examination.
The book, first published in 1970, has been re-
printed several times. The second edition (a metri-
cized edition), brought out in 1974, provides both
imperial and metric units of measurement. A com-
prehensive conversion chart and conversion graphs
for common measures are provided to allow accu-
rate and quick conversions.
A new chapter, 'Weather, Mass Movement and
Groundwater', has been added to Part 1. The text
iii
of several chapters has been expanded and modified
in the light of new developments in geography and
world affairs.
In this third edition, all relevant statistical in-
formation has been updated, particularly in the Hu-
man Geography section where changes in the pro-
duction of economic products (crops, minerals and
power) and population are much greater than that
of Physical Geography (physical landforms, climate
and natural vegetation). Most of the statistics are
based on 1977 and 1978 figures from United Na-
tions sources.
Since 1976 Paper I for both the Sing-
(172 hours)
apore-Cambridge General Certificate of Education
and Malaysian Certificate of Education examina-
tions consists of an objective test containing 50 mul-
tiple-choice items covering map work, elements of
Physical Geography and elements of world Human
Geography. Candidates should attempt all ques-
tions. In line with this, I have provided sample
objective questions at the end of each chapter in this
third edition. An answer key has also been included.
Some of the chapters in this book are not required
by the Singapore Geography Syllabus but have been
included for the students'general reference. These
chapters include Chapters 27,22,24,25 and 30.
Sekolah Tuanku Abdul Rahman.
Ipoh, Perak,
Malaysia.
April 1983
Gon CnENc LroNc
Metric Data Conversion Table

Imperial un;ts to Metlic (SI) units Sf uzirs n Impcrial units

Quantity Impcrial unit SI cquiualent SI unit Impcrial eEtioalent
Acctratc Rough approimation Accuratc Roughapproximation

Lcngth inch o.o254 m 4 in:

ro cm in
contirnetrc (cm) o.394 ro cm:4 in
toot o.3o48 m ro ft=3
m mctre (m) ft
3.u8r to rn:3 j ft
ya.r-d o.9t44 m ro ydr=9 m roon vds
mile r.6o93 km ro miles: 16 km kilometrc (km) o.6ii irites roo km=62 miles
Aree sq. inch 645'16 mr (sq. r 3q.in=650 mr rquarc metrc ro.764 sq. ft ro mt: ru sq, ydr
mtllrmetres)
' (m')
rq. foot o'o92g mt roo sq.ft:g.3 m. hctare 2.47r actas r ha:2.5 acres
rq. yard o.836 mr roo sq.yd :84 mr (roooo m_r)
rq. milc 2'58999 kmr ro eq.miles = z6 kmt = rz,ooo sq.yds
squaro kilo- o.386 sq.rniles roo kmr=4o sq-.iniles
lcrc o'4o5 ha (hectare) ro acres=4 ha metre (kmr)
4o5o mr t acre=4ooo mr
Volumc cu,inch r'6387x ro-5mt r cu.in:16cm3 cu. m€trc (m!) cu.ft r m3:35 cu.ft
cu' root o'o283 m3 35'315
t m3 : I '3 cu.Yds
l.ut"-1?lltd?, (l)
litrc o'zz UK gal roo litres:3.s cu.ft
UK gallon 0.004546 m3 r UK gal:4.5 litres (rooo litrcs :zz UK gal
rooo UK gal:4'5 m3 =r m3)
Mass )unce o'o284 kg r oz:28 gm kilogramme z.zo5 lb ro kg:22 16
rcund o.4536 kg ro lb:+.5 kB (kg)
grame (g) o.o35 oz roo g:3-S oz
Prossure pound per 6894.8 N/mt r tb/sq.in=7ooo N/m pcr
ncwtons rol
t'45o4 X r N/mr: r.5 x rol
aq. inch (newtons per sq. ro lb/sq.in:7 N/cmt sq.metrc lb/sq.in -lb/inr or
metre) (N/m) r N/cm': r'5 lb/sq.in

Dcnsity o:J."*j;' r6'ore kg/m3 r lb/cu.ft: 16 kg/m3 kilogrammc per o.o6z lb/cu.ft roo kg/ml=S tU6u.ft
cuJnetrc
(kg/mr)
grarunc.per o.o36 lb/cu.in 3o g/cmt: I lb/cu.in
cu.crn (g/cmt)

r omPeratur oilff,"?rn'" o'5a15 dcsree celsius lcgreeCelsius r.8' Fahrcnheit(oF)

('c)
Icmpcraturc' t"F =5/9(t_32).C t.C =9/5t*3u.F
rcalc I (e.g. TooF:zr'r.C (c.9. zooC=6goF
gooF
= z6.ZoC 3ooc = 86oF
9o.F=3z.z"C) 4o"C= ro4.F)

lv
Contents

heface The Course of a River, 50; River Rejuvenation, 55;

The Human Aspects of Rivers, 55; Questions and Ex-
PART 1 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ercises, 56; Sample Objective Questions.

l. The Earth and the Universe 6. Iandforms of Glaciation 58

Exploring the Universe , 2; The Solar System, 2; The The lce Age and Types of lce Masses, 58; kndforms
Shape of the Earth,4; Evidence of the Earth's Sphericity, of Highland Glaciation, 59; Landforms of Glaciated
4; The Earth's Movements, 6: Day and Night, 6; The lowlands, 63; Human Aspects of Glaciated landforms,
Earth's Revolution, 6; Dawn and Twilight, 9; Mathe- 65; Questions and Exercises, 66; Sample Objective
matical Location of Places on the Globe, 9; Iatitude, Questions.
l0; Longitude, ll; longitude and Time, ll; Standard
Time and Time Zones, 12; The International Date 7. fuid or Desert landforms 67
Une, 14; Great Circle Routes, 14; Questions and Exer-
cises, Sample Objective Questions. Types of Desert, 67; The Mechanics of Arid Erosion,
68; Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts, 69; Land-
2. The Earth's Crust forms of Wind Deposition in Deserts, 72; landforms
due to Water Action in Deserts, 73; Questions and
The Structure of the Earth, 17; The Classification Exercises, 74; Sample Objective Questions.
of Rocks, ll;The Influence of Rock Types on land-
scape, 19; Earth Movements and the Major l-andforms, 8. Limestone and Chalk Landforms 76
20; Types of Mountain, 2l; Types of Plateau, 23;
Types of Plain,24; Questions and Exercises, 25; Sample Limestone and Chalk, 76; Characteristic Features of
Objective Questions. a Karst Region, 76; ThLe Major Umestone Regions of
the World, 79; Human Activities in Karst Regions,
3. Volcanism and Earthquakes 27 79; Chalk, 79; Questions and Exercises, 79; Sample
Objective Questions.
landforms Associated with Volcanic Activities, 27;
landforms of lgneous Instrusions, 27; The Orign 9. Lakes 8l
of Volcanoes, 28; Types of Volcano 29; Extrusive
Iandforms, 29; Some Volcanic Eruptions, 3l; The General, 8l; The Formation and Origin of lakes, 8l;
Distribution of Volcanoes in the World, 3l; Geysers lakes and Man, 85; Questions and Exercises, 87; Sample
and Hot Springs, 33; Earthquakes, 34; Questions and Objective Questions.
Exercises, 35; Sample Objective Questions.
10. Coastal Landfotms 88
4. Weathering, Mass Movement and Groundwater 36
The Action of Waves, Tides and Currents, 88; The
Weathering, 36; Mass Movement, 39; Groundwater, Mechanics of Marine Erosion, 88; Coastal Features
4l; The Water-Table,42; Springs and Wells,43; Quest- of Erosion, 89; Coastal Features of Deposition, 9l ;
ions and Exercises, 45; Sample Objective Questions. Types of Coast,93; Questions and Exercises,95; Sample
Objective Questions.
5. landforms made by Running Water 47
ll. Islandsand Coral Reefs 91
The Development of a River System, 47; The Mech-
anics of Humid-Erosion, 48; The Processes of River Continental islands, 97; Oceanic islands, 97; Coral
Action, 48; River Erosion and Transportation, 49; Reefs, 98; Types of Coral Reef, 99; The Probable
Origin of Coral Reefs, l0l; Questions and Exercises,
102; Sample Objective Questions.
12. The Oceans 104
Exploring the Oceans, 104; The Relief of the Ocean,
105; The Deposits of the Ocean Floor, 106; Salinity
of the Ocean, 106; The Temperature of Ocean Water,
108; The Movements of Ocean Currents, 109; The
Circulation of the Atlantic Ocean, I I l; The Circulation
of the Pacific Ocean, I I l; The Indian Ocean Circulation,
lll; Questions and Exercises, ll2; Sample Objective
Questions.
PART 2 WEATTIER, CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
13. Weather ll4
The Difference between Climate and Weather, ll4;
The Importance of Climate and Weather, 114; The
Elements of Weather and Climate, 115; Questions
and Exercises, 128; Sample Objective Questions.
14. Climate 130
The Atmosphere, 130; Insolation, l3l; Elements of
Climate'and Factors Affecting Them, l3l; Temperature,
132; Precipitation, 136; Rainfall, 136; Lightning and
Thunder, 138; Pressure and Planetary Winds, 138;
I-and and Sea Breezes and Monsoons, l4l; Fohn Wind
or Chinook Wind, l4l; Cyclonic Activity, 142;Climatic
Types and Natural Vegetation, 143; Questions and
Exercises, 148; Sample Objective Questions.
15. The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate 150
Dstribution, 150; Climate, 150; Natural Vegetation,
152; Life and Development of Equatorial Regions,
152; Factors Affecting the Development of Equatorial
Regions, 154; Questions and Exercises, 155; Sample
Objective Questions.
16. The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine
Climate 157
Dstribution, 157; Climatic Conditions of Tropical
Monsoon Lands, 157; The Seasons of the Tropical
Monsoon Climate, 158; The Retreating Monsoon,
I 59 ; TheTropical Marine Climate, I 59 ; Natural Vegetat-
ion, 160; Agricultural Development in the Monsoon
Lands, 160; Questions and Exercises, 163; Sample
Objective Questions.
17. TheSavannaorSudanClimate 165
Distribution, 165; Climate of the Sudan Type, 165,
Natural Vegetation, 166; Animal Life of the Savan-
na, 167; Human Ufe in the Savanna, 168; Problems,
Prospects and Development of the Savanna, 170;Quest-
ions and Exercises, l7l; Sample Objective Questions.
18. The Hot Desert and Mid-Iatitude Desert Clim-
8te 173
Distribution, 173; Climate, 174; Climatic Conditions
in the Mid-Latitude Deserts, 175; Natural Vegetation,
175; Life in the Deserts,177; Questions and Exercises,
I 79; Sample Objective Questions.
19. The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediter-
ranean) Climate I 8l
Distribution, 181; Climate, 181; Natural Vegetation,
184; Economic Development of the Mediterranean
Regions, 185; Questions and Exercises, 187; Sample
Objective Questions.
20. The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate 189
Distribution, 189; Climate, 190; Natural Vegetation,
l9l; Economic Development, 192; Questions and
Exercises, 196; Sample Objective Questions.
21. The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type)
Climate 198
Dstribution, 198; Climate, 198; Natural Vegetation,
201; Economic Development, 2O2; Questions and
Exercises, 206; Sample Objective Questions.
22. The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British
Type) Climate 2O7
Distribution, 207; Climate, 207; Natural Vegetation,
209; Economic Development, 210; Questions and
Exercises, 214; Sample Objective Questions.
23. The Cool Temperate Continentd (Siberian) Cli-
mate 216
Dstribution, 216; Climate, 216;, Natural Vegetation,
218; Relationship between Climate and Natural Vegeta-
tion, 219; Economic Development, 220; Questions and
Exercises, 222 ; Sample Objective Questions.
24. The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian)
Climate 224
Distribution, 224; Climate, 224; Natural Vegetation,
226; Economic Development, 227 ; Fishing, 228; Quest'
ions and Exercises, 231; Sample Objective Questions'
25. The Arctic or Polar Climate
Dstribution, 233; Climate, 233; Natural Vegetation,
234; Human Activities, 235; The Importance and
Recent Development of the Arctic Region, 236; Quest'
ions and Exercises, Sample Objective Questions'
PART 3 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
26. Agriculture 239
The Basic Importance of Agriculturc, 239; Factors
Influencing Agriculture, 239; Soil Erosion and Im-
poverishment, 241; Soil Conservation and Sound Farm-
ing Techniques, 242; Types of Agriculture, 246; Agri-
cultural Crops of the World, 250; A Tabie Summary
of the Major Agricultural Crops of the World, 251;
Questions and Exercises,262; Sample Objective Quest-
ions.
27. FuelandPower
264
General, 264; Fuel and Power (Coal, Oil, Electricity),
264; Questions and Exercises, Sample Objective Quest-
ions.
28. Manufacturing Industry and The lron and Steel
Industry 278
The Rise of Manufacturing Industry, 278; Groups
of Industries,2TS; Factors of Industry Location, 280;
vii
The lron and Steel Industry, 283; Types of Iron Ore,
284;The Properties of Iron and Steel, 284;The Making
of Different Types of lron and Steel, 284; Methods
of Steel Making, 285; Factors Affecting the l.ocation
of the lron and Steel Industry, 286; The Changing
Locations of the World's lron and Steel Industry, 287;
World Distribution of Iron and Steel, 288; Major Iron
and Steel fueas of the World, 290; Questions and
Exercises, Sample Objective Questions.
29. World Population 294
Size and Growth of World Population, 294; World
Population Distribution, 295; The Pattern of World
Population Distribution, 296; Some Basic Population
Problems, 298; Some Ways of Relieving the World
Population Problems, 299; Questions and Exercises,
300; Sample Objective Questions.
30. World Communications 302
The Significance of World Transport, 302; Land Tran-
sport, 302; Ocean Transport, 305; Air Transport,308;
Communications, 309; Questions and Exercises, 310;
Sample Objective Questions.
31. Settlements and Town Sites 312
Types of Settlement, 312; Location of Settlements,
312; Functions of settlements, 319; Town Growth,
320; Urbanization and its Problems, 321; Questions
and Exercises, 323; Sample Objective Questions.
Answen for the Sample Objective Questions 325
 PART 1

Physical Geography
Chapter 1 The Earth and the Universe

lesser bodies. All the planets revolve round the Sun

Exploring the Universe
On a fine bright night when you look up at the sky,
it seems to be studded with stars. Little do you
realize that each of the stars is far bigger than the
earth on which we live. Some of the larger ones have
been estimated to be many millions of times the size
of the Earth. The stars are not scattered regularly
in space; they occur in clusters, better described as
galaxies or nebulas. Each galaxy may contain as
many as 100 million stars. It is believed that the
Earth's own galaxy (the Milky Way) alone contains
as many as 100 000 million stars.
The stars appear small to us even through a tele-
scope because they are so far away. The light from
the nearest star travelling at the speed of light (i.e.
299 4N kilometrey'186,000 miles per second) takes
something like four years to reach us. A ray of light
from the sun takes about eight minutes to reach the
Earth. Light takes only a second to reach us from
the moon.
The Solar System
The solar system comprises the Sun and its nine
planets (Fig. 1.1) which are believed to have been
developed from the condensation of gases and other
in elliptical orbi*.Like the Earth, they shine only by
the reflected light of the Sun. The Sun has a surface
temperature of 6 000 "C (10 800 "F) and increases to
20 million'C (36 million "F) in the interior. All over
its surface are fiery gases that leap up in whirls of
glowing flames like a volcano in eruption. In size,
the Sun is almost unimaginable. It is about 300 000
times as big as the Earth!
Amongst the nine planets, Mercury is the smallest
and closest to the Sun, only 57 900 000 km (36 mil-
lion miles) away. It thus completes its orbit in a
much shorter space of time than does Earth. A year
in Mercury is only 88 days. Venus, twice the distance
away from the Sun, is the next closest planet. It is
often considered as 'Earth's twin' because of their
close proximity in size, mass (weight) and density.
But no other planet is in any way comparable to
Earth which has life and all the living things we see
around us. Like many other planets, the Earth has
a natural satellite, the Moon, 384 629 km (238,900
miles) away, that revolves eastward around the
Earth once in every 27 days.
The fourth planet from the Sun is Mars which has
dark patches on its surface and is believed by most
professional astronomers to be the next planet after
Earth to have the possibility of some plant life.

Fig. 1.1 The Solar System - the Sun and the nine Planets

5 A5O OOO OO0 km

-- Dlstance lrom Sun to Planet ---- {4.566,000,0OO mi16l

-___- 2852000000 I
(1,783.000.000 I
I

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PLUTO
1.A The Earth viewed from the moon. The picture was
taken on the Apollo 8 mission of 1968 which prepared the
way for the moon landing. Camera Press

Much attention has been focused on Mars to explore on neighbouring planetary bodies. Neptune closely
the possibilities of extending Man's influence to it. resembles tlranus, except that it has only two known
Next comes Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar satellites and is probably much colder. Pluto is
system. Its surface is made up of many gases like smaller than Earth. As the orbits of the planets are
hydrogen, helium and methane. It is distinguished not circular but elliptical (Fig. 1.2), the distance of
from other planets by its circular light and dark Pluto from the Sun during perihelion (i.e. when it is
bands, and the twelve satellites that circle round it. closest to the Sun) is 4 451 million km (2,766 million
As it is more than 780 million km (485 million miles) miles), and at aphelion (i.e. when it is farthest from
from the Sun, its surface is very cold, probably about the Sun) is 7 348 million km (4,566 million miles)'
-128'C (-200 'F). A year in Pluto is no less than 248 years on Earth!
Another unique planet is Saturn which has three Due to their very recent discovery and their extreme
rings and nine satellites around it. In size, it is the remoteness from the Earth, very little is so far
second largest after Jupiter. It is so far from the Sun known about these last two planets.
that it takes29i years to complete its orbit. The sev-
enth planet, Uranus, was not known to astronomers Fig. 1.2 The elliptical orbit of the planets (including the
Earth) round the Sun, resulting in greater distance during the
until the late eighteenth century when it was first aphelion than the perihelion
seen as a faint bluish-green disc through a very pow-
erful telescope. It is another giant planet, 50 times
larger than Earth and 15 times as heavy. Unlike
other planets, IJranus orbits around the Sun in a
clockwise direction from east to west with five sat-
ellites revolving round it.
The two outermost planets in the solar system,
Neptune and Pluto, are just visible with telescopes.
Their discoveries were the result of mathematical
calculations on their irregular gravitational effects
The Shape of the Earth
ln the olden days, sailors feared to venture far into
the distant ocean because they thought the Earth
was as flat as a table. They thought that when they
reached the edge of the Earth, they would slip down
and perish in the bottomless ocean. This is, of
course, not true. From years of accumulated knowl- Fig. 1.3(bl Abrupt drop at the edge of a table-like earth
edge, experience and observations in different parts
of the world, we know that the Earth is round. Its
spherical shape is an established fact, proved and
accepted by all. There has been so much research
done on earth science that its various dimensions
have been accurately found. It has an equatorial cir-
cumference of 40 084 km (24,897 miles) and its
polar circumference is less by 133 km (83 miles). Its
equatorial diameter is L2 761 km (7,926 miles) and
its polar diameter is shorter by 42 km (26 miles).
This simply shows that the Earth is not a perfect
sphere. It is a little flattened at both ends like an
orange. It can, in fact, be called a geoid ('earth-
shaped'). The spherical shape of the Earth is also
Fig. 1.4(a) Increasing altitude widens the circular horizon.
masked by the intervening highlands and oceans on Viewed from Y the horizon would be AB but from a higher
its surface. viewpoint (X) a wider horizon (CD) would be seen

Evidence of the Earth's Sphericity I VIEWPOINT

There are many ways to prove that the Earth is

spherical. The following are some of them. Proofs
2-7 were used in the days before satellite photo-
graphs proved conclusively that the earth is round.
l. Aerial photographs. Pictures taken from high
altitudes by rockets and satellites show clearly the
curved edge of the Earth. This is perhaps the most
convincing and the most up-to-date proof of the
Earth's sphericity (Plate 1.A).

Fig. 1.4(b) Visible horizon remains the same regardless of

Fig. 1.3(a) Circumnavigation of the Earth altitude. lf the Earth were flat the horizon seen from either
Y or or X would be the same.

2. Circumnavigation of the Earth. The first voyage

around the world by Ferdinand Magellan and his
crew, from 1519 to 1522 proved beyond doubt that
the Earth is spherical. No traveller going round the
world by land or sea has ever encountered an abrupt
edge, over which he would fall. Modern air routes
and ocean navigation are based on the assumption
that the Earth is round (Fig. 1.3).
3. The circular horizon. The distant horizon viewed
-{ffiryrye- from the deck of a ship at sea, or from a cliff on land
is always and everywhere circular in shape. This cir-
 A CURVED EARTH A FLAT EARTH

Fig. 1.5(a) The mast of a ship is seen before the hull on a Fig. 1 .5(b) A flat Earth. the entire ship is seen at once on a
curved horizon. flat surface.

cular horizon widens with increasing dltitude and

could only be seen on a spherical body. This is illus-
trated in Fig. 1.4.
4. Ship's visibitity. When a ship appears over the
distani horizon, the top of the mast is seen first
before the hull. In the same way, when it leaves har-
Circular
earth's
Fig. 1.6(a) Sunrises and sunsets at different times for dif-
shadow
ferent places

Fig. 1.7 The circular shadow of the Earth on the moon dur-
ing lunar eclipse.

bour, its disappearance over the curved surface is

equally gradual. If the earth were flat, the entire ship
would be seen or obscured all at once. This is appar-
ent from Fig. 1.5.
5. Sunrise and sunset. The sun rises and sets at dif-
ferent times in different places. As the Earth rotates
from west to east, places in the east see the Sun
earlier than those in the west. If the Earth were flat,
Fig. 1.6(b) The whole world will have sunrise or sunset at
the same time.
the whole world would have sunrise and sunset at
the same time. But we know this is not so. Fig. 1.6
illustrates this.
6. The lunar eclipse. The shadow cast by the Earth
on the moon during a lunar eclipse is always circular.
It takes the outline of an arc of a circle. Only a
sphere can cast such a circular shadow (Fig. 1.7).
7. Planetary bodies are spherical. All observations
from telescopes reveal that the planetary bodies, the
Sun. Moon. satellites and stars have circular outlines
from whichever angle you see them. They are strictly
spheres. Earth, by analogy, cannot be the only
exception.
The Earth's Movement
Man is always conscious of the apparent movement
of the Sun and little realizes that the Earth on which
he stands is constantly in motion. When the sun dis-
appears, he says that the sun sets and when it
emerges, he says that the sun rises. He is not the
least aware that the sun, in fact, does not rise or set,
it is 'we who rise and we who set'!
The Earth moves in space in two distinct ways: it
rotates from west to east once in every 24 hours,
causing day and night;it also revolves round the sun
in an orbit once in every 3651days, causingthe sea-
sons and the year.
Day and Night
When the Earth rotates on its own axis, only one
half of the Earth's surface comes into the rays of the
Sun and experiences daylight. The other half which
is away from the Sun's rays will be in darkness. As
the Earth rotates from west to east, every part of the
Earth's surface will be brought under the Sun at
some time or other. A part of the Earth's surface
that emerges from darkness into the Sun's rays
experiences sunrise. Later, when it is gradually
obscured from the Sun's beams it experiences sunset.
The Sun is, in fact, stationary and it is the Earth
Fig. 1.9(al Kuala Lumpur emerges from darkness into day-
light at sunrise when the Earth rotates into the Sun's rays.
Fig. 1.9(b) The Sun is directly overhead at Kuala Lumpur at
midday.
-----)F-
__>_
_--+-
-----)-_
which rotates. The illusion is exactly the same as
when we travel in a fast-moving train. The trees
and houses around us appear to move and we feel
that the train is stationary. Fig. i.9 explains the
Earth's rotation and the causes of day and night.
The Earth's Revolution
When the Earth revolves round the Sun, it travels
on an elliptical orbit at a speed of 30 km (18.5 miles)
per second or 107 182 kmlh (66.600 m.p.h.). One
complete revolution takes 365+1 days or a year. As
it is not possible to show a quarter of a day in the
calendar, a normal year is taken to be 365 days, and
an extra day is added every four years as a Leap
Year.
VARYING LENGTHS OF DAY AND NIGHT
The axis of the Earth is inclined to the plane of the
ecliptic (the plane in which the Earth orbits round
the Sun) at an angle of 66L, giving rise to different
seasons and varying lengths of day and night
(Fig. 1.10). If the axis were perpendicular to this
plane, all parts of the globe would have equal days
and nights at all times of the year, but we know this
is not so. In the northern hemisphere in winter
(December) as we go northwards, the hours of dark-
ness steadily increase. At the Arctic Circle (66*. N),
Fig. 1.9(c) Kuala Lumpur passes from daylight into dark-
ness at sunset when the Earth rotates away from the Sun.
Fig. 1.9(d) Kuala Lumpur is directly away from the Sun at
midnight.
_____>_
-->-
----)-
-->-

Fig. 1.10(a) The revolution of the Earth and its effects on
seasons and the variations of lengths of day and night
Summer Solstice
Spring Equinox
*'l;i3:::i'""
Fig. 1.10(b) A simplified diagram showing the annual
movement of the Sun and the causes of the seasons
the Sun never'rises' and there is darkness for the
whole day in mid-winter on 22 December. Beyond
the Arctic Circle the number of days with complete
darkness increases, until we reach the North Pole
(90' N) when half the year will have darkness. [n the
summer (June) conditions are exactly reversed.
Daylight increases as we go polewards. At the Arctic
Circle, the Sun never 'sets' at mid-summer (21 June)
and there is a complete 24-hour period of continuous
daylight. In summer the region north of the Arctic
Circle is popularly referred to as Land of the Mid-
night Sun (Plate 25.A, page 234). At the North
Pole, there will be six months of continuous day-
light. Fig. 1.10(a) illustrates the revolution of the
Earth and its inclination to the plane of the ecliptic
which cause the variation in the length of day and
night at different times of the year.
In the southern hemisphere, the same process
takes place, except that the conditions are reversed.
When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, the
southern hemisphere will experience winter. Mid-
summer at the North Pole will be mid-winter at the
South Pole.
THE ALTITUDE OF THE MIDDAY SUN
In the course of a year, the Earth's revolution round
the Sun with its axis inclined at 66!. to the plane of
the ecliptic changes the apparent altitude of the mid-
day Sun. The Sun is vertically overhead at the equator
on two days each year. These are usually 21 March
and 23 September though the date changes because
a year is not exactly 365 days. These two days are
termed equinoxes meaning'equal nights' because on
these two days all parts of the world have
equal
length of days and nights. After the March equinox
the Sun appears to move north and is vertically over-
head at the Tropic of Cancer (23+"N) on about 2L
June. This is known as the June or summer solstice,
when the northern hemisphere will have its longest
day and shortest night. By abofi22 December, the
Sun will be overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn
(23+'S). This is the winter solstice when the south-
ern hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest
night. London is furthest from the sun during the
winter solstice (22nd December) in the northern
hemisphere. Fig. 1.11shows the varying distances of
the Sun from London at different seasons of the
year.
The Tropics thus mark the limits of the overhead
Sun, for beyond these, the Sun'is never overhead
at any time of the year. Such regions are marked by
distinct seasonal changes-spring, summer, autumn
and winter. Beyond the Arctic Circle (66*'N) and
the Antarctic Circle (66+' S) where darkness lasts for
6 months and daylight is continuous for the remain-
ing half of the year, it is always cold; for even during
the short summer the Sun is never high in the sky.
Within the tropics, as the midday Sun varies very
little from its vertical position at noon daily, the four
seasons are almost indistinguishable. Days and
nights are almost equal all the year round
(Fig. 1.10b).
Fig. 1.11 The varying distance of the Sun from London at
different seasons of the vear
(London is funhestJrom the sun when it is
overhead at Tropic rit Capricorn in Oecember.)
 OVERHEAD SUN

OBLIOUE SUN
OBLIOUE SUN

Earth's surface
Fig.1.12 The effects of overhead
Highly dispersed heat Concentrated heat and oblique Sun's rays on temper-
(even lovver temperaturel (higher temperaturel (lower temp€rature) atu re

SEASONAL CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON
TEMPERATURE
Summer is usually associated with much heat and
brightness and winter with cold and darkness. Why
should this be so? In summer, the Sun is higher in
the sky than in winter. When the Sun is overhead its
rays fall almost vertically on the Earth, concentrat-
ing'its heat on a small area; temperatuTe therefore
rises and summers are always warm. In winter the
oblique rays of the Sun, come through the atmos-
phere less directly and have much of their heat
absorbed by atmospheric impurities and water
vapour. The Sun's rays fall faintly and spread over
a great area. There is thus little heat, and temper-
atures remain low (Fig. 1.12).
In addition, days are longer than nights in summer
and more heat is received over the longer daylight
duration. Nights are shorter and less heat is lost.
There is a net gain in total heat received and tem-
perature rises in summer. Shorter days and longer
nights in winter account for the reverse effects.
HOW TO CALCULATE THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION OF THE
MIDDAY SUN
To find the angle of elevation of the midday Sun
of
a given place at a given part of the year
You may be asked to calculate the elevation of the
midday Sun at a place, say Milan (Latitude 46" N),
on 21 June. This is simple when done with the aid
of a diagram.
The following is a worked example, and you
should work on a few similar examples yourself.
First draw a circle as shown in Fig. 1.13 to rep-
resent the Earth and on it mark N and S, the North
and South Poles, O, the centre of the Earth, and E
and Q, the equator. On the circumference mark the
point M to represent the location of Milan at latitude
46' north of the equator, such that LMOQ : 46"
(as measured by your protractor).
Produce the line OM to A to represent a line from
M to the zenith of the universe. Draw MT, the tan-
gent at M, to represent a line to the horizon.
As the date given is 21 June (i.e. summer solstice
for the northern hemisphere), the Sun is overhead
at the Tropic of Cancer, i.e.23L N. Draw OP such
that ZPOQ = 23L'and produce the line OP to C to
indicate the direction of rays from the overhead Sun.
Through M draw MB parallel to OPC. This line rep-
resents the direction of the Sun's rays reaching M,
and ZBMT is thus the angle of elevation of the mid-
day Sun and is 671'. The actual working is shown
below:
Since MB is parallel to OPC,
ZAMB :
ZMOP :_:2":t+
_ LL2
As ZAMT is a right angle (i.e. 90')
ZBMT : 90"-22*
: 67i.
Thus on 21 June, the elevation of the midday Sun
at Milan is 67i'.
Fig. 1.13 Finding the angle of elevation of the middav Sun
at Milan on 21 June (latitude of Milan is 46' N)
K*":'rP
To calculate the latitude of a place from the Sun's (a)

elevation, at a certain part of the year

Sometimes you may be asked to find the latitude of
a place given the angle of elevation of the midday
Sun at a certain part of the year. An example is given
below.
Suppose the place given is X in the southern
hemisphere and the angle of elevation of the mid-
day Sun at X on 23 September is 37'. What is its c
latitude? g
o
I
o
o
night B

Fig. 1.15(a) Dawn and sunlight at the equator

Overhead Sun
-------->R

Angle ot elevalion ol lh.3!n

!-r37' - ------->0

Fig. 1.14 Finding the latitude of a place X on 23 September

given that the angle of elevation is 37. S

First draw a circle as shown in Fig. 1.14 to rep-

resent the Earth and on it mark N and S. E and
Q and O to represent the North and South Pole, the
equator and the centre of the Earth respectively.
At the equinox, i.e. 23 September, when the Sun
is overhead at the equator, the latitude of a place is
simply 90" minus the angle of the elevation of the
midday Sun, i.e. 90" - 37o : 53'. The working based
on the diagram in Fig. 1.14 is thus:
Since the declination of the Sun at the equinox
isO
LBXD = 37"(i.e. the angle of the
given)
: 53"(90"-37")
LCXD
LCXD = XOQ (corresponding Zs)
: 53o
So the latitude of X is 53' S.
Fig. 1.1S(bl Dawn and sunlight in temperate latitudes
At the equator the Sun rises and sets almost vertically so the
time taken to pass through the 'twilight zone' (AB) will be
shorter than for temperate latitudes where the Sun rises and
sets obliquely. Here the time taken to pass through the twi-
light zone (CD) is longer.
the Sun whilst it is still below the horizon. Since the
Sun rises and sets in a vertical path at the equator
elevation
the period during which refracted light is received
is short. But in temperate latitudes, the Sun rises
and sets in an oblique path and the period of
refracted light is longer. It is much longer still at the
poles, so that the winter darkness is really only twi-
light most of the time. (Fig. 1.15)

Dawn and Twilight Mathematical Location of Places on

The brief period between sunrise and full daylight
is called dawn, and that between sunset and com-
plete darkness is termed twilight. This is caused by
the fact that during the periods of dawn and twilight
the Earth receives diffused or refracted light from
the Globe
The Earth's surface is so vast that unless a mathe-
matical method can be used, it is impossible to locate
any place on it. For this reason, imaginary lines have
been drawn on the globe. One set running east and
Fig. 1.16(a) Parallel of latitude Fig. 1.17(a) The latitude of 38'N is the angular distance of
Fig. 1.16(b) Meridians of longitude a point on the Earth's surface north of the centre of the
Earth.

west, parallel to the equator, are called lines of lat-

itude. The other set runs north and south passing 4.
through the poles and are called lines of longitude
(Fig. 1.16). The intersection of latitude and longi- v\t
tude pin-points any place on the Earth's surface
(Fig. 1.17). For example, Kuala Lumpur is 3' L0' N
and 101' 40' E; London is 51" 30'N and 0o 5'W,
and Sydney is 33o 55' S and l5I" 12' E. We shall
examine more closely how latitude and longitude
are determined and the role they play in mathema-
tical geography.

Fig. 1.17(bl The longitude of 135" W is the angular distance

Latitude west of the Prime Meridian

Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the

Earth's surface, measured in degrees from the centre
of the Earth as shown in Fig. 1.16(a). It is parallel
to a line, the equator, which lies midway between
the poles. These lines are therefore called parallels
of latitude, and on a globe are actually circles,
becoming smaller polewards. The equator repre-
sents 0" and the North and South Poles are 90o N and
90" S. Between these points lines of latitude are
drawn at intervals of Lo. For precise location on a
map, each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes and
each minute into 60 seconds. The most important
lines of latitude are the equator, the Tropic of Can-
Fig. 1.17(c) The precise location of place X is latitude 52" N
cer (231'N), the Tropic of Capricorn (23L S), the and longitude 27" W where they intersect.
Arctic Circle (66*'N) and the Antarctic Circle
(66t" S). As the Earth is slightly flattened at the
poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude at can be used for calculating distances to any place.
the pole is a little longer than that at the equator. Cairo is 30'N; it is therefore 30 x L11 or 3 330 km
For example at the equator (0') it is 110 km (68.704 (2,070 miles) from the equator. With the aid of your
miles), at 45'it is 111 km (69.054 miles) and at the atlas find the approximate distance of the following
poles it is 111.7 km (69.,107 miles). The average is places from the equator: Singapore, Kota Bharu,
taken as 111 km (69 miles).This is a useful figure and Paris, New York, Buenos Aires, and Auckland.

l0

1.8 An external view of the Greenwich observatory Popper-
foto
Longitude
Longitude is an angular distance measured in
degrees along the equator east or west of the Prime
(or First) Meridian, as indicated in Fig. 1.16(b). On
the globe longitude is shown as a series of semicircles
that run from pole to pole passing through the equa-
tor. Such lines are also called meridians.Unlike the
equator which is centrally placed between the poles,
any meridian could have been taken to begin the
numbering of longitude. It was finally decided in
1884, by international agreement, to choose as the
zero meridian the one which passes through the
Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich,
near London (Plate 1.B). This is the Prime Meridian
(0o) from which all other meridians radiate eastwards
and westwards up to 180". Since the Earth is spher-
ical and has a circumference calculated at 40 084 km
(24,897 miles), in linear distance each of the 360
degrees of longitude is 40 084 (24 897 + 360) or
360
111.3 km (69 miles) at the equator. As the parallels
of latitude become shorter polewards, so the meri-
dians of longitude, which converge at the poles, en-
close a narrower space. The degree of longitude
therefore decreases in length. It is longest at the
equator where it measures 11i.3 km (69 miles). At
ll
25" it is 101 km (63 miles), at 45" it is 79 km (49
miles), at75" 29 km (18 miles) and at the poles 0 km
(0 mile). There is so much difference in the length of
degrees of longitude outside the tropics, that they
are not used for calculating distances as in the case of
latitude. But they have one very important function,
they determine local time in relation to GMT or
Greenwich Mesn Time. which is sometimes referred
to as World Time.
Longitude and Time
Local time. Since the Earth makes one complete
rotation of 360' in one day or 24 hours, it passes
through '1..5" in one hour or f in 4 minutes. The Earth
rotates from west to east, so every 15o we go east-
wards,local time is advanced by t hour. Conversely,
if we go westwards,local time is retarded by t hour.
We may thus conclude that places east of Greenwich
see the Sun earlier and gain time, whereas places
west of Greenwich see the Sun later and lose time.
If we know GMT, to find local time, we merely have
to add or substract the difference in the number of
hours from the given longitude, as illustrated above.
A simple memory aidforthiswill be East-Gain-Add
( E. G. A. ) and West- Lose-Substract (W. L. S. ) . Y ou
could coin your own rhymes for the abbreviations.
Hence when it is noon, in London (Longitude
0'5' W), the local time for Kuala Lumpur (102" E)
will be mathematically 6 hours 48 minutes ahead of
London or 6.48 p.m. But the local time for New
York (74"W) will be mathematically 4 hours 56 min-
utes behind London or 7:04 a.m. We can put it in
another way, when Londoners are having lunch,
Malaysians will be having dinner and New Yorkers
will be having breakfast (Fig. 1.18). This is difficult
to believe, but it is true. The rotation of the Earth
round the Sun means that at any point in time dif-
ferent places will experience a different time of day.
The example shown in Fig. L.18 on longitude and
time is mathematically calculated at the rate of t hour
difference for 15o change in longitude and 4 minutes
for every degree. As such, when it is noon in London
(0'longitude), it is 6.48 p.m. in Kuala Lumpur (lon-
gitude 102' E) and 7.04 a.m. in New York (longitude
74" E). In actual practice this is not so. Different
countries fall into different time zone intervals, and
they do not fit themselves strictly into the mathe-
matically determined time zones. They choose their
own standard time which is most convenient to them
in terms of administration, daylight-saving, inter-
national trade, etc. but without varying too much
 WEST
IWEST.LOSE.SUBTRACT)
i
4 hrs. 56 mins
Fig. 1.18 Longitude and Time-when it is noon in London,
it is 6.48 p.m. in Kuala Lumpur (102" E) and 7.04 a.m. in New
York (74' W) (Mathematically calculated)
from the approximate time zones in which the coun-
try falls into. The government of a country may
choose to change the standard time to suit admin-
istration, especially so when a country is separated
by a large water body.
Take Malaysia as an example. It has changed its
standard time four times since 1941. Before the Sec-
ond World War, Peninsular Malaysia (formerly
known as Malaya) was 7 hours ahead of GMT in line
with its position in the seventh time zone east of
Greenwich (i.e. between 90'and 105'longitude). In
1941, during the British colonial period, the time
was advanced by half an hour so that there would
be more time for recreation in the evening. This was
done with the passing of a daylight saving act.
Malaya was then 7* hours ahead of GMT. When the
Japanese occupied Malaya, they moved the time 2
hours ahead to coincide with that of the time in
Japan. The country was then t hours ahead of GMT.
However, this did not last long. As soon as the Jap-
anese surrendered at the end of the Second World
War and the British returned to the country, the
time was reverted to 7! hours ahead of GMT. This
system continued till the end of 1981 when the Gov-
ernment decided to have one single time zone for
both Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia (Sabah
and Sarawak), which being separated by the vast
South China Sea, have a half hour difference
between them. Kuala Lumpur's (Peninsular Malay-
sia) is l02o E, compared to Kota Kinabalu's (East
.-.-Jt.- EAST
+
o"s t02"e
'-'-'-'-'-'-'* e.c.e.
(EAST,GAIN.AOOI
KUALA LUMPUR
I
I
l-l 6.48 e.m.
| I
LUNCH o,r,rhen
Malaysia) 116'E. From I January 19E2, Malaysia
adopted a standard time for both Peninsular and
East Malaysia, which is t hours ahead of GMT. The
Republic of Singapore, which lies just south of Pen-
insular Malaysia also adopted the time switch for
convenience of trade and communications.
With this shift in standard time to 8 hours ahead
of GMT for Malaysia and Singapore, the other coun-
tries in this Asiatic region which will also come
under the same time zone include Brunei, the Phil-
ippines, Hong Kong, China, Taiwan, eastern Indo-
nesia, parts of Vietnam and the Soviet Union.The
ASEAN countries which do not come under this
time zone are Thailand and the western part of
Indonesia.
There are many ways of determining the longitude
of a place. The simplest way is to compare the local
time with GMT by listening to BBC radio. For
example: the captain of a ship in the midst of the
ocean wants to find out in which longitude his ship
lies. If GMT is 8'00 a.m. and it is noon in the local
region, it means that he is four hours ahead of
Greenwich, and must be east of Greenwich. His lon-
gitude is 4 x 15'or 60oE.
Standard Time and Time Zones
If each town were to keep the time of its own merid-
ian. there would be much difference in local time
between one town and the other. At 10'00 a.m. in
l2
 o,o oo o-,, .e "B "R E I "B I "B "g "g k'B
ooooooooo
o
|r)o^ o
oo o-
o)r 'B 'g 'B

Fig. 1.19 The World Time Zones Scale 1 : 215.OOO,OOO

George Town, Penang, it would be 10'10 a.m. in zones. When it is 10.00 p.m. on a Monday night in
Kota Bharu (a difference of. 2+ in longitude). In Leningrad, it will be almost 7.00 a.m. the following
larger countries such as Canada, the U.S.A., China Tuesday morning in Vladivostock. Travellers along
and the U.S.S.R. the confusion arising from time the Trans-Siberian Railway have to adjust their
differences alone would drive the people mad. Trav- watches almost a dozen times before they reach their
ellers going from one end of the country to the other destination. Both Canada and the U.S.A. have five
would have to keep changing their watches if they time zones-the Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain
wanted to keep their appointments. This is imprac- and Pacific Time Zones. The difference between the
tical and very inconvenient. Iocal time of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly
To avoid all these difficulties, a system of standard five hours (Fig. 1.20).
time is observed by all countries. Most countries
adopt their standard time from the central meridian Fig.'1.20 The five time zones of Canada and the four time
of their countries. The Malaysian government has zones of the U.S.A.
accepted the meridian of 120'east for the standard
time which is 8 hours ahead of Greenwich Mtian - 6.00 7.d) 8.oo 9.oo 10.OO +
Time as from 1 January 1982. The whole world has '- a.m.i'.o.-i a.m. i a.m, i a,m. +
in fact been divided into 24 Standard Time Zones,
each of which differs from the next by 15' in longi-
tude or one hour in time. Most countries adhere to
this division but due to the peculiar shapes and
locations of some countries, reasonable deviations
from the Standard Time Zones cannot be avoided
(Fig. 1.1e).
Larger countries like the U.S.A., Canada and the
U.S.S.R. which have a great east-west stretch have
to adopt several time zones for practical purposes. The
U.S.S.R., the largest country, which extends through
almost 165" of longitude, is divided into eleven time

l3

The International Date Line
A traveller going eastwards gains time from Green-
wich until he reaches the meridian L80'E when he
will be L2 hours ahead of GMT. Similarly in going'
westwards, he loses 12 hours when he reaches
180" W. There is thus a total difference of 24 hours
or a whole day between the two sides of the 180"
meridian. This is the International Date Line where
the date changes by exactly one day when it is cross-
ed. A traveller crossing the date line from east to
lre.rt loses a day (because of the loss in time he has
made); and while crossing the date line from west to
east he gains a day (because of the gain in time he
encountered). Thus when it is midnight, Friday on
the Asiatic side, by crossing the line eastwards, he
gains a day; it will be midnight Thursday on the
American side, i.e. he experiences the same cal-
endar date twice! When Magellan's ship eventually
arrived home in Spain in 1,522 after circumnavigating
the world from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific
Ocean and westwards across the International Date
Line, the crew knew nothing about adding a day for
the one they had missed. They thought they had
arrived on the 5 September. They were shocked to
be told that the date was 6 September. A modern
aircraft leaving Wellington at 5.00 p.m. on Friday
reaches Hawaii 6 601 km (4,100 miles) away at
2.00 p.m. the same Friday. The same aircraft on its
return journey from Hawaii leaves at 6.00 p.m. on
Friday but arrives at Wellington at 1L.00 a.m. on
Sunday. Can you explain this?
The International Date Line in the mid-Pacific
curves from the normal 180'meridian at the Bering
Strait, Tonga and other islands to prevent confusion
of day and date in some of the island groups that are
cut through by the meridian. Some of them keep
Asiatic or New Zealand standard time, others follow
the American date and time. The International Date
Line is shown in Fig. 1.21.
Great Circle Routes
Since the Earth is spherical in shape, the shortest
distance between any two points on the globe lies
along its circumference. There are an infinite num-
ber of great circles of equal length running around
the globe, e.g. the circle formed by the Greenwich
Meridian and the 180' meridian (PQ); the circle
formed by the 130'W and 50' E meridians (XY)' Of
the lines of latitude, only the equator AB is a great
circle (Fig. 1.22).
When drawn on a globe great circles appear as
straight lines, but when they are drawn on flat maps

Fig. 1.21 The International Date Line

Fig. 1.22 The Great Circles

Fig. 1.23 The Great Circle air-routes

*oqlH ArtEH rcA

Mexico City

STOCKHOLM

A sla Lumpu]
,!rF \
,/-r?-..1\
(\
\J V
300,ooo,ooo

t4
of the world they may not appear so. In fact on many
maps great circles appear curved and routes follow-
ing them seem to be much longer than routes along
a straight line joining two places. This is an illusion
created by the distortion of the shape of the earth
to allow it to be drawn on a flat map.
Modern aircraft follow routes along sections of
great circles for speedy long-distance flights and thus
cut down flying time. But it is not always possible to
follow great circle routes. Firstly, air routes must
link numerous cities and thus planes proceed in short
'hops'from place to place; secondly, it may be impos-
sible to fly along great circles for political reasons if
some countries forbid the use of their air-space;
thirdly, air routes tend to follow the land in case of
accident and rarely fly for long distances over the
sea. However, where long distances have to be cov-
ered over uninhibited regions, great circle routes are
the quickest. They are therefore used in crossing
polar regions. Some of the major great circle routes
over the pole include that from London to Vancou-
ver or Los Angeles, t-hat from Tokyo to Stockholm
and that from Tokyo to Mexico City (Fig. 1.23).
Polar routes are not only quicker but also relieve
air-traffic congestion on the very crowded conven-
tional routes.

O,uestions and Exercises

1. With the aid of annotated diagrams, attempt to 5. Either: Give an explanatory account of the fol-
prove that the earth is spherical. Give as many lowing:
reasons as you can. (a) Daylight increases as we go polewards in
2. Explain with the aid of fairly accurate diagrams, summer in the northern hemisphere.
how the tilt of the earth's axis on its orbital plane (b) The period of twilight in Britain is longer
around the sun causes: than in Malaysia.
(a) the seasons; (c) A ship crossing the International Date
(b) the variations in the length of day and Line at midnight on Wednesday eastwards
night; finds that it is midnight, Tuesday, on the
(c) the altitude of the midday sun to change American side.
at different times of the year. Or: Work out the following:
3. Explain the differences between any three of (a) What is the approximate distance in a
the following: straight line between Cairo (lat. 30" 0' N,
(a) perihelion and aphelion; long. 31' 5' E and Durban (lat. 29" 57' S,
(b) parallels of latitude and meridians of lon- long. 30o 59' E)?
gitude; (b) When it is 2:ffi p.m. in Greenwich, what
(c) the earth's rotation and the earth's revo- is the local time of:
lution; i. Sydney (long. 151" E);
(d) solstice and equinox: ii. Chicago (long. 87" 30' W);
(e) Standard Time and Greenwich Mean iii. Kuala Kangsar (long. 101" E).
Time. (c) The captain of a ship observed that it was
4. Explain any three of the following terms con- local noon. He turned on the radio and
nected with the earth and its planetary relations: listened to the 7.00 a.m. BBC news. What
(a) galaxy; was his longitude?
(b) Prime Meridianl
(c) elliptical orbit;
(d) International Date Line.

15
Sample Objective Ouestions
1. Moscow and Nairobi are on the A 500 hours (5 a.m.) C when the Earth is obscured bY
same line of longitude (37'E), it can B 15 00 hours (3 p.m.) Mars
thus be deduced that C 600 hours (6 a.m.) D immediately after a lunar eclipse
A they are of equal distance from D 16 00 hours (4 p.m.)
the equator 9. The following simplified diagram
B they have similar hours of day shows the annual movement of the
5. All parallels of latitude
light on 21 June A are parallel to the equator
sun. The important latitudes
C they have noon at the same time (Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic
B converge at the poles of Capricorn) are indicated. Which
D dawn is of the same duration in C increase in their distance towards
both places position marked shows the summer
the poles
solstice (21st June) for the northern
D make right angles with the centre
hemisphere?
2. The World Cup Final between West of the earth
Germany and Holland was played at
Munich (Longitude ll"E) at 5.00
p.m. on 7 July 1974. What was The sun is overhead at noon along
mathematically the local time in the laritude 18"N
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Longitude A at the winter solstice, i.e. 22 De-
102"E) when it was televised live? cember
A 11.01 a.m. 6 July B at the summer solstice, i.e. 21

B 11.04 p.m. 7 July June

C 6.34 p.m. 7 July C at the equinoxes
D 10.30 p.m. 8 July D between 2l March and 21 June
10. Which statement is incorrect?
A The solar system comprises the
3. Which of the following statements 7. When it is 4.00 p.m. in Kuala Lum- Sun, the nine planets and their
is incorrect? pur, it is 4.30 p.m. in Manila, 5.30 satellites
A The Earth and the other Planets p.m. in Tokyo and 8.30 p.m. in Wel- b The circular horizon of the Earth
revolve round the Sun lington. This is because widens as altitude increases
B The degree of longitude de- A of their differences in latitude C The Earth has two movements: it
creases in length towards the B the Earth rotates from east to rotates on its own axis and re-
poles west volves round the sun
C Of the lines of latitude, only the C the cities are located in different D Dawn and twilight is longer in
equator is a great circle time zones temperate zones as opposed to
D All countries have one standard D Kuala Lumpur experiences lon- tropical regions
time zone ger daylight than Wellington
11. On 2lst March, Alaska (U.S.A.) ex-
4. The captain of an ocean liner ob- 8. The solar eclipse occurs periences
served that the longitude of his ship A when the Earth comes between A longer days and shorter nights
was 75'W. When the time in London the Moon and the Sun B equal days and nighr
is 11 00 hours (11.00 a.m.), the time B when the Moon comes between C 24 hours of daylight
in the liner would be the Sun and the Earth D long nights and short days

l6
Chapter 2 The Earth's Crust
The Structure of the Earth
In order to understand the geography of the external
landforms of the Earth, it is essential that we have
some idea of what lies within the Earth's crust. It is
not possible to know exactly how the Earth was
formed about 4 500 million years ago, but from the
evidence of volcanic eruptions, earthquake waves,
deep-mine operations and crustal borings the follow-
ing facts are quite clear.
<--,--atmosphere
rth s crust
lithosphere)
(
/'OCeanS
' (hydrosphere)
Fig. 2.1 A section showing the structure and composition
of the Earth
The Earth is made up of several concentric layers
(Fig. 2.1). The outer layer is the Earth's crust-the
lithosphere-which comprises two distinct parts. The
upper part consists of granitic rocks and forms the
continents. Its main mineral constituents are silica
and a/umina so it is collectively referred to as the
sial.lt has an average density of 2.7. The lower part
is a continuous zone of denser basaltic rocks forming
the ocean floors, comprising mainly silica, iron and
zagnesium. It is therefore called sima and has an
average density of 3.0. The sial and sima together
form the Earth's crust which varies in thickness from
only 5-6 km (3-4 miles) beneath the oceans to as
much as 48 km (30 miles) under some parts of the
continents. Since the sial is lighter than the sima, the
continents can be said to be 'floating' on a sea of
denser sima. This is illustrated inFig.2.2.
Immediately beneath the crust or lithosphere is
the mantle (or mesosphere) about 2 900 km (1,800
l7
Fis.2.2 A section ,r";;; ;;*" continent (srAL) roats
on the denser SIMA
miles) thick, composed mainly of very dense rocks
rich in olivine. The interior layer is the core (or bar-
ysphere) 3 476 km (2,1ffi miles) in radius, and is
made up mainly of iron (Fe) with some njckel and
is called nift.The temperature here is estimated to
be as high as1 927 "C (3,500 .F), and the core is sub_
ject to extremely high pressure. Under such condi-
tions, the core could be expected to be in a liquid
state. But recent studies through earthquake waves
have suggested that the innermost part of the core
is probably a crystalline or solid mass.
Parts of the Earth's crust are immersed bv oceans
and seas. These form the hydrosphere. Extending
skywards for over 24 km (15 miles), the earth is en-
veloped.
The Glassification of Rocks
The Earth's crust is made up of various types of
rock, differing from one another in texture, struc-
ture, colour, permeability, mode of occurrence and
degree of resistance to denudation. A knowledge of
these rocks is of paramount importance to geolo-
gists, who study the composition and physical history
of the earth, but the geographer, too, needs a basic
knowledge of the most common rocks and their
relationship with landforms. Rocks also form the
basis for soil, and determine to some extent the type
of natural vegetation and land use, so we must have
a fair acquaintance with the rocks around us.
Generally speaking, all rocks may be classified
into three major groups-lgneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic, according, to their origin and appear-
ance.
rcNEous RocKs
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and soli-
dification of molten rock (magma) from beneath the
Earth's crust. They are normally crystalline in struc-
ture. They do not occur in strata (layers) nor do they
contain fossils. Igneous rocks may be subdivided on
the basis of mineral composition. When they contain
a high proportion of silica they are said to be acid.
Acid igneous rocks, such as granite, are less dense
and are lighter in colour than basic rocks. These con-
tain a greater proportion of basic oxides, e.g. of Most igneous rocks are extremely hard and resist-
iron, aluminium or magnesium, and are thus denser ant. For this reason, they are quarried for road-mak-
and darker in colour. ing and polished as monuments and grave-stones.
In terms of origin there are two main classes of.
igneous rocks.
1. Plutonic rocks. These are rocks formed at some
depth in the earth's crust. They have cooled and soli-
dified slowly so that large, easily-recognized crystals
have been able to form. These intrusive rocks. such
as granite, diorite and gabbro, are exposed to the
surface by the processes of denudation and erosion.
2. Volcanic rocks. These are molten rocks poured
out of volcanoes as lavas. They solidifi rapidly on the
Earth's surface and the crystals are small.
Basalt is a common volcanic or extrusive rock and
forms lava flows, lava sheets and lava plateaux, e.g.
2.A Basalt columns in the Giant's Causeway, Northern lre-
land, U.K. Goh Cheng Leong
l8
those of Antrim in Northern lreland, the Deccan
Plateau in Indla and the Columbia-Snake Plateau in
the U.S.A. Some kinds of basalt solidify in a very
peculiar manner to form long polygonal columns
(Plate 2.A). A well-known example is the columnar
basalt of the Giant's Causeway in Antrim. Some of
the molten lava may push its way to the surface
through clefts and passages, solidifying as vertical
dykes or horizontal sills. Their origin and occurr-
ence will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments accu-
mulated over long periods, usually under water.
They are distinguished from the other rock types by
their characteristic layer formation and are ter-
med stratified rocks (Plate 2.B). The strata may
vary in thickness from a few centimetres to many
metres. The rocks may be coarse or fine-grained,
soft or hard. The materials that form sedimentary
rocks may be brought by streams, glaciers, winds or
even animals. They are non-crystalline and often
contain fossils of animals, plants and other micro-
organisms. Sedimentary rocks are thus the most var-
ied in their formation of all rocks. Sedimentary rocks
are classified according to their age and different
kinds of rocks formed during the same period are
grouped together. It is more useful to know the
characteristics of the various kinds of rock.
Sedimentary rocks may be classified under three
2.8 Minor faulting in sedimentary rocks of the Kenny Hill
Series. Two small faults have distorted the strata. G,C, Mor-
gan
2.C This beach of limestone on the lsle of Man had its layers
bent by igneous intrusions. In the foreground is the igneous
rock with its totally different surface. Popperfoto
major categories in accordance with their origin and
composition.
1. Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks. These
rocks have been formed from the accumulation of
materials derived from other rocks which have been
cemented together. Sandstones are probably the
most familiar sedimentary rocks. They are made
from sand grains, often quartz fragments derived
from granites. Their texture, composition and colour
vary tremendously. Many types of sandstone have
been quarried for building purposes or for making
grindstones. A coarser type of sandstone is known
as grit. When larger pebbles are firmly cemented to
form a rock it is called conglomerate when the peb-
bles are rounded, or breccia when the fragments are
angular. The finer sedimentary materials form clay,
widely used for brick-making, shale or mudstone.
Sand and gravel may occur in uncemented form.
2. Organically formed sedimentary rocks. These
rocks are formed from the remains of living orga-
nisms such as corals or shellfish, whose fleshy parts
have been decomposed, leaving behind the hard
shells. The most common rocks formed in this way
are of the calcareous type. They include limestones
and chalk.
The carbonaceous rocks are also organically
formed but from vegetative matter-swamps and for-
ests. The pressure of overlying sediments has com-
19
pressed the plant remains into compact masses of
carbon which eventually become peat, tignite or
coal, all of which bear great economic value.
3. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks. Such
rocks are precipitated chemically from solutions of
one kind or another. Rock salts are derived from
strata which once formed the beds of seas or lakes.
Gypsum or calcium sulphate is obtained from the
evaporation of salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea,
which have a very high salinity. In similar ways,
potash and nitrates may be formed.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
All rocks whether igneous or sedimentary may
become metamorphic or changed rocks under great
heat and pressure. Their original character and
appearance may be greatly altered by such forces,
particularly during intense earth movements. In this
manner, clay may be metamorphosed into slate,
limestone into marble, sandstone into quartzite,
granite into gneiss, shale into schist and coal into
graphite.
The lnfluence of Rock Types on r
Landscape
The appearance and characteristic features of land-
forms are greatly influenced by the underlying rock
 type. Softer rocks like clay and shale are worn down
much faster than harder rocks like granite.
Within Peninsular Malaysia the resistant granites
form the high ground of the Main Range and the
Eastern Highlands, where several peaks rise to over
600 metres (2,000 feet). The landscape is one of
smooth slopes and rounded hilltops. The highest
peak in Peninsular Malaysia, Gunung Tahan,
2 190 metres (7,L86 feet) is composed of even more
resistant quarzite. Shales, schists and sandstones,
being less resistant, form the much lower, rounded
hills. Recent river sediments form flat plains. The
limestones, resistant because of their permeability,
form prominent steep-sided hills such as those near
Ipoh and in Perlis (Plate 2.D).

Earth Movements and the Maior

Landforms
The face of the Earth is constantly being reshaped
by the agents of denudation-running water, rain,
frost, sun, wind, glaciers and waves' so that our pres-
ent landforms are very varied and diverse. But these
2.D An isolated limestone hill near Kuala Lumpur. Compare agents only modify the pattern of mountains, pla-
this hill with the limestone features shown in Chapter 8. teaux and plains which have been modelled by
Jabatan Penerangan movements of the Earth's crust.

Fig. 2.3 Structural divisions of the Earth

di iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiririiili 9?

N To
+

Young Alplne Folds

Hercynlan Folds

Caledonlsn Folds

Prs-Crmbrlan Anclont Shl€Jd. Scal€ 1 : 215,OOO,OOO (1 Inch: 5 44O km/3,4OO mlles)

20
 Since the dawn of geological time, no less than
nine orogenic or mountain building movements have
taken place, folding and fracturing the Earth's crust.
Some of them occurred in Pre-Cambrian times
between 600-3 500 million years ago. The three
more recent orggenics are the Caledonian, Hercy-
nian and Alpine. The Caledonian about 320 million
years ago raised the mountains of Scandinavia and
Scotland, and is represented in North America.
These ancient mountdins have been worn down and
no longer exhibit the striking forms that they must
once have had. In a later period, during the Her-
cynian earth movements about 240 million years
ago, were formed such ranges as the Ural Moun-
tains, the Pennines and Welsh Highlands in Britain,
the Harz Mountains in Germany, the Appalachians
in America as well as the high plateaux of Siberia
and China. These mountains have also been reduced
in size by the various sculpturing forces. 2.E A syncfine in the Meuse Yalley Poppertoto
We are now living in an era very close to the last
of the major orogenic movements of the Earth, the 1. Fold mountains. These mountains are by far the
Alpine, about 30 million years ago. Young fold most widespread and also the most important. They
mountain ranges were buckled up and overthrust on are caused by large-scale earth movements, when
a gigantic scale. Being the most recently formed, stresses are set up in the Earth's crust. Such stresses
these ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, Andes may be due to the increased load of the overlying
and Rockies (shown in Fig. 2.3) are the loftiest and rocks, flow movements in the mantle, magmatic
the most imposing. Their peaks are sometimes sev- intrusions into the crust, or the expansion or con-
eral kilometres high. But the time will come when traction of some part of the Earth. When such
these lofty ranges will be lowered like those that stresses are initiated, the rocks are subjected to com-
existed before them. From the eroded materials, pressive forces that produce wrinkling or folding
new rocks will be formed, later to be uplifted to form along the lines of weakness. As illustrated in
the next generation of mountains. Fig.2.4(a) and (b) folding effectively shoilens the
Earth's crust, creating from the original level surface
a series of 'waves'. The upfolded waves are called
Types of Mountain
anticlines and the troughs or downfolds are syn-
Mountains make up a large proportion of the Earth's clines. (Plate 2.E). The formation of up- and down-
surface. Based on their mode of formation, four folds closely resembles that of the wrinkles of a
main types of mountain can be distinguished. table-cloth when it is pushed from either one or both
sides of the table.
Fig.2.4lal The horizontal strata of the Earth's crust before In the great fold mountains of the world such as
folding the Himalayas, Rockies, Andes and Alps, due to the
Fig. 2.4(b) Compression shortens the crust forming fold complexity of the compressional forces, the folds
mountains developed much more complicated forms. When the

Fig. 2.5 Types of folding

comprssion
-+
anticline asvmmelricfold recumbenl fold

thrustolane {tault line)

21
crest of a fold is pushed too far, an overfold is -f
formed (Fig. 2.5). If it is pushed still further, it "i
becomes a recumbent fold (Fig. 2.5). In extreme
cases, fractures may occur in the crust, so that the
upper part of the recumbent fold slides forward over
the lower part along a thrust plane, forming an
overthrust fold. The overriding portion of the thrust
fold is termed a nappe (Fig. 2.5). Since the rock
strata have been elevated to great heights, some-
times measurable in kilometres, fold mountains may
be called mountains of elevation. The fold mountains
are also closeJy associated with volcanic activity.
They contain many active volcanoes, especially in
the Circum-Pacific fold mountain system. They also
contain rich rnineral resources such as tin, copper,
gold and petroleum. Fig.2.7(al Block mountains (horstl formed by tension when
faults develop
2. Btock mountains. When the Earth's crust bends
folding occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes
place (Fig. 2.6). Faulting may be caused by tension
or compression, forces which lengthen or shorten
the Earth's crust, causing a section of it to subside
or to rise above the surrounding level. Figs. 2.7(a)
and (b) explain how faulting causes horsts or block
mountains and their counterparts graben or rift val-
leys.
In Fig. 2.7(a) earth movements generate tensional
forces that tend to pull the crust apart, and faults arc
developed. If the block enclosed by the faults
remains as it is or rises. and the land on either side
subsides, the upstanding block becomes the horst or
block mountains. The faulted edges are very steep,
with scarp slopes and the summit is almost level, e.g.
the Hunsruck Mountains, the Vosges and Black For- Fig. 2.7(b) Rift valley formed by compression when faults
est of the Rhineland. Tension may also cause the develop
central portion to be let down between two adjacerit

.+ Ton3ion *"

Fig.2.7(cl Later stage when overhanging sides are worn

back

fault blocks forming a graben or rift valley, which

Fig. 2,6 Normal. reverse and
transcurrent faults
will have steep walls. The East African Rift Valley
system is 4 828 km (3,000 miles) long, stretching
from East Africa through the Red Sea to Syria.
Compressional forces set up by earth movements
may produce a thrust or reverse fault and shorten
the crust. A block may be raised or lowered in rela-

22

Fig. 2.8 A volcano, or'mountain of accumulation' with suc-
cessive layers of lava
tion to surrounding areas. Fig. 2.7(b) illustrates a
rift valley formed in this way. In general large-scale
block mountains and rift valleys are due to tension
rather than compression. The faults may occur in
series and be further complicated by tilting and other
irregularities. Denudation through the ages modifies
faulted landforms.
3. Volcanic mountains. These are. in fact. volcanoes
which are built up from materials ejected from fis-
sures in the Earth's crust. The materials include mol-
ten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and
liquid mud. They fall around the vent in successive
layers, building up a characteristic volcanic cone
(Fig. 2.8). Volcanic mountains are often called
mountains of accumulation. They are common in the
Circum-Pacific belt and include such volcanic peaks
as Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon (Philippines), Mt.
Merapi (Sumatra), Mt. Agung (Bali) and Mt. Coto-
paxi (Ecuador). Further details are given in Chapter
3.
4. Residual rnountains. These are mountains evolved
by denudation. Where the general level of the land
has been lowered by the agents of denudation some
very resistant areas may remain and these form
residual mountains, e.g. Mt. Monadnock in U.S.A.
Residual mountains may also evolve from plateaux
which have been dissected by rivers into hills and
valleys like the ones illustrated in Fig. 2.9. Here the
ridges and peaks are all very similar in height.
Fig. 2.9 Residual mountains or mountains of denudation
23
Examples of dissected plateaux, where the down-cut-
ting streams have eroded the uplands into mountains
of denudation, are the Highlands of Scotland, Scan-
dinavia and the Deccan Plateau.
Types of Plateau
Plateaux are elevated uplands with extensive level
surfaces, and usually descend steeply to the sur-
rounding lowland. They are sometimes referred to
as tablelands. Like all highlands, plateaux are sub-
jected to erosional processes. As a result, their orig-
inal characteristics may be greatly altered. According
to their mode of formation and their physical
appearance, plateaux may be grouped into the fol-
lowing types.
1. Tectonic plateaux. These are formed by earth
movements which cause uplift, and are normally of
a considerable size, and fairly uniform altitude. They
include continental blocks like the Deccan Plateau
in India. Some of the tectonic plateaux may be tilted
like the Meseta of central lberia, or faulted like the
Harz of Germany.
When plateaux are enclosed by fold mountains,
they are known as intermont plateaux. Examples are
the Tibetan Plateau between the Himalayas and the
Kunlun, and the Bolivian Plateau between two
ranges of the Andes. Intermont plateaux are some
of the highest and the most extensive plateaux in the
world.
2. Volcanic plateaux. Molten lava may issue from
the Earth's crust and spread over its surface to form
successive sheets of. basaltic lava. These solidify to
form a lava plateau. Some of the better known vol-
canic plateaux are the Antrim Plateau of Northern
Ireland and the north-western part of the Deccan
Plateau. The most rernarkable plateau built by lava
is the Columbia-Snake Plateau which covers an area
almost twice as big as Malaysia. Each layer of the
lava flow is over 30 metres (100 feet) thick and the
entire depth of successive lava layers is estimated to
be almost 1.6 km (a mile).
3. Dissected plateaux. Through the continual pro-
cess of weathering and erosion by running water, ice
and winds, high and extensive plateaux are gradually
worn down, and their surfaces made irregular. In the
humid highlands, stream action and sometimes gla-
ciation cut deep, narrow valleys in the plateaux,
which are then described as dissected plateaux. An
example is the Scottish Highlands. In drier coun-
tries, vertical corrasion by rivers and abrasion by
winds will dissect the plateau into steep-sided tabular
masses termed mesas and buttes, intersected by deep
canyons. This is a common feature of arid and semi-
arid areas, e.g. in the south-western U.S.A. (Plate
7.D, page 71).
Many of the world's plateaux have rich mineral
resources and have been actively mined. The Afri-
can Plateau yields gold, diamonds, copper, man-
ganese and chromium. In the Brazilian Plateau,
there are huge resources of iron and manganese,
particularly in the Minas Gerais area. The Deccan
Plateau has deposits of manganese, coal and iron
and the plateau of Western Australia is rictr in gold
and iron.
Types of Plain
A plain is an area of lowland, eitherlevel or undu-
lating. It seldom rises more than a few hundred
metres above sea-level. There may be low hills
which will give a typical rolling topography. The
plains usually form the best land of a country and
are often intensively cultivated. Population and set-
tlements are normally concentrated here, and when
plains are traversed by rivers, as most of them are,
their economic importance may be even greater, e.g.
the Indo-Gangetic plain, the Mississippi plain and
the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) plain. Some of the most
extensive temperate plains are grasslands like the
Russian Steppes, the North American Prairies, and
the Argentinian Pampas. Plains may be grouped into
three major types based on their mode of formation.
l. Structural plains. These are the structurally
depressed areas of the world that make up some of
the most extensive natural lowlands on the Earth's
surface. They are formed by horizontally bedded
rocks, relatively undisturbed by the crustal move-
ments of the Earth. They include such great plains
as the Russian Platform. the Great Plains of the
U.S.A. and the central lowlands of Australia.
2. Depositional plains. These are plains formed by
the deposition of materials brought by various agents
of transportation. They are comparatively level but
rise gently towards adjacent highlands. Their fertil-
ity and economic development depend greatly on
the types of sediment that are laid down.
Some of the largest depositional plains are due to
deposition by large rivers. Active erosion in the
upper course results in large quantities of alluvium
being brought dowr: to the lower course and depos-
ited to form extenslve alluvial plains, flood plains
and deltaic plains. They form the most productive
agricultural plains of the world, intensively tilled and
24
very densely populated. The Nile delta of Egypt is
noted for rice and cotton cultivation, the Ganges
delta for rice and jute growing, while the plain of
North China, where the Huang He (Hwang Ho) has
spread out a thick mantle of alluvium, supports a
wide range of crops.
Glaciers and ice-sheets may deposit a widespread
mantle of unsorted fluvio-glacial sands and gravels
in the outwash plain or may drop boulder clay, a
mixture of various sizes of boulders and clay, to form
a till plain or drift plain. Outwash plains are usually
barren lands, e.g. some parts of the Netherlands and
northern Germany, but boulder clay may be very
valuable farming land, e.g. the Mid-West of the
U.S.A. and East Anglia in England.
In coastal regions waves and winds often drive
beach materials, mud, sand or shingle, landwards
and deposit them on the coastal plain to form marine
swamps, mudflats, tidal and estuarine lowlands. An
appreciable portion of the coastal lowlands of Bel-
gium, the Netherlands and the Gulf Coast of the
U.S.A. were formed in this.way. Uplift may raise
the coastal lowlands slightly and they then form an
emergent coastal plain, e.g. the coastal margins from
Florida to Texas.
Winds may blow aeolian deposits-very fine parti-
cles known as loess-from interior deserts or barren
surfaces and deposit them upon hills, valleys or
plains forming a /oess plateau, as in north-west
China, or a loess plain, as in the Pampas of Argen-
tina. The loess helps to level an undulating plain by
filling up grooves and depressions. Many of the
loess-covered plains in the world are fertile agricul-
tural regions.
3. Erosional plains. These plains are carved by the
agents of erosion. Rain, rivers, ice and wind help to
smooth out the irregularities of the Earth's surface,
and in terms of millions of years, even high moun-
tains can be reduced to low undulating plains. Such
plains of denudation are described as peneplains a
word meaning 'almost-plains' (Fig. 2.10).
Fig,2,10 Peneplain
In the formation of a peneplain in humid conditions. the hills
are both lowered and worn back to give an undulating low-
land.
 Rivers, in their course from source to sea, deepen
their valleys and widen their banks. The projecting
spurs are cut back so that the level ground bordering
the river is constantly widened. At the same time the
higher land between the rivers is gradually lowered.
In glaciated regions, glaciers and ice-sheets Fig.2.11 Pediplain
In the formation of a pediplain in arid or semi-arid condi-
scoured and levelled the land forming ice-scoured tions, the hills are worn back to form a gently sloping plain
plains. Hollows scooped out by the ice are now filled but some steep hills remain. These are called inselbergs.
by lakes. There are extensive ice-scoured plains in
northern Europe and northern Canada. Finland is
estimated to have 35 000 lakes, occupying l0 per plains, e.g. the gravelly or stony desert plains called
cent of the total land surface of the country. reg in Africa. Mechanical weathering in arid and
In arid and semi-arid regions, wind deflation semi-arid ateas wears back the mountain slopes to
sweeps away much of the eroded desert materials, leave gently sloping pediments or pediplains
lowering the level of land and forming extensive (Fig. 2.11).

Ouestions and Exercises

1. Either: Attempt a classification of mountains 4. For each of the following:
according to their mode of formation; a young fold mountain
Or: Explain why a knowledge of rocks and their a rift valley
structures is essential in the interpretation of a loess plain
landforms. (a) Draw a simple diagram to show its charac-
2. With the aid of diagrams, explain the difference teristic relief.
in appearance and formation of any three of the (b) Explain its origin.
following: (c) Name and locate a region where such a fea-
(a) folds and faults; ' ture may be found.
(b) dissected plateau and intermont plateau; 5. Either: Describe and explain the following
(c) alluvial plain and peneplain; selected landforms:
(d) sima and sial; (a) Antrim Plateau;
(e) lithosphere and barysphere. (b) Russian Platform;
3. What is a sedimentary rock? In what way is it (c) Scottish Highlands.
different from igneous rocks? Describe the var- Or: Explain the meaning of any four of the fol-
ious sources from which sedimentary rocks may lowing terms connected with the study of land-
be derived. (Quote actual examples of sedimen- forms and Earth's crust:
tary rocks to support your answer.) basalt, orogenesis, recumbent fold, fossiliferous
rocks, horst, syncline.

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. In which of the following is a know- Photograph 2.8 on page 21 shows a 3. Rocks differ from one another in
ledge of the underlying rocks /easl syncline which is the direct result of these respects ercep,
essential? A folding A texture
A oil drilling B faulting B permeability
B weather studies C metamorphosis C salinity
C soil analysis D mass movement D mode ofoccurrence
D road construction
,)q
4. The interior layer of the Earth which 5. The diagram bGlow attempts to illus-
AcE
rs subjected to great heat and pres'
sure is known technically as the
tlate the formation of
A fold mountains
--T I

barysphere. Which part of the Earth B block mountains

does it refer to? C residual mountains
A the core
B the crust
C the mantle
D the ocean
D intermont plateau
^l

26
Chapter 3 Volcanism and Earthquakes
Landforms Associated with Volcanic
Activities
Volcanic activities have a profound influence on the
earth's landforms. Solid, liquid or gaseous materials
may find their way to the surface from some deep-
seated reservoir beneath. Molten magma is mobile
rock that forces its way into the planes of weakness
of the crust to escape quietly or explosively to the
surface.The resultant landforms depend on the
strength and fluidity of the magma, the types of
cracks, faults and joints that it penetrates, and the
manner in which it escapes to the surface. Magma
while thrusting its way up to the surface may cool
and solidify within the crust as plutonic rocks result-
ing in intrusive landforms. Magma that reaches the
surface and solidifies, forms extrusive landforms.
Rocks formed by either plutonic or volcanic activity
ale called igneous rocks.
Landforms of lgneous Intrusions
Perhaps the commonest intrusive landforms are si//s
and dykes. When an intrusion of molten magma is
made horizontally along the bedding planes of sed-
imentary rocks, the resultant intrusion is called a sill.
Fig. 3.1 lntrusive landforms of igneous intrusions in vol-
canic regions (showing sill. dyke, laccolith, lopolith, phacol-
ith and batholithl
sill forming a
bold 6carpment dyke more resistant
than surrounding rocks
I39"o"o"Jr,
c6unrty ror*s mgam)f.prrfeo ui$"N
x x--. x
Denudation of the overlying sedimentary strata will
expose the intrusion which will resemble a lava flow,
or form a bold escarpment like the Great Whin Sill
of north-east England. Similar intrusions when
injected vertically as narrow walls of igneous rocks
within the sedimentary layers, are termed dykes.
Because of their narrowness, dykes seldom domi-
nate the landscape. When exposed to denudation
they may appear as upstanding walls or shallow
trenches, depending on whether they are more or
less resi$tant than the rocks in which they are
emplaced. Examples of dykes are the Cleveland
Dyke of Yorkshire, England'and hundreds of others
in the Isles of Mull and Arran in Scotland. A large,
very resistant dyke of quartzite forms a long ridge
to the north of Kuala Lumpur, called the Kelang
Gates Ridge.
Igneous intrusions on a larger scale are the various
types of '-lith'; Iaccolitlu, lopolitlu, phacoliths and
batholitln (Fig. 3.1). The names may sound difficult;
they are, in fact, all variations of igneous intrusions
placed differently in the earth's crust, and solidifying
within the upper layers of the crust. A laccolith is a
large blister or igneous mound with a dome-shaped
upper surface and a level base fed by a pipeJike con-
duit from below. It arches up the overlying strata of
lila platsu built up
by succcsive flows
rL 6fi6ffi
27
sedimentary rocks, e.g. the laccoliths of the Henry
Mountains, in Utah, U.S.A.
A lopolith is another variety of ignbous intrusion
with a saucer shape. A shallow basin is formed in the
midst of the country rocks. The Bushveld lopoliths
of Transvaal, South Africa are good examples.
A phacolith is a lens-shaped mass of igneous rocks
occupying the crest of. an anticline or the bottom of
a syncline and being fed by a conduit from beneath.
An example of a phacolith is Corndon Hill in Shrop-
shire, England.
A batholith is a huge mass of igneous. rocks, usu-
ally granite, which after removal of the overlying
rocks forms a massive and resistant upland region
such as the Wicklow Mountains of Ireland, the
uplands of Brittany, France and the Main Range of
Peninsular Malaysia. Their precise mode of origin
is still a matter of controversy. It is generally
believed that large masses of magma rising upwards
metamorphosed the country rocks with which they
came into contact. These metamorphosed rocks
together with the solidified magma have given rise
to extensive batholiths, sometimes hundreds of kil-
ometres in extent. They are the most spectacular of
the intrusive landforms.

3.A Mt. Mayon, Philippines, in eruption

The Origin of Volcanoes

The ancient Greeks believed that volcanic eruptions
occurred when Vulcan. the God of Fire. stoked his
subterranean furnace beneath Vulcano, a small vol-
canic island off Sicily, from which the present word
volcano is derived. Of course, we no longer believe
this is true. Geologists and vulcanologists have
ascertained that volcanic activity is closely connected
with crustal disturbances, particularly where there
are zones of weakness due to deep faulting or moun-
tain folding. As temperature increases with increas-
ing-depth below the earth's crust, at an average rate
of about 1 oC for every 20 metres (1 "F for every 65
feet) of descent, the interior of the earth can be
expected to be in a semi-molten state, comprising
solid, liquid and gaseous materials, collectively
termed magma. The magma is heavily charged with
gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphurated hydrogen,
and small proportions of nitrogen, chlorine and
other volatile substances. The gases and vapour
increase the mobility and explosiveness of the lavas
which are emitted through the orifice or vent of a
volcano during a volcanic eruption (Plate 3.A).
There are two main types of lava.
1. Basic lavas. These are very hot lavas, about
1 000 "C(1,830 "F) andarehighlyfluid. Theyaredark
coloured like basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but
poor in silica. As they are poured out of the volcano,
they flow quietly and are not very explosive. Due to
their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of
16-48 km per hour (10-30 miles per hour). They
affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets
over great distances before they solidify. The result-
ant volcano is gently sloping with a wide diameter
and forms a flattened shield or dome (Fig. 3.2).
2. Acid lavas. These lavas are highly viscous with a
high melting point. They arc light-coloured, of low
density, and have a high percentage of silica. They
Fig.3.2 Basic lava dome or shield volcano
crater
ighly f luid lava

28

3.8 Basalt columns of volcanic origin Algeria Servizio Edi-
toriale Fotografico
flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying.
The resultant cone is therefore steep-sided. The
rapid congealing of lava in the vent obstructs the
flow of the out-pouring lava, resulting in loud explo-
sions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyro-
c/asrs (Fig. 3.3). Sometimes the lavas are so viscous
that they form a spine or plug at the crater like that
of Mt. Pelee in Martinique (Fig. 3.a). Some spines
are very resistant and while most of the material of
very old volcanoes is removed by erosion the spine
may remain, e.g. Puy de Dome, France.
Types of Volcano
There are three types of volcano: active, dormant
and extinct. Volcanoes are said to be active when
they frequently erupt or at least when they have
erupted within recent time. Those that have been
known to erupt and show signs of possible eruption
in the future are described as dormant. Volcanoes
that have not erupted at all in historic times but
retain the features of volcanoes are termed extinct.
All volcanoes pass through active, dormant and
Fig. 3.3 Acid lava cone
steeply sloping sides sticky viscous lava
which cannot
flow far
29
matsaal removd by erosion
Fig. 3.4 A volcanic plug or spine after prolonged exposure
to erosion. The plug is more resistant and remains after most
of the volcanic materials have been worn away,
extinct stages but we can never be thoroughly sure
when they are extinct. Mt. Vesuvius and Mt. Kraka-
toa were once thought by people to be extinct and
yet both erupted most violently.
Extrusive Landforms
Extrusive landforms are determined by the nature
and composition of the lava and other ejected mate-
rials that reach the surface of the earth. The fluid
basic lava, flowing for long distances produces exten-
sive lava plains and basalt plateaux, such as the great
lava plains of the Snake Basin, U.S.A. The basalt
plateaux are found in many continents, e.g. the
north-western part of the Deccan Plateau and in Ice-
land.
Volcanic cones are most typical of the extrusive
features. The highly fluid lavas build up lava domes
or shield volcanoes with gently rising slopes and
broad, flattened tops. The volcanoes of Hawaii have
the best developed lava domes. The spectacular
Mauna Loa and Kilauea are so accessible that they
have been closely studied. Kilauea has a very steep-
walled caldera into which the active vent pours red
hot lava forming the lava-pit of Halemaumau. Thou-
sands of lava fountains rise and fall in the dazzling
pit.
The less fluid lavas that explode more violently
form ash and cinder cones with large central craters
and steep slopes. They are typical of small volcan-
oes, occurring in groups and seldom exceeding
300 metres (1,000 feet) in height, such as Mt. Nuovo,
near Naples and Mt. Paricutin in Mexico. The lava
flows are so viscous that they solidifu after a short
 of magma beneath

3.C The twisted strata of a volcanic mountain in South Fig. 3.5 A composite cone
Africa

distance. When they are confined in valleys, they
form lava tongues and lava-dammed lakes when they
dam a river valley (Fig. 9.a). Other minor features
that may be associated with lava obstructions include
lava bridges and lava tunnels.
A volcanic region may be strewn with solid mate-
rials that were hurled from the vent of the volcano.
The very fine particles are the volcanic dust which
may be shot so high into the sky that it travels round
the world several times before it eventually comes
to rest. The dust or ash falls as 'black snow' and can
bury houses and people. The coarser fragmental
rocks are collectively called pyroclasts and include
cinders or lapilli, scoria, pumice andvolcanic bombs.
The highest and most common volcanoes have
composite cones. They are often called strato-volcan-
During an eruption, materials from the top of the
cone is blown off or collapses into the vent, widening
the orifice into a large crater. Some volcanoes may
have greatly enlarged depressions called calderas,
which may be several kilometres across. These are
the result of violent eruptions accompanied by the
subsidence of much of the volcano into the magma
beneath (Fig. 3.6). Water may collect in the crater
or the caldera forming crater or caldera lakes, e.g.
Lake Toba in Sumatra and Crater Lake in Oreson
(Plate 3.D).
3.D Crater Lake in Oregon Servizio Editoriale Fotografico
;*P
r!
lr 'rrli!

oes. The cones are built up by several eruptions of

lava, ashes and other volcanic materials from the
main conduit which leads down to a reservoir of
magma. Each new eruption adds new layers of ashes
or lava to the sides of the volcano, which grows
steadily in height. From the main conduit, subsidiary
dykes or pipes may reach the surface as feeders to
parasitic cones. Lava escapes through them to the
sides of the main cones (Fig. 3.5). Mt. Etna in Sicily
has hundreds of such parasitic cones. Another inter-
esting composite volcano is Mt. Stromboli whose .l'i€i,.tlwa
frequent eruptions that make the summit glow have
earned for it the name'Lighthouse of the Mediter-
ranean'. Other well-known composite volcanoes
include Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji, Mt. Popacatapetl
and Mt. Chimborazo.

30

Fig. 3.6 A caldera, A violent eruption weakens the structure
of the volcano and after eruption has ceased much of the
volcano subsides into the magma reservoir beneath. The
depression may later be filled with water to form a lake.
Some Volcanic Eruptions
In the history of mankind perhaps the most
trous eruptions were those of Mt. Vesuvius, Mt.
Krakatoa and Mt. Pelee.
MT. VESUVIUS
Mt. Vesuvius, standing 1 200 metres (4,000 feet)
above the Bay of Naples, erupted violently on 24 Aug-
ust A.D.79 taking the people who lived around it by
complete surprise. White-hot lava flowed from par-
asitic cones. In the midst of a thundering explosion,
the highly gaseous magma escaped as gigantic lumi-
nous clouds in cauliflower form and shot up to great
heights before it fell to earth as pyroclasts and ashes.
The city of Pompeii, located to the south-west, was
buried beneath 6 metres (20 feet) of volcanic ashes
which were later cemented by the torrential down-
pours of heavy rain that accompanied the violent
eruption. In a similar way, the city of Herculaneum
on the west was completely overwhelmed by a mud-
flow of ashes and cinders almost 15 metres (50 feet)
thick, washed down by torrential rain from the
slopes of Vesuvius. Almost the entire population of
the two cities was buried alive.
After this, minor eruptions occurred from time to
time but the fertility of the solidified volcanic ashes
tempted many farmers to begin anew on the slopes
of Vesuvius. Then came the catastrophic eruption of
December 1631 when an avalanche comprising red
hot volcanic debris, pasty lava and highly energized
gases ruined fifteen towns and killed 4 000 inhabit-
ants. The ashes that descended on Naples were
estimated to be one-third of a metre (a foot) thick.
MT. KRAKATOA
The greatest volcanic explosion known to men is
perhaps that of Mt. Krakatoa in August 1883. Kra-
katoa is a small volcanic island in the Sunda Straits,
midway between Java and Sumatra. Dense black
clouds of ashes shot 30-80 km (20-50 miles) high,
and were brought down as mud by the torrential rain
which fell over the adjacent islands. So much magma
was ejected from the underlying reservoir that two-
thirds of the island collapsed and disappeared form-
ing a huge submarine caldera. The explosion could
be heard in Australia, almost 4 800 km (3,000 miles)
away. In Jakarta the vibration shattered the window
panes of houses about 160 km (100 miles) away. The
fine dust that was thrown into the upper part of the
.
atmosphere travelled several times around the
world, causing brilliant sunsets and glowing sky in
many parts of the globe. Though Krakatoa itself was
not inhabited and nobody was killed by the lava
disas- flows, the vibration set up enormous tidal waves
over 30 metres (100 feet) high which drowned 36 000
people in the coastal districts of Sumatra, Indonesia.
After remaining dormant for almost half a cen-
tury, an eruption in 1927 pushed up a cinder cone
from the submarine floor, culminating in a summit
of 66 metres (220 feet) above sea-level by 1952. This
new volcanic island was named Anak Krakatoa.
meaning 'the child of Mt. Krakatoa'.
MT. PELEE
The eruption of Mt. Pelee in the West Indies in May
1902 was the most catastrophic of modern times.
The volcano erupted white-hot lava and super-
heated'steam which swept down the slope at an
amazing speed as a nul6e ardente (glowing ava-
lahche). St. Pierre, the capital of Martinique, lying
on the path of the lava, was completely destroyed
within minutes. Its entire population of 30 000,
except two of them, was killed almost instantly.
Even the sea was boiling and all the ships in the har-
bour were wrecked.
The ejection of volcanic materials continued for
several months until a vertical spine rose from the
crater, almost 3(X) metres (1,000 feet) high by the
middle of 1903. The spine was formed by the pasty
lava, partially solidified in the neck of the volcano.
Part of the spine, however, crumbled under contin-
ual weathering as well as internal forces.
The Distribution of Volcanoes in the
World
Volcanoes are located in a fairly clearly-defined pat-
tern around the world, closely related to regions that
have been intensely folded or faulted. There are well
over 500 active volcanoes and thousands of dormant
3l
3.8 Mt. Mayon seen from the town of Legaspi, southern
Luzon Philippine Tourist and Travel Association

Fig. 3.7 World distribution of volcanoes, lava plateaux and

earthquakes

{&}'g

''o"'''"ffi su
COLUMBIA A SNAKE R. PLATEAU

fl"*;tu"" 1r;
."" ffi- o1

Scale 1 :215,OOO,OOO

32
and extinct ones. They occur along coastal mountain
ranges, as offshore islands and in the midst of
oceans. but there are few in the interiors of conti-
nents. The greatest concentration is probably that in
the Circum-Pacific region, popularly termed the
'Pacific Ring of Fire', which has been estimated to
include two-thirds of the world's volcanoes
(Fig. 3.7). The chain of volcanoes extends for almost
3 200 km (2,000 miles) from the Aleutian Islands
into Kamchatka, Japan, the Philippines, and Indo-
nesia (Java and Sumatra in particular), southwards
into the Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides,
Tonga and North Island, New Zealand. On the
other side of the Pacific, the chain continues from
the Andes to Central America (particularly Guate-
mala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and right
up to Alaska. It is said that there are almost L00
Fig. 3.8 Hot springs and geysers
active volcanoes in the Philippines, 40 in the Andes,
35 in Japan, and more than 70 in Indonesia.
In contrast, the Atlantic coastshave comparatively emitted with an explosion, and is often triggered off
few active volcanoes but many dormdnt or extinct by gases seeping out of the heated rocks (Fig. 3.8).
volcanoes, e.g. Madeira, Ascension, St. Helena, Almost all the world's geysers are confined to three
Cape Verde Islands and Canary Islands, but those major areas: Iceland, the Rotorua district of North
of Iceland and the Azores are active. Volcanoes of Island, New Zealand and Yellowstone Park of the
the Mediterranean region are mainly associated with U.S.A. (Plate 3.F). The world's best known geyser
the Alpine folds, e.g. Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli, is perhaps 'Old Faithful' in Yellowstone National
Vulcano and those of the Aegean islands. A few Park, Wyoming which erupts at regular intervals-
continue into Asia Minor (Mt. Ararat, Mt. Elbruz). every 63 minutes on the average.
The Himalayas have, surprisingly, no active volcano Hot springs or thermal springs are more common,
at all.
ln Africa, some volcanoes are found along the East
3.F A geyser in Yellowstone National Park Servizio Editor'
African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. iale Fotografico
Kenya, both probably extinct. The only active vol-
cano of West Africa is Mt. Cameroun. There are
some volcanic cones in Malagasy, but active erup-
tion has not been known so far. The West Indian
islands have experienced some violent explosions in
recent times, e.g. Mt Pelee in Martinique, and in St.
Vincent further south. The Lesser Antilles are made
up mainly of volcanic islands and some of thern still
bear signs of volcanic liveliness. Elsewhere in the
interiors of continents-Asia, North America,
Europe and Australia, active volcanoes are rare.

Geysers and Hot Springs

Geysers are fountains of hot water and superheated
steam that may spout up to a height of 45 metres
(150 feet) from the earth beneath. The phenomena
are associated with a thermal or volcanic region in
which the water below is being heated beyond boil-
ing-point (100" Cl2L2" F). The jet of water is usually

55
and may be found in any part of the earth where
water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be
heated by the interior forces. The water rises to the
surface without any explosion. Such springs contain
dissolved minerals which may be of some medical
value. Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Some
of them have been harnessed to heat houses, swim-
ming pools and for other domestic purposes. Hot
springs and geysers have becorne tourist attractions,
e.g. in Japan and Hawaii, also Tambun, near Ipoh
(Malaysia).
Earthquakes
The earth is never free from earthquakes for long
and more than 50 000 of them are recorded
annually. Minor earth tremors caused by gentle
waves of vibration within the earth's crust occur
every few minutes. Major earthquakes, usually
caused by movement along faults, can be very dis-
astrous particularly in densely populated areas.
Earthquakes themselves may cause only restricted
damage in the regions of occurrence, but their after-
effects can be very catastrophic. They produce gi-
gantic tidal waves, called tsunamis by the Japanese,
which flood towns and drown thousands of people.
Fires break out beyond control as gas mains are shat-
tered and buildings collapse. In severe earthquakes,
fissures gape open, and the ground writhes and
undulates in the passage of the 'surface waves'. A
wave height of 7 mm (a quarter of an inch) in the
upheaval is sufficient to bring down most ordinary
buildings. Roads, railways and bridges are buckled
and twisted; telecommunications are cut when the
cables are snapped. Hills are so shaken that land-
slides are widespread. As the vibration thins out at
the edges, like the series of waves set up by a stone
thrown into the water, damage is greatly reduced.
Only the highly sensitive seismograph can record the
movements of earthquake waves.
SOME MAJOR EARTHQUAKES
One of the greatest earthquakes ever known was the
34
Great Lisbon Earthquake on 1 November 1755. It
originated in an abrupt subsidence of the ocean floor
in the Atlantic west of Lisbon. Tidal waves as high
as lL metres (35 feet) were set up which swept across
the coastal districts of Lisbon, drowning thousands.
Most of the buildings collapsed completely and it
was estimated that 60 000 inhabitants died. The
effects of the earthquake were felt within a 640 km
(400 miles) radius of Lisbon, in North Africa and
Europe.
The earthquake on 1 September L923 that shook
Tokyo and Yokohama was equally shocking. A frac-
ture that occurred in the earth's crust off the coast
of Japan caused the earthquake. The fragile build-
ings of the densely populated twin cities were mostly
ruined; more than half a million houses collapsed.
Widespread fires from factories, gas mains, oil
installations and kitchens killed a quarter of a tnil-
lion people and many more were injured.
Other disastrous earthquakes include that of San
Francisco in 1906 which ruined the greater part of
the heart of San Francisco. In.the loess region of
Kansu in China, the 1920 earthquake claimed
200 000lives, and again in 1927 when 100 000 cave-
dwellers were buried alive. In 1906 the earthquake
at Agadir, Morocco sealed the fate of 10 000 inhab-
itants, besides causing untold damage, and in 1968
there was a disastrous earthquake in eastern Iran,
with its epicentre at Kakh.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
The world's distribution of earthquakes coincides
very closely with that of volcanoes. Regions of great-
est seismicity are Circum-Pacific areas, with the epi-
centres and the most frequent occurrences along the
'Pacific Ring of Fire'.lt is said that as many as 70
per cent of earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific
belt. Another 20 per cent of earthquakes takes place
in the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt including Asia
Minor, the Himalayas and parts of north-west
China. Elsewhere, the earth's crust is relatively sta-
ble and is less prone to earthquakes, though
nowhere can be said to be immune to earth tremors.
Ouestions and Exercises
1. With the aid of annotated diagrams, write a 4. On a map of the world, locate the chief volcanic
comparative account of landforms resulting and earthquake areas. Write a descriptive
from intrusive and extrusive igneous activities. account of any one major volcanic eruption or
2. Distinguish the difference in appearance and earthquake that has occurred in historical times.
origin of any three of the following pairs of You should include the causes, effects and con-
terms associated with vulcanicity: sequences of such a named occurrence.
(a)sills and dykes; 5. The following terms are in one way or another
(b)cinder cones and lava domes; connected with volcanoes and earthquakes.
(c)geysers and hot springs; Choose one term from each of the sections A,
(d)crater and caldera; B and C and write what you know about them:
(e)laccolith and lopolith.
Section A Section B Section C
3. Describe, with appropriate sketches, the major
types of landform originating from acid and magma basalt plateau Vulcano
basic lavas. lava lava plain Tsunami
pyroclasts parasitic cones 'Old Faithful'

Sample Obiective O,uestions

1. The 'Pacific Ring of Fire' takes an
arc shape, forming the circum-
Pacific belt and includes the follow-
ing ranges but no,
A the Rocky Mountains
B the Great Dividing Range
C the Andes
D the Japanese Alps
2. A geyser is best described as
A a fountain of superheated steam
B a pool of hot water
C an explosion of volcanic vaPour
D a thermal stream
3. Photograph 3.8 on Page 32 shows
Mt. Mayon of southern Luzon, the
Philippines. Which of the following
statements about Mt. Mayon is most
acceptable?
A Mt. Mayon is in active eruption
B A crater lake is located at the
foot of the mountain
C Lava covers its hill slopes
D Extensive cultivation takes place
all along the slopes
4. Select the most recent and disastrous
earthquake from the list given be-
low.
A The Agadir Earthquake
Morocco
B The Tungshan Earthquake in
China
C The Kakh Earthquake in eastern
Iran
D The San Francisco Earthquake in
the U.S.A.
5. In which part of New Zealand is
geothermal power, which is a result
of volcanic activity, most widely util-
ized?
A The Central Otago Region
B The Canterbury Plain
in C The Auckland Peninsula
D The Rotorua Region

35
Chapter 4 Weathering, Mass Movement
and Groundwater
The earth's crust is constantly undergoing geological
changes caused by internal forces, which create new
relief features. Orogenesis build new mountain
ranges, uplift or depression of particular areas is
caused by folding or faulting, and volcanic disturb-
ances also modify the landscape. Meanwhile exter-
nal forces are working vigorously to wear away the
surface, and the interaction ofthese constructive and
destructive forces gives rise to the great diversity of
present-day landforms. The process of wearing away
the earth causes a general lowering and levelling out
of the surface. It is known as denudation and is car-
ried out in four phases.
1. Weathering: the gradual disintegration of
rocks by atmospheric or weather forces;
2. Erosion: the active wearing away of the earth's
surface by moving agents like running water, wind,
ice and waves;
3. Transportation: the removal of the eroded
debris to new positions;
4. Deposition: the dumping of the debris in cer-
tain parts of the earth, where it may accumulate to
form new rocks.
All four phases of the denudation process are tak-
ing place simultaneously in different parts of the
world at different rates, much depending on the
nature of the relief, the structure of the rocks, the
local climate and interference by Man.
This chapter describes the work of weathering and
the features it produces, while Chapters 5 to 10 deal
with erosion, transportation and deposition by
water, wind, ice and waves.
Weathering
The work of weathering in breaking up the rocks is
of two kinds, namely chemical, and physical or
mechanical weathering, but the processes involved
in each are closely interrelated.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is the basic process by which
denudation proceeds. It is the extremely slow and
gradual decomposition of rocks due to exposure to
36
air and water. Air and water contain chemical ele-
ments, which though they may be in small quan-
tities, are sufficient to set up chemical reactions in
the surface layers of exposed rocks. Such reactions
may weaken or entirely dissolve certain constituents
of the rock, thus loosening the other crystals and
weakening the whole surface. For example, in
Malaysia, the surface of granite which has been
exposed to the weather is found to be pitted and
rough. This is because the granite is made of three
main minerals: quartz, felspar and mica. The felspar
is more quickly weathered than the quartz and thus
the felspar crystals are worn away. The quartz crys-
tals are eventually loosened in this way and form a
coarse sandy residue.
When the surface of a rock is weathered some of
the material which is loosened is removed by erosive
agents such as wind or running water thus exposing
a fresh surface to weathering, but much of the
weathered material or regolith (remains of the rock)
may stay in position forming the basis of soil. Rego-
lith is simply the mineral remains of decomposed
rocks, but soil contains organic materials, such as the
roots of plants; fallen leaves, small animals such as
worms, bacteria and so on. It is the organic content
of soil which makes it fertile and allows crops to be
grown.
When a soil cover exists, chemical weathering of
the underlying rocks does not cease; on the contrary
it is usually enhanced. This is because the soil
absorbs rain-water and keeps the underlying rocks
in contact with this moisture. The rain-water absorbs
organic acids from the soil and thus becomes a
stronger weathering agent than pure rain-water act-
ing on bare rock.
There are three major chemical weathering pro-
CESSES.
l. Solution. Many minerals are dissolved by
water, especially when, as with rain-water, it con-
tains enough carbon dioxide to make it a weak acid.
Solution is the most potent weathering process in
limestone regions because the rain-water attacks and
dissolves the calcium carbonate of which the rock is
chiefly formed. The dissolved calcium carbonate is
carried away by the water, joints and cracks in the
rock are quickly widened and whole systems of caves
and passages are worn out (see Chapter 8). Lime-
stone, however, is by no means the only rock to suf-
fer from solution. All rocks are subject to solution
to some extent, though the process is much slower
than with limestone. The rate at which solution takes
place is affected not only by the mineral composition
of the rock but also by its structure. Sedimentary
rocks often have pore-spaces between the grains in
which air and water can lodge and thus attack the
rock. The density of joints or cracks in the rock is
also crucial to the speed of weathering. The factor
is very clearly seen in Malaysia in the weathering of
granite. In tropical countries, where the heavy rain-
fall and warm climate both promote rapid chemical
reactions, weathering often proceeds very rapidly.
This produces the very deep regoliths or soils over- 4.A A solid core-stone embedded in weathered material
lying the solid rocks. Often these regoliths contain which has been exposed in a road cutting near Tampin,
Negri Sembifan G.C. Morgan
core-stones. These are pieces of solid rock which
have resisted weathering while all the surrounding
rock has been weathered. They are more resistant Warm wet climates promote rapid chemical weath-
because they have fewer joints or cracks to harbour ering, while dry climates inhibit chemical weather-
moisture and are thus more slowly weathered by ing. Dry climates, however, provide good conditions
solution processes (Fig. a.1 and Plate 4.A). for physical or mechanical weathering.
Rates of weathering are also affected by climate. 2. Oxidation. Oxidation is the reaction of oxygen
in air or water with minerals in the rock. For exam-
Fig.4.1 Differential weathering in a rock such as granite ple, most rocks contain a certain amount of iron,
where unevenly spaced joints may give rise to core-stones which when it comes in contact with air is changed
and certain blocks remain unweathered. In jointed rocks,
temperature change cracks up rectangular blocks. to iron oxide, familiar brownish crust or rust. Iron
oxide crumbles easily and is far more easily eroded
Rock easily Rock still than the original iron. It is thus removed, loosening
weathered unweathered the overall structure of the rocks and weakening
where loints are where ioints
them.
are far apart
3. Decomposition by organic acids. Within the
soil which covers most rocks are bacteria which
thrive on decaying plant or animal material. These
bacteria produce acids which, when dissolved in
water, help to speed up the weathering of the under-
lying rocks. In some cases, micro-organisms and
plants like mosses or lichens can live on bare rock,
so long as the surface is damp. These absorb chem-
ical elements from the rocks as food and also pro-
duce organic acids. They are thus agents of both
chemical and mechanical weathering.

PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING

Mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration
of a rock by the actual prising apart of separate par-
ticles. This can happen even with completely fresh
rock but the processes of physical weathering are
pattern of joints able to work much more easily when the surface of

JI
the rock has already been weakened by the action of
chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering takes
place in several ways.
l. Repeated temperature changes. In deserts,
rocks are exposed to the blazing sun during the day
and are intensely heated. The outer layers expand
much faster than the cooler interior of the rocks and
tend to pull away from the rest. At nightfall the tem-
perature drops rapidly and the outer layers contract
more rapidly than the interior, setting up internal
stresses. Such stresses, repeated every day for
months and years, cause the rocks to crack and split.
Well-bedded and jointed rocks tend to split along
the joints or cracks, breaking up into rectangular
blocks. Shales and slates may split up into platy frag-
ments because of their platy structure. In crystalline
rocks such as granite, the crystals of the various min-
erals (quartz, mica, felspar) will expand and contract
at different rates, enhancing the stresses and accel-
erating the disintegration of the rocks. Fragments 4.8 When core-stones are exposed to tropical weather con-
broken from large rock outcrops fall by gravity to ditions they are subject to repeated wetting and drying which
the foot of the slope. They may form screes or may cause the outer layers to peel off. This sandstone boulder
shows severaf fayers have split off in some areas. G.C. Mor-
form a litter of angular chips and small boulders on gan
the flatter ground.
Stresses and pressures will naturally be greatest urate the rocks and then the hot sun quickly dries
near the surface and where there are sharp angles them again. Repeated wetting and drying also occurs
in the rocks. Rectangular blocks are thus gradually at the coast, where rocks may be rapidly dried by
rounded by the splitting away of sharp corners. sun and wind between tides. When rocks are wetted
When the surface layers of rounded boulders grad- the outer layers absorb a certain amount of moisture
ually split off, the process is called onion peeling, and expand. When they dry this moisture evaporates
because the various layers look like the layers of an and they quickly shrink. When this happens repeat-
onion, peeled off one after another. The technical edly the outer layers split off. It should also be
term for this process is exfoliation (Plate 4.B). stressed that the wetting and drying of the rocks in
2. Repeated wetting and drying. Exfoliation is deserts is probably just as important as temperature
not confined to desert areas. Similar stresses may be changes in mechanical weathering. The rocks dry
set up in rocks by repeated wetting and drying of the very quickly indeed after being wetted by brief de-
surface layers. This takes place especially in tropical sert rainstorms.
regions, like Malaysia, where short downpours sat- 3. Frost action. In temperate latitudes frost is a
Fig.4.2 Frost action as an agent of mechanical weathering

Water collects in rock crevices Water freezes and

expands in volume
prising rocks apart

38

Large tree
5i{')?Ri'i
breaking up the surface
?
Roots Penetrate joints and
force rocks aPart
potent rock breaker. All rocks contain cracks and
joints, or pore spaces, and after a shower, water or
snow collects in such places. When the temperature
drops at night or during the winter, this water
freezes. When water freezes, it expands by one-tenth
its volume and exerts a bursting pressure of almost
140 kg per square cm (2,000 lb. to the square inch).
Repeated freezing of this kind will deepen and
widen the original cracks and crevices and break the
rock into angular fragments (Fig. 4.4. On mountain
peaks this process creates sharp pinnacles and angu-
lar outlines. Such peaks are described as frost-shat-
tered peaks. Angular fragments of rock are prised
from mountain-sides or cliff faces and fall to the foot
of the slope where they accumulate to form screes.
4. Biotic factors. Small fragments of rock loos-
ened by either chemical or mechanical weathering
lodge in cracks and crevices in the rock and plants
may sprout in such crevices. As they grow, their roots
penetrate the rocks below, usually along joints and
other lines of weakness, prising them apart. You
have often come across large trees growing near
roads or the courtyards of houses that finally prise
open the concrete or paving stones above their
39
Small plants
Bedding plane
Roots force their way into
joints and bedding planes
..3;-13.-3
Fig. 4.3 Plant roots as agents of mechanical weathering
roots. The process is just the same on a smaller scale
in a natural setting (Fig. a.3).
Men, in the course of mining, road construction
and farming, also contribute to mechanical weath-
ering by excavating the rocks and rendering them
more vulnerable to the asents of denudation.
Mass Movement
Mass movement is the movement of weathered
materials down a slope due to gravitational forces.
The movement may be gradual or sudden, depend-
ing on the gradient of the slope, the weight of the
weathered debris and whether there is any lubricat-
ing moisture supplied by rain-water. Several kinds
of mass movement are distinguished.
SOIL CREEP
This is a slow, gradual but more or less continuous
movement of soil down hill slopes. The movement
is not very noticeable, especially when the slope is
fairly gentle or when the soil is well-covered with
grass or other vegetation. Soil creep is most common
in damp soils where the water acts as a lubricant so
Fig. 4.4 Evidences of soil creep
that individual soil particles move over each other
and over the underlying rock. It is also found where
continuous trampling by animals grazing on the
slopes sets up vibrations which loosen the soil and
cause it to move. Though the movement is slow and
cannot readily be seen in action, the gradual move-
ment tilts trees, fences, posts and so on which are
rooted in the soil. The soil is also seen to accumulate
at the foot of the slope or behind obstacles such as
walls, which may eventually be burst by the weight
of soil above (Fig. 4.4).
SOIL FLOW (SOLIFLUCTION)
When the soil is completely saturated with water the
individual particles are almost suspended in the
water and move easily over one another and over
the underlying rock. The soil acts like a liquid and a
soil-flow or mud-flow occurs. In arid regions a mantle
of weathered debris may become saturated with
rain-water after a storm and flow downslope as a
semi-liquid mass. In temperate and tundra regions
soil flows occur when the surface layers of frozen
ground thaw in spring. Soil and rock debris, lubri-
cated by the melt-water, flow easily over the under-
lying frozen subsoil. In areas of peat soils, the peat
absorbs much moisture. However if saturation point
is reached the peaty soil may flow downslope. In Ire-
land such flows are known as 'bog-bursts'.
L.ANDSLIDES (SLUMPING OR SLIDING)
These are very rapid kinds of movement and occur
when a large mass of soil or rock falls suddenly.
Landslides usually occur on steep slopes such as in
40
4.C A landslide after flood has damaged the road Jabatan
Penerangan Malaysia
mountainous areas. on cliffs or where Man has arti-
ficially steepened slopes, for example, in road or rail
cuttings (Plate 4.C). Landslides may be caused
because a steep slope is undercut by a river or the
sea so that it falls by gravity. Earthquakes or volcanic
disturbances may loosen rocks and start off a land-
slide. Man-made steepening both undercuts the
slope and sets up vibrations which may loosen rocks
or soil. But often landslides are caused by the lubri-
cating aclion of rain-water. Water may collect in
joints or bedding planes in rocks so that one layer
slides over another, especially in areas of tilted
strata. Slumping is particularly common where
permeable debris or rock layers overlie impermeable
strata such as clay. Water sinking through the
permeable material is halted by the clay. The damp
clay provides a smooth slippery surface over which
the upper layers easily slide (Fig. 4.5).
Water may collect at the base of the regolith
becauseit sinks readily into the weathered material
but more slowly into the solid rock beneath. The
water may allow the regolith to slide away from the
underlying rock.
Man often enhances the possibility of landslides by
clearing natural vegetation for agriculture or hous-
ing. Removal of the plant cover allows more water
to penetrate the soil and rocks. In areas such as the
Cameron Highlands, where steep slopes have been
cleared, there is much evidence of minor slumps and
slides, the old scars showing up clearly in the tea
gardens. Extensive landslides, whether natural or
man-induced, can have disastrous consequences,
Fig. 4.5 Landslide
burying villages, railway lines or people. Spectacular
landslides have taken place in many parts of the
world, including South Wales, British Columbia,
Hong Kong and the Cameron Highlands where the
village of Ringlet was partially buried in 1961 and
several houses were ruined.
Groundwater
The whole process of the circulation of water
between the land, sea and atmosphere is known as
the hydrological cycle. The movement of the water
in the atmosphere and its effect on climate are dealt
with in Chapters 13 and 14. The seas and oceans are
discussed in Chapter 12. The effect of water on the
land as an agent of weathering, erosion, transport
and deposition is dealt with in this and the following
chapters, especially Chapter 5.
When rain falls on the earth it is distributed in
various ways. Some is immediately evaporated and
thus returns to the atmosphere as water vapour.
Some is absorbed by plants and only gradually
returned to the atmosphere by transpiration from
the leaves of plants. Much of it flows directly off
slopes to join streams and rivers, eventually reaching
41
4.D An effective way of preventing landslide by building a
concrete waf f-Taiwan Goh Cheng Leong
the seas and oceans. This is known oS rurt:off. A con-
siderable proportion of the water received from rain
or snow, however, percolates downwards into the
soil and rocks, filling up joints and pore-spaces and
forming what is known as groundwater. Ground-
water plays an important part in weathering and
mass movement and is also important as a means of
natural water storage. It re-enters the hydrological
cycle by way of springs.
The amount of water available to form ground-
water depends to some extent on climate. In dry cli-
mates much precipitation may be quickly evaporated
into the dry atmosphere and little moisture may per-
colate into the ground. In very humid conditions,
where the surface of the ground may already be
moist, much water may be moved as run-off. In
moderately humid areas water both runs off and
sinks into the ground. The proportion of the rainfall
absorbed as groundwater may depend on the season
of the year.
More important, however, is the nature of the
rocks and how easily they absorb and retain water.

4.E A severe flood in Kuala Kangsar (Malaysia) in 1967-the
main street of the town was under 4-6 metres (15-20 feet)
of water. Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia
Various rocks and soils differ greatly in their poros-
ity and permeability; the amount of groundwater
present and the depth at which it lies are governed
by these characteristics. Porous rocks are those, like
sandstone, which have many pore-spaces between
the grains. Water is easily absorbed by such rocks
and may be stored in the pore-spaces. Permeable or
pervious rocks are those which allow water to pass
through them easily (Fig. 4.6). Thus most porous
rocks are also permeable. However some rocks are
porous but impermeable. Clay, for example, is
highly porous since it is made up of innumerable
very fine particles with pore-spaces between them.
It thus absorbs a great deal of water. However, the
pore-spaces are so small that the water does not
move easily through the rock, which is thus
impermeable. On the other hand, granite which is
a crystalline rock and consequently non-porous is
often pervious. Its individual crystals absorb little or
Fig.4.7 Groundwater table and its relationship to the cur-
vature of the land
lrnpermeable strata
42
Joints and faults
POROUS ROCK PERMEABLE OR
(e.9. limestone) PERVIOUS ROCK
(e.9. granite)
Fig. 4.6 Porosity and permeability of rocks
no water but the rock may have numerous joints or
cracks through which the water can pass, rendering
it pervious or permeable. Some granites are, how-
ever, far more pervious than others.
The Water-Table
Water which seeps through the ground moves down-
ward under the force of gravity until it reaches an
impermeable layer of rock through which it cannot
pass. If there is no ready outlet for the groundwater
in the form of a spring, the water accumulates above
the impermeable layer and saturates the rock. The
permeable rock in which the water is stored is known
as the aquifer (Fig. a.7). The surface of the satu-
rated area is called the water-table. The depth of the
water-table varies greatly according to relief and to
the type of rocks. The water-table is far below the
surface of hilltops but is close to the surface in val-
leys and flat low-lying areas where it may cause
waterlogging and swampy conditions. The depth of
the water-table also varies greatly with the seasons.
When plenty of rain is available to augment ground-
water supplies the water-table may rise, but in dry
periods, no new supplies are available, and the
water-table is lowered as groundwater is lost through
seepages and springs (Fig. 4.7).

Springs and Wells

SPRINGS
The groundwater stored in the rock is released on
to the surface at points where the water-table
reaches the surface. A spring is simply an outlet for
such water. The water may seep gradually out of the Fig. 4.8(a) Spring seeps from edge of pervious rock lying
rock or may gush opt as a fountain. Springs are of above an inclined impervious stratum

Fig. 4.8(b) Spring emerges from rocks with joints Fig. 4.8(c) A dyke spring

--l-I3i-ll)
Li til*:
Rock with ioints or fisiures

Fig. 4.8(d) Scarp-foot spring and dip-slope spring Fig.4.8(e) A vauclusian spring in a karst region

Dipsfope ,Orr^nOffi

43
several kinds due to the nature of the rocks and the
position of the water-table. The main types are
described below.
L. In areas of. tilted strata, where permeable and
impermeable rocks alternate, water emerges.at the
base of the permeable layers (Fig 4.8a).
2. In well-jointed roclcs water may percolate
downwards until it reaches a joint which emerges at
the surface. The water.may come to the surface
through the joint (Fig. a.8b).
3. Where a dyke or sill of impermeable rock is
intruded through permeable rocks, it causes the
water-table to reach the surface and the water issues
as a spring (Fig. a.8c).
4. In limestone or chalk escarpments, where the
permeable rock lies between impermeable strata,
water issues at the foot of the scarp as a scarp-foot
spring, or near the foot of the dip-slope as a dip-
slope spring, as illustrated in Fig. 4.8d.
5. In karst regions rivers often disappear under-
ground. They then flow through passages worn in
the rock by solution, and may re-emerge when lime-
stone gives place to some impermeable rock. This
kind of spring is sometimes called a vauclrnian
spring but is better referred to as a resurgence
(Fig. 4.8e; see also Chapter 8).
Some other types of spring, e.g. hot springs, min-
eral springs and geysers are described in Chapter 3.
WELLS
Springs are the natural emergence points of ground-
water, but Man can make use of stored water below
ground by sinking rvells. A hole is bored through the
earth until the water-table is reached. The well must
during wet _Z_ -'r"-'-
Sason
olfv t1>< wer water
y'!'g':I _3gtil
' - ----'a---\------ri
rock r \
Saturated
l--
Fig. 4.9 Depth of wells and water-table mark
be sunk to the depth of the permanent water-table
Gig. a.9) if a constant supply of water is to be
obtained. If the well is only sunk to the wet-season
depth of the water-table, water will be unobtainable
when the level drops in the dry season. When a well
is bored, the water usually has to be raised by hand
or by mechanical pumping. Wells are particularly
important in arid areas where there is little surface
water but where the underlying rocks contain
groundwater.
A particularly important type of well is the arte-
sian well, which owing to the nature of its formation
is quite distinctive. Where rock layers haye been
down-folded into a basin shape, permea\le strata
such as chalk or limestone may be sarldwiched
between impermeable layers, such as ckiy. The
permeable rocks may only come to the surface at the

Fig.4.10 Formation of an artesian basin where a pervious

layer (aquifer) is between two strata of impervious rocks,

ili
nbinfaltlsoats
iqh*"
I

b----- -
-

44
edges of the basin, but water falling on them will
gradually seep downwards by the force of gravity
until it reaches the lowest part of the basin
(Fig. a.10). The impermeable layer below prevents
the water from passing downwards while the
impermeable layer on top prevents any possibility of
the water escaping upwards. The aquifer is thus sat-
urated to the brim of the basin.
The water is thus trapped in the aquifer under
great pressure and when a well is bored, the pressure
of water downwards from all around the basin is suf-
ficient to force the water up the bore-hole so that it
gushes on to the surface like a fountain. After a time
the pressure decreases and it is necessary to pdmp
up the water.
The depth of artesian wells varies from place to 9 r- gqo

place, from a few metres to thousands of metres. O mll68 600

The water may be used to supply the needs of an
entire village as in the Great Plains of the U.S.A.
or for sheep farming as in Queensland and other
parts of Australia. Fig. 4.11 shows the distribution
of artesian basins in Australia. But the water is
sometimes unsuitable for agricultural or irrigation
purposes as it may be hot or contain an excessive
amount of mineral salts.
Artesian wells are most valuable to Man when
they can be used in desert areas, e.g. in parts of the
Sahara and in Australia. The aquifers receive water
Fig.4.11 The distribution of artesian basins in Australia
in areas of higher rainfall, but the water accumulates
in basins underlying arid regions.
All wells bored by Man tend to deplete ground-
water resources because the water is extracted faster
than under natural conditions and also much faster
than it can be replenished by rainfall. In many areas
groundwater supplies have been greatly reduced or
even exhausted by Man as a result of carelessness
and over-exploitation.

Ouestions and Exercises

1. (a) What do you understand by the term 4. While the earth's crust is undergoing construc-
'weathering'? tive changeq to create new relief, external
(b) Name four natural forces that play a role forces of nature are working vigorously to level
in weathering. this down.' Discuss.
(c) Differentiate mechanical weathering from 5. Elaborate on any three of. the following:
chemical weathering and give examples of (a) Exfoliation is the result of temperature
each. changes in deserts.
2. (a) Describe how gravitational forces and rain- (b) Screes accumulate at the foot of steep
water assist in the mass movement of mountains in temperate lands.
weathered materials on hill slopes. (c) There are many ways in which springs can
(b) Distinguish soil creep from landslides, and be formed.
locate places where such occurrences have' (d) Artesian wells have a distinct formation.
taken place. 6. (a) In what ways are chemical weathering dif-
3. (a) What is meant by the following: ferent from mechanical weathering?
i. hydrological cycle; (b) Describe any three major processes of
ii. water-table; chemical weathering.
iii. acquifer. (c) In what type of physical landform is chem-
(b) For any two of the above, discuss their ical weathering by solution most domi-
relationship with groundwater. nant?

45
 (d) Name a few well-known physical features 9. Describe and explain the manner in which a
caused by solution in chemical weathering. land surface may be changed by:
7. (a) Why is mechanical weathering also known i. rain;
as physical weathering? ii. frost:
(b) State four ways by which mechanical iii. wind.
weathering takes place. Illustrate your answer with annotated diagrams
(c) In what climatic regions is mechanical and specific examples.
weathering by frost action most potent? 10. (a) Explain what happens to precipitation
8. With reference to examples, carefully distin- when it falls on the land surface.
guish between: (b) What factors determine the amount of
(a) weathering and erosion; water entering the ground in a particular
(b) porous rocks and pervious rocks; place?
(c) a spring and a well; (c) Why is the 'underground scenery' better
(d) screes and pebbles. developed in karst regions?

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. Mechanical weathering takes place 3. Study Plate 4.D on page 41 which B in limestone and chalk escarp-
through the following processes er- shows one effective way of prevent- ments
cept ing landslides in Taiwan. What is the C along fiorded coasts where gla-
A repeated temperature changes in greatest single tactor that has ciers terminate
rocks caused the soil to move down the D where a dyke or sill of imperme-
B rain-water falling on limestone slope? able rock intrudes throueh
pavements A gravitational force permeable rocks
C frost action in the Swiss Alps B strong winds
D repeated wetting and drying in C thunderstorms 5. Chemical weathering is most potent
tropical lands D the weight of the house on the A in humid tropical regions
top B within the Arctic Circle
2. In order to get a constant supply of C in arid deserts
water, wells have to be sunk to 4. Springs occur in the following areas D where winds are dust laden
reach except
A the wet season water-table A where permeable and imperme-
B the dry season water-table able rocks alternate in areas of
C the permanent water-table tilted strata
D the impervious strata

46
Chapter 5 Landforms made by Running Water

Fig. 5.1 The hydrological cycle: evaporation from sea and by plants or evaporated again to form clouds. The cycle is
land forms clouds which condense into rain that falls to earth repeated when clouds are condensed to fall as rain.
as run-off or percolates to form groundwater. or is absorbed

ries either obliquely or at right angles depending on

The Development of a River System the alignment and the degree of resistance of the
When rain falls, part of it sinks into the ground, rocks.
some is evaporated back into the atmosphere and If the rocks are composed of homogeneous beds
the rest runs off as rivulets, brooks, streams and tri- of uniform resistance to erosion, the tributaries will
butaries of rivers that flow down to the sea join the main valley obliquely as insequent streams.
(Fig. 5.1). This running water forms a potent agent
for denuding the Earth's surface. Unlike glaciers and 5.2 Dendritic ortree-likedrainage pattern developed on
Fig.
snow, which are confined to the cold and temperate homogeneous rock or beds of equal resistance
latitudes; waves which act only on coastlines; winds,
which are only 'efficient' in deserts; the effect of run-
ning water is felt all over the globe wherever water
is present. Running water is thus the most important
single agent of denudation.
The source of a river may be a spring, a lake or
a marsh, but it is generally in an upland region,
where precipitation is heaviest and where there is a
slope down which the'run-of? can flow. The uplands
therefore form the catchment areas of rivers. The
crest of the mountains is the divide or watershed
from which streams flow down the slopes on both
sides to begin their journey to the oceans. The initial
stream that exists as a consequence of the slope is
called the consequent stream. As the consequent
stream wears down the surface by deepening its
channel downwards, it is joined by several tributa-

47

Fig. 5.3 Trellised or rectangular drainage pattern developed
on alternating outcrops of harder and softer rocks
The drainage pattern so evolved will be treeJike in
appearance, and is therefore described as dendritic
drainage, after a Greek word dendron meaning
'tree' (Fig. 5.2). On the other hand, if the rocks are
made up of alternate bands of hard and soft rocks,
the tributaries tend to follow the pattern of. the rock
structure. If the outcrops of the rocks occur at right
angles to the main valley, the tributaries will join it
at right angles as subsequent streams. The drainage
pattern so developed will be rectangular in shape
and is called trellised drainage (Fig. 5.3).
Streams flowing outwards and downhill from a
dome or volcanic cone give rise to a radial drainage
pattern just like the spokes of a bicycle wheel
(Fig. 5.a). An example of radial drainage pattern is
seen on Mount Egmont in North Island, New Zea-
land.
The Mechanics of Humid Erosion
Humid erosion covers the entire scope of sculpturing
effects of running water from the action of rain,
Fig. 5.4 Radial drainage pattern developed down a dome or
volcanic cone
48
water to that of the rivers. But erosion cannot take
place unless the rocks are first weakened or shat-
tered by exposure to the €lements. Rain, frost and
wind weather the rocks so that they can be eroded
more easily. Mass movements of earth and weath-
ered materials on hill slopes down to the valleys are
mainly due to the lubricating action of water which
allows a mass of materials to move under gravity.
This is particularly acute where the slopes are steep.
The slow movement of soil down a hill slope is called
soil-creep. A more sudden movement due to the
lubricating effect or rain-water may cause wide-
spread landslides.
The Processes of River Action
When a river flows, it carries with it eroded mate-
rials. These comprise the river's load, and may be
divided into three distinct types.
l. Materials in solution. These are minerals which
are dissolved in the water.
2. Materials in suspension. Sand, silt and mud are
carried along suspended in the water as the stream
flows.
3. The traction load. This includes coarser materials
such as pebbles, stones, rocks and boulders, which
are rolled along the river bed (Fig. 5.5).
It has been estimated that for every square kilo-
metre of the earth's surface, more than 78 000 kg
(200 tonnes). of solid materials in suspension and
more than 20 000 kg (50 tonnes) of materials in sol-
ution are being carried offby runningwater every year.
Fig. 5.5 A river with materials in solution, suspension and
the traction load
The Mississippi River which drains an area almost
half the size of the United States itself, removes
more than two million tonnes of eroded material
into the Gulf of Mexico daily. Consequently, the
river basins are being lowered, and in the case of
swift-flowing rivers like the Irrawaddy, its drainage
basin is being lowered by about a third of a metre
in every 400 years! During floods the amount of rock
debris swept off by rivers is very much greater. We
can see this from the mud that colours the river-
water during a heavy rain. The ability of a river to
move the various grades of materials depends
greatly upon the volume of the water, the velocity of
the flow and lastly the size, shape and weight of the
load. It is said that by doubling the velocity of a
river, its transporting power is increased by more
than 10 times! It is therefore not surprising to find
huge boulders that are 'stranded' in normal times,
but may be moved during seasonal floods. The
movement of debris by rivers is thus intermittent,
acting vigorously in certain parts of the year and
remaining less active at other times.
River Erosion and Transportation
In rivers, erosion and transportation go on simulta-
neously, comprising the following inter-acting pro-
cesses.
l. Corrasion or abrasion. This is the mechanical
Fig. 5.6 The graded long profile and typical cross-section of
a river from source to mouth.
l. Upper or Mountain cou6e 2 Middle or Valley course
qorge interlocking spurs
rapids and waterfalls rneanders
nver captu re rivcr cl iffs
pled.o.m.lr.r.g!'tt ly : ;., :,
9ro9io1 lransportat ron
vertrcal corrasion
steepgorqe.likeorVshapedvalley open.wicleninggently-slopingvalley
49
grinding of the river's traction load against the banks
qnd bed of the river. The rock fragments are hurled
against the sides of the river and also rolled along
the bottom of the river. Corrasion takes place, in
two distinct ways.
(a) Lateral corrasion. This is the sideways erosion
which widens the V-shaped valley.
(b) Vertical corrasion. This is the downward action
which deepens the river channel.
2. Corrosion or solution. This is the chemical or sol-
vent action of water on soluble or partly-soluble
rocks with which the river comes into contact. For
example, calcium carbonate in limestones is easily
dissolved and removed in solution.
3. Hydraulic action. This is the mechanical loosen-
ing and sweeping away of materials by the river
water itself. Some of the water splashes against the
river banks and surges into cracks and crevices. This
helps to disintegrate the rocks. The water also under-
mines the softer rocks with which it comes into con-
tact. It picks up the loose fragments from its banks
and bed and transports them away (Fig. 5.7).
4. Attrition. This is the wear and tear of the trans-
ported materials themselves when they roll and col-
lide with one another. The coarser boulders are
broken down into smaller stones; the angular edges
are smoothened and rounded to form pebbles. The
finer materials are carried further downstream to be
deposited.
3. Lower or Plain coune
flood plains
ox-bow lakes
deltas
deposition
alluvium deposition
verygently-sloping,smooth,widevalley

Fig. 5.7 Pot-holes and rounded pebbles in a river bed
The Gourse of a River
The course of a river may be divided into three dis-
tinct parts (Fig.5.6). 1. The upper or mountain
course (in the stage of youth), 2. The middle or val-
ley course (in the stage of maturity), 3. The lower
or plain course (in the stage of old age).
5.A A deep gorge in the Cuzco of Peru Popperfoto
w the expense of the weaker stream. Stream A may
50
THE UPPER OR MOUNTAIN COURSE
This begins at the source of the river near the
watershed, which is probably the crest of a mountain
range. The river is very swift as it descends the steep
slopes, and the predominant action of the river is
vertical corrasion. The valley developed is thus
deep, narrow and distinctively V-shaped. Down-cut-
ting takes place so rapidly that lateral corrasion can-
not keep pace. In some cases where the rocks are
very resistant, the valley is so narrow and the sides
are so steep that gorges are formed, e.g. the Indus
Gorge in Kashmir. In arid regions, where there is
little rainfall to widen the valley sides, and the river
cuts deep into the valley-floor, precipitous valleys
called canyons are formed, e.g. the Bryce Canyon,
Utah, U.S.A.
Some of the more outstanding features that are
often best developed in the upper course of a river
include the following.
l. River capture. This is also known as river pir-
acy or river beheading. Its development is depen-
dent on the different rate of back-cutting (headward
erosion) into a divide. For instance, if one side of
the divide is of greater gradient or receives more
precipitation than the other, stream A in Fig. 5.8
will cut back more rapidly than stream B. Its greater
erosive power will succeed in enlarging its basin at
eventually break through the divide and capture or
pirate stream B. The bend at which the piracy
occurred is termed as the elbow of capture. The
beheaded stream (Z) is called the misfit. The valley
below the elbow is the wind gap, and may be valu-
able as a road and rail route. Examples of river cap-
ture abound. In Burma, the Upper Sittang has been
captured by the Irrawaddy; in Northumberland,
Fig. 5.8 River capture
(a) before capture (b) after capture
Waf"ttn"O
o,
A-piraling stream
B-oirated stream
X-elbow of capture
8a
Y
Z
-wind gap l'
-beheaded
slream or mistit
(a)
Fig.5.9 Rapids,cataracts
England, the Blyth and the Wansbeck are beheaded
by the North Tyne.
2. Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls. These are
liable to occur at any part of the river course, but
they are most numerous in the mountain course
where changes of gradient are more abrupt and also
more frequent. Due to the unequal resistance of
hard and soft rocks traversed by a river, the outcrop
of a band of hard rock may cause a river to 'jump'
or'fall' downstream. Rapids are formed (Fig. 5.9).
Similar falls of greater dimensions are also referred
to as cataracts, of which there are five along the Nile
that interrupt smooth navigation. When rivers
plunge down in a sudden fall of some height, they
are called waterfalls (Fig. 5.10). Their great force
usually wears out a plunge-pool beneath. Waterfalls
are formed in several ways.
(a) When a bar of resistant rock lies transversely
across a river valley, e.g. the Niagara Falls, U.S.A.,
which is 50 metres (167 feet) high (Plate 5.B) and
the Kaieteur Falls in Guyana 251 metres (825 feet)
high.
(b) When a fault-line scarp caused by faulting lies
across a river, e.g. Victoria Falls on the River Zam-
besi, plunging 100 metres (360 feet).
Fig. 5.10 A waterfall with plunge pool
5l
5.8 The spectacular Niagara Falls Servizio Editoriale
Fotografico
(c) When water plunges down the edge of a pla-
teau like the River Zaire which leaps for 270 metres
(900 feet) through a series of more than 30 rapids as
Livingstone Falls.
(d) Glaciation produces hanging valleys where trib-
utary streams reach the main U-shaped valley below
as waterfalls, e.g. the Yosemite Falls of California
with a total descent of 780 metres (2,560 feet).
THE MIDDLE OR VALLEY COURSE
In the middle course, lateral corrasion tends to pre-
dominate over vertical corrasion. Active erosion of
the banks widens the V-shaped valley. The volume
of water increases with the confluence of many tri-
butaries and this increases the river's load. The work
of the river is predominantly transportation with
Fig. 5.11 Interlocking spurs
some deposition. Downstream, the interlocking (a) The development of meanders
spurs (Fig. 5.11) that project from both sides of the
valley are cut back into a line of bluffs. Rain-wash,.
soil creep, landslides and gullying gradually widen
the valley, cutting back the sides. The river's treble
task of valley-cutting, bed-smoothing and debris-
removal are being carried out in a more tranquil
manner than in the mountain course though the
velocity does not decrease. Some of the load is
dropped or deposited. Again this depends on the PO=flow ol water r-------r\
RS=bottom current
volume of flow, for in the event of flood, the river's --t
(b) Cross-section of a meandel
erosive power and its capability for load-carrying is
greatly increased. The more outstanding features
associated with the valley course are these.
1. Meanders. As water flowing under gravity sel-
dom flows straight for any long distance, a winding
course soon develops. The irregularities of the
ground force the river to swing in loops, forming
Fig. 5.12 Meanders
meanders, a term derived from the winding River (a) the develoPment of meanders
Meanderez in Asia Minor. The mechanics of mean- (b) cross-section of a meander
der formation is illustrated in Fig. 5.12 (See Plate
s.c). slopes as shown in Fig. 5.11. It must be pointed out
2. River cliffs and slip-off slopes. When the flow at this stage that meanders in the middle course are
of water PQ (in Fig.5.12) enters the bend of the only the beginning of the downstream swing, for
river, it dashes straight into Q, eroding the outer bends are restricted by the interlocking spurs. In the
bank into a steep river-cliff at Q. The water piles up lower course, the loops are enlarged across the level
on the outside of the bend because of the centrifugal plain and meanders are fully developed.
force. A bottom current RS is set up in a cork-screw
motion and is hurled back into mid-stream and the THE LOWER OR PLAIN COURSE
inner bank. Shingle is thus deposited here at S, The river moving downstream across a broad, level
where the slip-off slope is very gentle. The outer plain is heavy with debris brought down from the
bank is therefore the bank of continuous erosion and upper course. Vertical corrasion has almost ceased
the inner bank is the bank of continual deposition. though lateral corrasion still goes on to erode its
3. Interlocking spurs. As the stream flows on, the banks further. The work of the river is mainly dep-
meanders migrate progressively outwards with the osition, building up its bed and forming extensive
interlocking spurs alternating with the undercut flood plains. The volume of water is greatly swelled
5.C The Sungai Muara in Negri Sembilan. The river swings
from side to side in tight meanders. Note the sand deposited
on the slip-off slope. G.C. Morgan

52
by the additional tributaries that join the main
stream. Coarse materials are dropped and the finer
silt is carried down towards the mouth of the river.
Large sheets of materials are deposited on the level
plain and may split the river into several complicated
channels, so that it can be described as a braided
stream. Some of the major plain course features are
the following.
1. Flood plain. Rivers in their lower course carry
large quantities of sediments. During annual or spo-
radicfloods, these materials are spread over the low-
lying adjacent areas. A layer of sediment is thus
deposited during each flood, gradually building up
a fertile flood plain (Fig. 5.13). When the river flows
normally its bed is raised through the accumulation
of deposits and material is also dropped on the sides
forming raised banks called levees. It will not be long
before the water-level flows dangerously close to the
top of the levees. In an attempt to minimize the risk
of floods, artificial embankments are erected on the
natural levees, but this allows the. river to rise fur-
ther. When they can no longer withstand the pres-
sure of the flood water, the banks burst, damaging
properties and drowning thousands. Disastrous
floods of this nature frequently occur in the Chang
Jiang (Yangtze Kiang), Mississippi, Po and Ganges
Plains. But the best known river for floods is the
Huang He (Hwang Ho), 'China's Sorrow', where
millions have perished. For example, in 1852 the
Huang He (Hwang Ho) breached its bank, killing g
million people and did untold damage to farms and
properties. The river's course was diverted over
480 km (300 miles) away, draining into the Gulf of
Pohai, instead of the Yellow Sea. Nowadays, huge
dredges help to deepen the channels to avoid exces-
Fig. 5.14 The formation of an ox-bow lake
loop, abandoning an ox-bow lrke or tnortlake
(meaning dead lake). The river then flows straight.
The ox-bow lake will later degenerate into a swamp
through subsequent floods that may silt up the lake.
It becomes marshy, and eventually dries up
(Fig. s.la).
3. Delta. When a river reaches the sea, the fine
materials it has not yet dropped are deposited at its
mouth, forming a fan-shaped alluvial area called a
delta, a word which originated from the Greek letter
A which closely resembled the triangular delta of
the Nile (Fig. 5.15). This alluvial tract is, in fact, a
seaward extension of the flood plain. Due to the
obstruction caused by the deposited alluvium, the
river may discharge its water through several chan-
nels called distributaries. Some deltas are extremelv
Fig.5.15
The formation of dehas
(al stages in the formation of a delta
i. rivd ratchos cori lnd iii.dcl6 tak6 a chdddi$ic fan
d.ffiits!0dimanB shepc oxl€nding sidaways and
stwards.

sive sedimentation.
2. Ox-bow lakes. These are also known as cut-ofrs
or bayous in the Mississippi basin. In the lower
course of a river, a meander becomes very much
more pronounced. The outside bend or concave
bank is so rapidly eroded that the river becomes
almost a complete circle. There will come a time
when the river cuts through the narrow neck of the
(b) section through th6 lowor couree of a river, showing
Fig. 5.13 Section of a flood plain (with levee and artificial flood plain and delta
embankmentl
large. For instance, the Ganges delta is almost as big
as the whole of Peninsular Malaysia. Deltas extend
sideways and seawards at an amazing rate. The
River Po extends its delta by over 12 metres (40
feet) a year. The town of Adria, located nearly 24
km (15 miles) inland was a seaport in the time of
Christ!
Deltas differ much in their size, shape, growth and
importance. A number of factors such as the rate of
sedimentation, the depth of the river and the sea-
bed. and the character of the tides, currents and
waves greatly influence the eventual formation of
deltas. For this reason, several types of delta are rec-
ognizable. The Mississippi has a bird's-foot delta,
with several main branches like the foot of a bird
extending into the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 5.16a). The
Nile, Ganges and Mekong have the fan-shaped,
arcuate deltas with numerous distributaries
(Fig. 5.16b). Some other rivers such as the Ama-
Fig. 5.16(a) A bird's foot delta, e.g. River Mississippi
Fig. 5,16(b) An arcuate delta, e.g. River Nile
Fig. 5.16(c) An estuarine delta, e.g. River Ob
Bird's foot delta
Arcuate delta SEA Spit
54
zon, Ob and Vistula have their deltas partly sub-
merged in coastal waters to form estuarine deltas
(Fig. 5.16c). A few rivers like the Ebro of Spain
have tooth-like projections at their mouths. These
are known as cuspate deltas.
The following summarizes the conditions favour-
able for the formation of deltas.
(a) Active vertical and lateral erosion in the
upper course of the river to provide extensive sedi'
ments to be eventually deposited as deltas.
(b) The coast should be sheltered preferably tide-
less.
(c) The sea adjoining the delta should be shallow
or else the load will disappear in the deep waters.
(d) There should be no large lakes in the river
course to 'filter off' the sediments.
(e) There should be no strong current running at
right angles to the river mouth, washing away the
sediments.
stuarine delta SEA

River Rejuvenation
The earth's crust is far from stable and it is not sur-
prising that, in the course of a river's development,
parts may be uplifted or depressed, giving rise to
certain characteristic features associated with reju-
venation. i.e. being young again.
A negative movement occurs when there is
uplrft of land or a fall in sea-level. This will steepen
the slope so that active down-cutting is renewed. A
fall in sea-level leaves the flood plain at an increased
altitude above the sea-level. The river with its
renewed vigour cuts into the former flood plain,
leaving behind terraces on both sides of the river.
There is also a break in the graded profile of the
river, often marked by a series of rapids. This point
where the old and rejuvenated profile meet is called
the knick point or rejuvenated head (Fig. 5.I7).
If rejuvenation occurs in the upper course, the
river valleys are deepened and steep-sided gorges
are formed. In the middle and lower course vertical
Fig. 5.17 River terraces and knick point due to rejuvenation.
The rejuvenated river cuts down into previously deposited
sediments to form a new valley leaving terraces at either
side. At the head of refuvenation the river falls to its new
valley at a knick point.
knick point
old flood plain knick point
corrasion replaces lateral corraslon and the exrsting
meanders are vertically eroded by the rejuvenated
stream. A distinct new inner trench is cut in the old
valley, and the river develops a deep valley with
entrenched or incised meanders. The best developed
incised meanders are those of the River Colarado,
U.S.A., where the uplift of 2 100 metres (7,000 feet)
an in the Tertiary period renewed down-cutting to a fan-
tastic depth. In some parts of the Grand Canyon,
the depth is almost li km (a mile). It is 16 km (10
miles) wide at the top and 480 km (300 miles) long.
Other examples are the River Moselle in Germany,
the River Wear at Ddrham, England, and the Wye
Valley, Monmouthshire.
A positive movement occurs when there is a
depression of land or a rise in sea-level. This will sub-
merge the lands along the coast, 'drown' the valleys
and weaken the erosive power of the river. The flow
is checked and large quantities of sediment will be
dropped. The lower course of the river may be partly
in the sea and features of deposition are shifted
upwards to the middle course. The upper course is
little affected when there is a rise in sea-level. In
many areas where the sea has risen, this was prob-
ably caused by the release of water locked up in the
ice masses during the Quaternary Ice Ages.
The Human Aspects of Rivers
In many countries, rivers form the chief highways of
commerce and transport. The Chang Jiang (Yangtze
Kiang) is navigable up to 1. 600 km (1,000 miles)
from its mouth. The Amazon, the world's greatest
river, is navigable 3 700 km (2,300 miles) upstream
to the foot of the Andes, though it is less extensively
used. Even the Nile with its cataracts is navigable
for its first 1 545 km (960 miles) up to the First Cat-
aract at Aswan. Other major rivers such as the Mis-
sissippi, St. Lawrence, Rhine, Danube, Zaire,
Murray, Darling, Mekong and Irrawaddy all serve
as important waterways for their respective coun-
tries. Some of them are useful for transporting logs
to the sawmills, others are used to export bulky
goods and import foodstuffs and raw materials.
But all rivers undertake three closely interrelated
activities: erosion, transportation and deposition.
Their work has therefore both advantages and dis-
advantages from a human point of view. Rapids and
waterfalls interrupt the navigability of a river. By
depositing large quantities of sediments in the lower
))
course, the river silts up ports preventing large
steamers from anchoring close to the shores. Deltas
are thus less satisfactory sites than estuaries for the
siting of large ports, though this can be overcome by
the construction of artificial harbours or by dredging
which is expensive and, in some instances impractic-
able. Some rivers change their courses from time to
time, others are made difficult for navigation by
their seasonal variations in the amount of water dis-
charged, and others may suffer from ill-drained
marshes and stagnant waters, leading to ill health
and waterborne diseases. Many rivers flood, burst-
ing levees and causing untold damage to crops. The
floods may add a layer of fertile silt to the flood
plain, but excessive flooding as in the Orinoco may
discourage people from cultivating crops at all.
On the other hand, the advantages of rivers often
outweigh the destruction that they cause. In the
upper course, rivers with steep gorges and water-
falls, provide natural sites for the generation of
hydro-electric power, leading to the establishment of
metallurgical industries, engineering and aluminidm
smelting, which can be profitably run on cheap,
abundant power. Dams constructed across rivers
hold back flood-water which if allowed to flow down-
stream unchecked may cause widespread disastrous
floodsin the lower course, e.g. in the Indus and
Ganges plains. In regions of insufficient rainfall such
as Egypt and the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand
Ouestions and Exercises
1. What are the characteristic features you would
expect to find in a river valley at the upper, mid-
dle and lower course? Illustrate some of the
more outstanding features with diagrams and
examples.
2. By reference to specific examples, describe the
major constructive and destructive processes at
work along the course of a river from its source
to its mouth.
3. With the aid of annotated diagrams, explain the
contrasting features of any three of the following
pairs of features of a river:
(a) dendritic and trellised drainage pattern;
(b) rapids and waterfalls;
(c) estuary and delta;
(d) tributaries and distributaries;
(e) river capture and river cliff.
56
irrigation canals fed by the main stream enable many
crops to be successfully cultivated. The upper
streams develop river captures and the resultant
wind gaps may facilitate construction of upland
roads and railways. The river valleys provide a con-
venient means of land communication.
The flood plains of large rivers with their thick
mantles of fine silt are some of the richest agricul-
tural areas of the world. They may support very
dense populations and a chain of large cities may be
strung along their banks. Many deltas are equally
fertile, e.g. the Ganges Delta accounts for almost all
the jute grown for world consumption; the Nile
Delta produces superior quality cotton and several
crops of rice a year. The productive hinterlands are
able to support ports such as New Orleans for the
Mississippi basin, Rotterdam for the Rhineland and
Calcutta for the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
Freshwater fishing is important along many rivers
and lakes. The organic matter brought down by the
river waters provides valuable food for fish and for
spawning purposes. Rivers supply water for domes-
tic consumption, sewerage and industrial purposes.
In Lancashire, the soft water from the Millstone Grit
is used for washing, dyeing and bleaching textiles.
Rivers form the political boundaries between many
countries. The Mekong separates Laos from Thai-
land; and the Yalu forms a well-defined border
between North Korea and the eastern U.S.S.R.
4. Explain any three of the following statements
briefly:
(a) Lateral corrasion widens the V-shaped river
valley.
(b) Vertical corrasion is dominant in the upper
course of a river.
(c) The work of a river in the lower course is
mainly depositional.
(d) Ports are better sited on estuaries than on
deltas.
(e) The navigability of rivers are influenced by
many factors.
5. Either: Describe and explain with relevant
sketches the various types of river delta.
Or: Explain the ways in which river erosion
occurs.
6. Name two prominent features produced by river
 erosion and another two features by river dep-
osition. For each of the features state
(a) in which part of the river course it occurs;
(b) how it is formed;
(c) what are its characteristics?
Draw simple annotated diagrams to illustrate
each of the above features.
7. (a) What is meant by the 'load of a river'?
(b) In which part of the river is the 'load' heav-
iest?
(c) Explain how the 'load' is gathered, trans-
ported and deposited along the river.
(d) Distinguish between 'alluvium' and 'silt'
deposited by a river.

Sample Obiective O,uestions

1. Deposition of river-borne materials B River Rhine are outlined below: Select one which
occurs when the flow of the river is C River Nile is commonly found in the lower
interrupted in the following inst- D River Ob course of a river.
ances but zot A river capture
A when there is a change in gra- 3. Waterfalls may be formed in the fol- B distributaries
dient lowing ways except C interlocking spurs
B where there is extensive flooding A when a bar of resistant rock lies D cataracts
C when it flows through a deeP transversely across a river valley
gorge B when a river plunges down the 5. Large deltas are nor likely to be
D when the river enters a large lake edge of a plateau formed when
lake C when a river descends a hanging A the adjoining sea is deep
valley B strong currents run parallel to the
2. An examPle of a bird's foot delta D when river capture occurs at the river mouth
with fingering branches maY be head of a stream C the coast is well sheltered
found at the D the lower course of the river is on
A River MississiPPi 4. Some of the features of river erosion low, level ground

57
Chapter 6 Landforms of Glaciation
The lce Age and Types of lce Masses
During the Pleistocene period or the Ice Ages, about
30 000 years ago, great continental ice sheets cov-
ered much of the temperate latitudes. It is estimated
that more than 31 million sq km (12 million square
miles) of the northern hemisphere were buried by
ice, half of which was in North America and the rest
in Europe, Greenland and the high mountains of
Eurasia (Fig. 6.1). The warmer climate that fol-
lowed caused the ice Sheets to retreat. Today only
two major ice caps are still present, in Greenland
and Antarctica. The former covers an area of
| 872 000 sq km (720,000 square miles) while the
latter is more than 13 million sq km (5 million square
miles). They are made up of compact sheets of ice,
hardened and crystallized to a depth of over a kil-
ometre. In Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica, the ice cap
was measured and found to be more than 4 200
metres (14,000 feet) thick. Under such a colossal
weight, the land sinks gradually.
From the central dome of the ice cap the ice
creeps out in all directions to escape as glaciers. The
peaks of the loftier mountains project above the sur-
face as nunataks. When the ice sheets reach right
down to the sea they often extend outwards into the
polar waters and float as ice shelves. They terminate
Fig. 6.1 The extent of continental ice sheets in the lce Ages
Maximum extent of the ice sheets
58
in precipitous cliffs. When they break into individual
blocks, these are called icebergs. While afloat in the
sea, icebergs assume a tabular or irregular shape and
only one-ninth of the mass is visible above the sur-
face. They diminish in size when approaching
warmer waters and are eventually melted, dropping
the rock debris that was frozen inside them on the
sea bed.
Apart from Greenland and Antarctica, glaciation
is still evident on the highlands of many parts of the
world, which lie above the snowline. This varies
from sea-level in the polar regions to 2 700 metres
(9,000 feet) in the Alps and 5 180 metres (17,000
feet) at the equator, as on Mt. Kilimanjaro
(Fig. 6.2). Permanent snowfields are sustained by
heavy winter snowfall and ineffective summer melt-
ing the day, but by nightfall it is refrozen. This pro-
cess is repeated until it forms a hard, granular
light and strong winds, any snow that falls is rapidly
accumulated. Part of the surface snow may melt dur-
ing the day, but by nightfall it is refrozen. This proc-
ess is repeated until it forms a hard, granular
substance known as ndvi (in French) or firn (in
German). Owing to gravitational forces, the n6vt of
the upland snowfield is drawn towards the valley
below. This is the beginning of the flow of the gla-
cier-'river of ice'. It normally assumes a tongue-

Mt. Everest
(HIMALAYAS}
8 848 m/29,028
Mt. Kilimaniaro
(AFR ICA)
5 888 m/l9,319 ft
Fig.6.2 The lowering of snowline from the equator (e.g. Mt.
Kilimanjaro at 5 182 metres (17.000 feet)) to the poles
(Spitzbergen at sea-level )
shape, broadest at the source but becoming nar-
rower downhill. Though the glacier is not a liquid,
under the continual pressure from the accumulated
snow above, it moves. The rate of movement is
greatest in the middle where there is little obstruc-
tion. The sides and the bottom are held back by fric-
tion with the valley side spurs and the valley floor.
If a row of stakes is planted across a glacier in a
straight line, they will eventually take a curved shape
down the valley, showing that the glacier moves
faster at the centre than the sides (Fig.6.3). In the
Alps the average rate of flow is about one metre (3
feet) a day; in Greenland it may be more than 15
metres (50 feet), but in Antarctica, where there is
little heat to melt the ice, glaciers move only a few
millimetres a day! The Aletsch Glacier
Bernese Oberland of Switzerland is-16 metres (10
miles) long, affording some spectacular sights to
Alpine tourists. Though it is the longest glacier in
Fig. 6.3 The different rate of glacial movement. A glacier
moves faster in the centre than the sides.
m
9 i40
fi 7 620
6 100
Mt. Matterhorn
Mt. Fujiyama (ALPS) Mt. Robson
(JAPAN) 4 505 m/l4,780 ft (RocKlEs) 4 570
ttaii12j€srt
.A' A ss54mt12,s72ft
N [,:lo_l:L .-._.
(GREENLAND}
'\ 3 383 m/l 1.100 f t
3 050
1 520
Europe, it is short compared with those of Alaska
and the Himalayas which measure more than five
times that length.
At the foot of mountain ranges, several glaciers
may converge to form an extensive ice-mass called
a piedmont glacier. The best known piedmont gla-
cier is the Malaspina Glacier of Alaska which is
104 km (65 miles) long and 40 km (25 miles) wide,
covering an area of more than 4 200 sq km (1,600
square miles). Combined glaciers of such dimensions
are now rare and in most continents only valley or
Alpine glaciers are seen.
Landforms of Highland Glaciation
in the Glaciation generally gives rise to erosional features
in the highlands and depositional features on the
lowlands, though these processes are not mutually
exclusive because a glacier plays a combined role of
erosion, transportation and deposition thottghout its
course. A glacier erodes its valley by two processes:
plucking and abrasion. By plucking, the glacier
freezes the joints and beds of the underlying rocks,
tears out individual blocks and drags them away. By
abrasion, the glacier scratches, scrapes, polishes and
scours the valley floor with the debris fuozen into it.
These fragments are powerful 'tools' of denudation.
Large angular fragments cut deep into the underly-
ing rocks so all glaciated floors bear evidence of
striation or scratching. The finer materials smooth
and polish the rock surfaces and produce finely
ground rock flour. The rate of erosion is determined
by several factors such as the velocity of flow, gra-
dient of the slope, the weight of the glacier, the tem-
perature of the ice and the geological structure of
the valley (Figs. 6.4a and b).
59
 rounded glaciated
landform
Rugged peaks of alpine landform

M
Fig. 6.4(a) The rugged appearance of alpine landform Fig. 6.4(b) The rounded appearance of glaciated landform
before continental glaciation after continental glaciation

6.4 A gfaciaf landscape in Switzerland Swiss National

Tourist Office

60
 rugged mountain wall
Fig. 6.5 Development of a corrie
The characteristic features of a glaciated highland
are as follows:
l. Corrie, cirque or cwm. The downslope move-
ment of a glacier from its snow-covered valley-head,
and the intensive shattering of the upland slopes,
tend to produce a depression where thefirn or nEvA
accumulates. The process of plucking operates on
the back-wall, steepening it and the movement of the
ice abrades the floor, deepening the depression into
a steep, horse-shoe-shaped basin called a cirque (in
French). It is also known as a corrie in Scotland and
a cwm in Wales (Fig. 6.5). There is a rocky ridge at
the exit of the corrie and, when the ice eventually
melts, water collects behind this barrier, to form a
corrie lake or tarn.
2. Ar6tes and pyramidal peaks. When two corries
cut back on opposite sides of a mountain, knife-
edged ridges are formed called ar6tes (a French
word). A well-known British example of an ardte is
Fig. 6,6 Cirque, ar€te and pyramidal peak
6l
6.8 The Athabasca glacier of Colombia lcefield, Canada
showing crevasses in foreground Canadian Government
Travel Bureau
the Striding Edge on Helvellyn in Westmorland.
Where three or more cirques cut back together, their
ultimate recession will form an angular hom or
pyramidal peak. The Matterhorn of Switzerland is
a classic example (Fig. 6.6).
3. Bergschrund. At the head of a glacier, where it
begins to leave the snowfield of a corrie, a deep ver-
tical crack opens up called a bergschrund (in Ger-
man) or rimaye (in French). This happens in
summer when, although the ice continues to move
out of the corrie, there is no new snow to replace it.
In some cases, not one but several such cracks occur.
The bergschrund presents a major obstacle to climb-
ers. Further down where the glacier negotiates a
bend or a precipitous slope, more crevasses or cracks
are formed (Fig. 6.5).
4. U-shaped glaciat trough. The glacier on its down-
ward journey, fed by ice from several corries-like
tributaries that join a river, begins to wear away the
sides and floor of the valley down which it moves.
It scratches and grinds the bedrock, removing any
rock debris and surface soil. It tends to straighten
any protruding spurs on its course. T\e interlocking
spurs are thus blunted to form truncated spurs and
the floor of the valley is deepened (Fig. 6.7). A val-
tey which has been glaciated takes a characteristic
 U-shape, with a wide, flat floor and very steep sides
(Plate 6.C). After the disappearance of the ice, the
overdeepened sections of these long, narrow gla-
cial troughs may be filled with water forming ribbon
lakes, such as Loch Ness and Lake Ullswater in Brit-
ain. They are sometimes referred to as trough lakes
or finger lakes.
5. Hanging valleys. The main valley is eroded much
more rapidly than the tributary valleys as it contains
a much larger glacier. After the ice has melted, a
tributary valley therefore 'hangs' above the main
valley so that its stream plunges down as a waterfall
(Fig. 6.7). Such tributary valleys are termed hanging
valleys and may form a natural head of water for
generating hydro-electric power.
6. Rock basins and rock steps. A glacier erodes and
Fig. 6.7 A glaciated upland excavates the bedrock in an irregular manner. The
unequal excavation gives rise to many rock basins
6.C A U-shaped valley in Switzerland. The valley sides are later filled by lakes in the valley trough. Where a
steep butthe floor isflat. There is a ribbon lake in the valley
bottom. Swiss National Tourist Office tributary valley joins a main valley, the additional
weight of ice in the main valley cuts deeper into the
valley floor at the point of convergence forming a
rock step. A series of such rock steps may also be
formed due to different degrees of resistance to gla-
cial erosion of the bedrocks.
7. Moraines. Moraines are made up of the pieces
of rock that are shattered by frost action, imbedded
in the glaciers and brought down the valley. Those
that fall on the sides of the glacier, mainly screes,
form lateral moraines. When two glaciers converge,
their inside lateral moraines unite to form a medial
moraine. The rock fragments which are dragged
along beneath the frozen ice are dropped when the
glacier melts and spread across the floor of the valley
as ground moraine. The glacier eventually melts on
reaching the foot of the valley, and the pile of trans-

Fig. 6.8 The glacial moraines

snout melts
*-n-o'ttt=w

62

Fig. 6.9 A glacier ending at the sea
ported materials left behind at the snout is the ter-
minal moraine or end moraine (Fig. 6.8). The
deposition of the end moraines may be in several
succeeding waves, as the ice may melt back by stages
so that a series of recessional moraines are formed.
If the glacier flows right down to the sea it drops
its load of moraine in the sea. If sections break off
as icebergs, morainic material will only be dropped
when they melt (Fig. 6.9). Where the lower end of
the trough is drowned by the sea it forms a deep,
steep-sided inlet called a fiord, typical of the Nor-
wegian and south Chilean coasts (see Chapter 10).
Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands
Landforms of glaciated lowlands are mainly deposi-
tional in nature, brought about by both valley gla-
ciers and continental ice sheets. The former leave
behind the eroded materials in only restricted areas.
The imprint of ice sheets on the landscape is far
more widespread because they advanced through
large areas during the Ice Ages, scouring and remov-
ing any surface soil and rock debris on their way. As
a result, it has been estimated that almost a third of
the total land surface of Eirrope and North America
is littered with glacial and fluvio-glacial materials of
all descriptions-moraines, boulder clay, tills, drifts,
rock flour, gravel and sand. Many of them are
being re-eroded, resorted and redeposited elsewhere
by present-day rivers.
Most of the glaciated lowlands have depositional
features, but where rock masses project above the
Flg. 6.10 Roche moutonn6e
(Fig. 6.10). Roches moutonndes are found in both
highland and lowland glaciated regions.
2, Crag and tail. The crag is a mass of hard rock
with a precipitous slope on the upstream side, which
protects the softer leeward slope from being com-
pletely worn down by the on-coming ice. It therefore
has a gentle tail, strewn with the eroded rock debris.
The classic example isthe Castle Rock of Edinburgh,
Scotland. Edinburgh Castle is located on the crag
and the High Street on the tail (Fig. 6.11).
The remaining glaciated lowland features are of
a depositional nature (Fig. 6.12). The following are
the typical ones.
3. Boulder clay or glacial till. This is an unsorted
glacial deposit comprising a range of eroded mate-
rials-boulders, angular stones, sticky clay and fine
rock flour. It is spread out in sheets, not mounds,
and forms gently undulating till or drift plains.The
landform is rather monotonous and featureless. The
Fig. 6.11 Crag and tail
dilectron ol rce movement
Fig.6.'12 Glacial depositional features in the outwash plain
_> diroctaon of ice moventent

level surface, they result in striking features of ero-

sion, such as the roche moutonn6e and crag and tail.
1. Roche Moutonn6e. This is a resistant residual
ou twash
rock hummock. The surface is striated by ice move-
ment. Its upstream side is smoothened by abrasion
and its downstream side is roughened by plucking,
and is much steeper. The term 'roche moutonn6e'
is used to describe such a feature because it resem-
bles a sheepskin-wig once worn in France
63
6.D A glacial erratic left on the limestone moors, West-
morf and, England Popperfoto

degree of fertility of such glacial plains depends very 6.E A drumlin field in northern England J.K. St Joseph
much on the composition of the depositional mate-
rials. Some of the boulder clay plains such as East sites of sub-glacial melt-water streams. They vary
Anglia and the northern Mid-West of U.S.A. form from a few metres to 60 metres (200 feet) in height
rich arable lands. and may be several kilometres long. In some parts
4. Erratics. These are boulders of varying sizes that of Maine, U.S.A., the outstanding eskers form a
were transported by ice. They came with the ddvanc- continuous ridge of 160 km (100 miles)! They are
ing glaciers or ice sheets but when the ice melted, very numerous in Scandinavia, e.g. the Punkaharju
they were left 'stranded' in the regions of deposition Esker of Finland. As eskers are made up of highly
(Plate 6.D).They are called erratics because they are porous sand and gravel, water is rapidly drained off
composed of materials entirely different from those from their crests and they may not support many
of the region in which they were found. Such erratics trees, though in Finland they often form tree-cov-
are thus most useful in tracing the source and direc- ered ridges between lakes.
tion of the ice movement. Sometimes the erratics 7. Terminal moraines. These are made up of the
may be found perched in precarious positions just as coarse debris deposited at the edge of the ice-sheet,
the ice dropped them and they are then termed to form hummocky and hilly country such as the
perched blocks. Examples of such blocks are com- Baltic Heights of the North European Plain
monly encountered in both lowland and highland (Fig. 6.12).
areas in Europe, e.g. Silurian grits are found perched E. Outwash plains. These are made up of fluvio-gla-
on the Carboniferous Limestone of the Pennines.
Their presence in large numbers is a hindrance to 6.F Screes in the Lake District, England Poppertoto
farming.
5. Drumlins. These are swarms of oval, elongated
'wh4le-back' hummocks composed wholly of boulder
clay, with their elongation in the direction of the ice
flow, that is on the downstream side. They are low
hills varying from a few metres to 126 metres (400
feet) in height and may be a kilometre or two long.
They appear a little steeper at the onset side and
taper off at the leeward end. They are arranged
diagonally and so are commonly described as having
a 'basket of eggs topography'. Large numbers of
them are found in County Down in Northern lreland
and the glaciated plain around the Great Lakes in
North America, (Plate 6.E).
6. Eskers. These are long, narrow, sinuous ridges
composed of sand and gravel which mark the former

64
cial deposits washed out from the terminal moraines
by the streams and channels of the stagnant ice mass.
The melt-waters sort and re-deposit the material in
a variety of'forms from the low hilly heathlands,
such as the Luneburg Heath of the North European
Plain, to undulating plains, where terraces, alluvial
fans and deltaic deposits of the melt-water streams
make up the landscape. Kames, small rounded hil-
locks of sand and gravel may cover part of the plain.
There the deposition takes the form of alternating
ridges and depressions, the latter may contain kettle
lakes and give rise to characteristic'knob and kettle'
topography (Fig. 6.12).
The Human Aspects of Glaciated
Landforms
Though the Ice Ages were at their height over
30 000 years ago, the effects of glaciation on both
landforms and human activities have profound influ-
ence in many parts of the world today. Their most
striking impact is felt in the temperate regions of
Europe and North America which were once under
continental ice sheets. Further south and on the high
mountains all over the world, slow-moving glaciers
are still shaping the landscape in the Alps, Andes,
Rockies and Himalayas. Glacial influences of Man's
economic activities are both favourable and unfa-
vourable, depending on the intensity of glaciation,
the relief of the region and whether the effects are
of an erosional or depositional nature.
In hilly regions such as the mountain slopes of
Scandinavia, ice sheets and glaciers have removed
most of the top soil, leaving them quite bare of veg-
etation. Soils that do exist are so thin that they are
incapable of supporting effective agriculture. Glacial
drifts in the valleys and benches or alps which were
not affected by glaciers have good pastures during
summer. Cattle are driven up to graze on the grass
and return to the valley bottom in winter. This form
of animal-migration type of farming is called trans-
humance. Extensive boulder clay plains such as
those of East Anglia and the Mid-West of U.S.A.
are some of the most fertile agricultural plains
known. The loess plains of Europe and central
65
U.S.A., with a high proportion of humus are good
farming land too. On the other hand, the sandy or
gravelly outwash plains, e.g. the heath-covered geest
of northern Germany, the marshy boulder clay
deposits of central Ireland, the barren ice-scoured
surfaces of the Canadian and Baltic Shields are infer-
tile. The presence of numerous erratics and perched
blocks in parts of Britain and in Alberta, Canada,
many of them of gigantic size obstruct farming and
the use of machines. Morainic deposits may dam, or
glaciers may hollow out, lakes which greatly incon-
venience large-scale farming or land development.
But when the lakes are eliminated, the old glacial
lake beds with their rich alluvium support heavy
cropping.
Large lakes formed by former glaciation, e.g. the
Great Lakes of North America, make excellent
waterways. They may also cut deep overflow chan-
nels while draining off, making natural routeways
across a mountainous terrain, e.g. the Hudson-
Mohawk Gap that links the interior with the Atlantic
seaboard of the U.S.A. On the other hand in regions
where drumlins are dominant, the drainage is either
poor or much confused.
Terminal and recessional moraines comprise
coarse materials of little use to Man but fluvio-glacial
deposits are not without their economic significance.
In the outwash plains, eskers and kames have been
excavated to provide sands and gravels for highway
and building construction. The purest sands are
extracted to make moulds for metal castings. The
lake basins of glaciated mountains provide natural
reservoirs. In countries like Scandinavia, Switzer-
land and Canada where there is little available coal,
streams and waterfalls that plunge down from hang-
ing valleys or other glaciated uplands are being har-
nessed to provide hydro-electric power. This has
helped to develop many of the chemical and metal-
lurgical industries. With the magnificent scenery pro-
vided by the glaciated- mountains e.g. the French,
Italian and Swiss Alps, large numbers of tourists are
attracted to them annually. Skiing, mountain climb-
ing and sight-seeing are all popular with Alpine tour-
ists.
Ouestions and Exercises
1. Choose any three of the following glacial fea- 4. Briefly explain any three of the following:
tures: corrie, ardte, erratic, hanging valley, ket- (a) Glaciated valleys assume a characteristic U-
tle lake, nunatak. shape.
For each of them: (b) The middle of a glacier moves faster than
(a) Describe its physical appearance. the sides.
(b) Account for its mode of formation. (c) In glaciated lowlands, eskers, kames and
(c) Locate and name an area where an example other morainic deposits are extensively
could be seen. quarried.
2. (a) Distinguish between valley glaciers and con- (d) Glacial soils vary greatly in their fertility.
tinental ice sheets. (e) Erratics and perched blocks are the best
(b) Explain why glaciation in the uplands pro- indicators of the source and direction of ice
duced erosional features while that of the movement.
lowlands produced mainly depositional fea- 5. With the aid of diagrams attempt to explain the
tures. difference between any three of the following
3. The following lowland glacial features are all, in pairs of terms connected with glaciation:
fact, small ridges, but are quite different in their (a) valley glacier and piedmont glacier;
process of formation: (b) bergschrund and crevasses;
(a) State which of them are of erosional or dep- (c) corrie lake and ribbon lake;
ositional nature. (d) interlocking spurs and truncated spurs;
(b) Pick out their distinctive differences in both (e) terminal moraine and .ecessional moraine.
appearance and formation.
roche moutonn6e, drumlin, esker, crag
and tail, kames.

Sample Objective Ouestions

l. A glacier is 'a river of ice' which A the nunatak B truncated, steep-sided spurs
moves downhill to the valley below. B the drumlin C hanging valleys
Its rate of rnovement is greatest C the ar€te D dry wadis
A on both sides of the glacier D the truncated spur
B where the surface is level
C where the slope is steepest 5. The diagrams below show the snow-
4. A well-glaciated area in temperate
line of four mountains in the south-
D at the snowfield on the top latitudes has all but one of the fol-
ern hemisphere. Which one is lo-
lowing features.
2. Fig. 6.5 on page 61 shows a typical cated furthest north?
A U-shaped valleys
bergschrund in a corrie. Its develop-
ment is due to
A frost action on glacial surfaces
B a glacier moving down the hill
slope
C heavy snowfall in winter
D rain-water freezing the snowfield

3. What relief feature is formed by the

planning and dragging action of a
elacier?

66
Chapter 7 Arid or Desert Landforms

tor. 'fhey lie in the trade wind belt on the western

Types of Desert
About a .fifth of the world's land is made up of
deserts some rockv. others stonv and thc rest
-
sanclv. Deserts that are absolutelv barren and wherc
ntlthing grows at all are rare anci they are bctter
krrown as'trua deserts'.
If you look at the u'orld map carcfully, you will
find that there is a certain delinite pattern to the
location of the world's deserts. You wtll realize that
irlmost all the deserts are confinecl within the 15" to
30" parallels of latitude north and south of the equa-
parts of the continents where Trade Winds are off-
shore. They are bathed by cold currents which pro-
duce a 'desiccating effect' so that moisture is not eas-
ify ccrndensed into precipitation. Dryness or aridity is
the key note. Such deserts are tropical hot deserts
or 'Trade Wind deserts'. They include the great
Sahara Desert; Arabian. lranian and Thar Deserts;
Kalahari, Namib and Atacama Deserts; the Greht
Australian Desert and the deserts of south-west
U.S.A.. and northern Mexico. In the continental
interiors of the mid-latitudes. the deserts such as the

7.A A sandy desert area (erg) in Death Valley, California

U.S. nform ati
I o n Service

"-'-" " l

-
L-\,*
*:
\3f
*\ --:**t*.,

67
Gobi and Turkestan are characterized by extremes
of temperatures (Fig. 18.1).
The work of winds and water in eroding elevated
uplands, transporting the worn-off materials and
depositing them elsewhere, has given rise to five dis-
tinct kinds of desert landscape.
l. Hamada or rocky desert. This consists of large
stretches of bare rocks, swept clear of sand and dust
by the wind. The exposed rocks are thoroughly
smoothed and polished. The region is bare and ster-
ile. The best known rocky deserts are those of the
Sahara Desert, e.g. the Hamada el Homra, in Libya,
which covers an area of almost 52 000 sq km (20,000
square miles).
2. Reg or stony desert. This is composed of exten-
sive sheets of angular pebbles and gravels which the
winds are not able to blow off. Such stony deserts
are much more accessible than the sandy deserts,
and large herds of camels are kept there. In Libya
and Egypt the term serir is used; elsewhere in
Africa, stony deserts are called reg.
3. Erg or sandy desert. This is a sea of sand which
typifies the popular idea of desert scenery. Winds
deposit vast stretches of undulating
sand-dunes in
the heart of the deserts. The intricate patterns of
ripples on the dune surfaces indicate the direction
of the winds (Plate 7.A). The Calanscio Sand Sea in
7.8 The Badlands of Dakota is a good example of extensive
soil erosion brought about by climatic conditions and the
nature of the soil. Popperfoto
68
Libya is characteristic of a sandy desert. In Turkes-
tan, sandy deserts are also known as koum.
4. Badlands. The term 'badlands'was first given to
an arid area in South Dakota, U.S.A., where the
hills were badly eroded by occasional rain-storms
into gullies and ravines (Plate 7.B). The extent of
water action on hill slopes and rock surfaces was so
great that the entire region was abandoned by the
inhabitants. Deserts with similar features are now
referred to as badlands, e.g. the Painted Desert of
Arizona, which lies south-east of the Grand Canyon
of the Colorado River.
5. Mountain deserts. Some deserts are found on
highlands such as plateaux and mountain ranges.
Erosion has dissected the desert highlands into
harsh, serrated outlines of chaotic peaks and craggy
ranges. Their steep slopes are cut by wadis (steep-
sided, often dry, valleys) and the action of frost has
carved out sharp, irregular edges. In the Sahara
Desert, the Ahaggar Mountains and the Tibesti
Mountains are good examples of desert mountains.
The Mechanics of Arid Erosion
Arid landfonns are the result of a combination of
factors, one reacting upon the other. Insufficient
rainfall, often less than L27 mm (5 inches), coming
at most irregular periods, coupled with very high
temperatures (31"C/87"F. is the average) and a rapid
rate of evaporation, are the chief causes of aridity.
Sub-aerial denudation through the processes of
weathering (mechanical and chemical), wind action
and the work of water have combined to produce a
desert landscape that is varied and distinctive.
1. Weathering. This is the most potent factor in
reducing rocks to sand in arid regions. Even though
the amount of rain that falls in the desert is small,
some manage to penetrate into the rocks and set
up chemical reactions in the various minerals.
Intense heating during the day and rapid cooling at
night by radiation, set up stresses in the already
weakened rocks so that they eventually crack. As
heat penetrates rocks slowly when the outer surface
of rocks is being heated by the hot sun, the inner
rocks remain quite cool. The heating of the rocks
causes the outer surface to expand. The hot outer
surface prises itself off from the inner rocks by peel-
ing off in successive thin layers from the surface.
Such an onion-peeling process of mechanical weath-
ering is called exfoliation. Angular rock debris is
found in abundance as screes at the foot of upstand-
ing rocks. Similarly, when water gets into the cracks
and joints of rocks and the temperature at night
suddenly drops to below freezing point, the water
freezes and therefore expands by 10 per cent of its
volume. Successive freezing will prise off fragments
of rock which accumulate as screes. These rock
fragments become the 'teeth' or tools of wind ero-
sion. (See Chapter 4-Weathering)
2. Action of winds in deserts. The wind, though not
the most effective agent of erosion, transportation
and deposition, is more efficient in arid than in
humid regions. Since there is little vegetation or
moisture to bind the loose surface materials, the
effects of wind erosion are almost unrestrained.
Wind erosion is carried out in the following ways:
(a) Deflation. This involves the lifting and blowing
away of loose materials from the ground. Such un-
consolidated sand and pebbles may be carried in
the air or rolled along the ground depending on the
grain size. The finer dust and sand may be removed
kilometres away from their place of origin, and be
deposited even outside the desert margins. Defla-
tion results in the lowering of the land surface to
form large depressions called deflatlon hollows. The
Qattara Depression of the Sahara Desert lies
almost 135 metres (450 feet) below sea-level.
(b)'Abrasion. The sand-blasting of rock surfaces by
winds when they hurl sand particles against them is
69
7.C Curious-shaped desert landforms emerge as a result of
wind erosion. Servizio Edibriale Fotografico
called abrasion. The impact of such blasting results
in rock surfaces being scratched, polished and worn
away. Abrasion is most effective at or near the base
of rocks, where the amount of material the wind is
able to carry is greatest. This explains why telegraph
poles in the deserts are protected by a coveriug of
metal a metre or two above the ground. A great
variety of desert features are produced by abrasion.
(c) Attrition. When wind-borne particles roll against
one another in collision they wear each other away
so that their sizes are greatly reduced and grains are
rounded into millet seed sand. This process is called
attrition.
Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts
In the'combined processes of abrasion, deflation and
attrition, a wealth of characteristic desert land-
forms emerge (Plate 7.C).
1. Rock pedestals or mnshroom rocks. The sand-
blasting effect of winds against any projecting rock
masses wears back the softer layers so that an irreg-
ular edge is formed on the alternate bands of hard
and soft rocks. Grooves and hollows are cut in the
rock surfaces, carving them into fantastic and gro-
tesque-looking pillars called roch pedestals (Fig. 7.1).
Such rock pillars will be further eroded near their
bases where the friction is greatest. This process of
under-cutting produces rocks of mushroom shape
called mushroom rocks or gour in the Sahara.
2. Zetgen. These are tabular masses which have a
layer of soft rocks lying beneath a surface layer of
more resistant rocks. The sculpting effects of wind
abrasion wear them into a weird-looking'ridge and
 --=--
undercutting
by wind
{i^",'i
Fig.7.1 Rock pedestals or gour
Fig.7.2 Zeugen (with horizontal strata of hard and soft
rocks)
furrow' landscape. Mechanical weathering initiates
their formation by opening up joints of the surface
rocks. Wind abrasion further 'eats' into the under-
lying softer layer so that deep furrows are devel-
oped. The hard rocks then stand above the furrows
as ridges or zeugen (Fig. 7.2), and many even over-
hang. Such tabular blocks of zeugen may stand 3 to
30 metres (10 to 100 feet) above the sunken furrows.
Continuous abrasion by wind gradually lowers the
zeugen and widens the furrows.
3. Yardangs. Quite similar to the'ridge and furrow'
landscape of zeugen are the steep-sided yardangs.
Instead of lying in horizontal strata upon one
another, the hard and soft rocks of yardangs are ver-
tical bands and are aligned in the direction of the
prevailing winds. Wind abrasion excavates the bands
of softer rocks into long, narrow corridors, separat-
ing the steep-sided overhanging ridges of hard rocks,
called yardangs (Fig. 7.3). They are commonly
found in the Atacama Desert. Chile. but the more
70
Fig. 7.3 Yardangs (with vertical bands hard and soft
rocksl
spectacular ones with yardangs rising to 8-L5 metres
(25-50 feet) are best developed in the interior'deserts
of Central Asia where the name originated.
4. Mesas and buttes. Mesa is a Spanish word mean-
ing 'table'. It is a flat, table-like land mass with a
very resistant horizontal top layer, and very steep
sides. The hard stratum on the surface resists den-
udation by both wind and water, and thus protects
the underlying layers of rocks from being eroded
away. Mesas may be formed in canyon regions, e.g.
Arizona, or on fault blocks, e.g. the Table Mountain
of Cape Town, South Africa. Continued denudation
through the ages may reduce mesa in area so that
they become isolated flat-topped hills called buttes.
Many of them in arid countries are separated by
deep gorges or canyons (Fig.7.a and Plate 7.D).
5. Inselberg. This is a German word meaning
'island-mountain'. They are isolated residual hills ris-
ing abruptly from the level ground. They are char-
acterized by their very steep slopes and rather
rounded tops. They are often composed of granite
or gneiss, and are probably the relics of an original
plateau which has been almost entirely eroded away
(Plate 7.E). Inselbergs are typical of many desert
Fig.7.4 Mesa and butte
MESA
CLIFF BENCH
CANYON
Fig. 7.5 Round-topped, steep-sided inselbergs
and semi-arid landscapes in old age, e.g. those of
northern Nigeria, Western Australia and the Kala-
hari Desert (Fig. 7.5).
6. Ventifacts or dreikanter. These are pebbles
fateted by sand-blasting. They are shaped and
thoroughly polished by wind abrasion to sha'pes
resembling Brazil nuts. Rock fragments, mechani-
cally weathered from mountains and upstanding
rocks, are moved by wind and smoothed on the
windward side. If wind direction changes another
facet is developed. Such rocks have characteristic
flat facets with sharp edges. Amongst the ventifacts
those with three wind-faceted surfaces are called
dreikanter. Thdse wind-faceted pebbles form the
desert pavement, a smooth, mosaic-like region,
7.E Ayers Rock, an inselberg in the Australian
Austral ia n Tou rist Com m ission
7.D The Grand Canyon of Arizona with its surrounding
mesas and buttes SeryEio Editoriale Fotografico
closely covered by the numerous rock fragments and
pebbles.
7. Deflation hollows. Winds lower the ground by
blowing away the unconsolidated materials, and
small depressions may form. Similarly, minor fault-
ing can also initiate depressions and the eddying
action of on-coming winds will wear off the weaker
rocks until the water-table is reached. Water then
Desert
71
seeps out forming oases or swarnps, in the deflation
hollows or depressions. The Faiyum Depression in
Egypt lies 40 metres (130 feet) below sea-level.
Large areas in western U.S.A., stripped of their nat-
ural vegetation for farming were completely deflated
when strong winds moved materials as dust storms,
laying waste crops and creating what is now known
as the Great Dust Bowl. In a dust.storm, winds may
lift dust hundreds of metres high and carry it thou-
sands of kilometres awav.
Landforms of Wind Deposition in
Deserts
Materials eroded and transported by winds must
come to rest somewhere. The finest dust travels
enormous distances in the air, and may be moved
completely out of the desert. It has been estimated
that some dust grains travel as far as 3 700 km (2,300
miles) before they are finally deposited on land or
sea. The dust from the Sahara Desert is sometimes
blown across the Mediterranean to fall as'blood
rains' in Italy or on the glaciers of Switzerland. Dust
that settles in the Huang He (Hwang Ho) basin from
the Gobi Desert has accumulated over past centuries
to a depth of several hundred metres! As wind-borne
materials are sifted according to their coarseness, it
can be expected that the coarser sands will be too
heavy to be blown out of the desert limits. They
remain as dunes or other depositional landforms
within the deserts themselves. Since they are rarely
static, their migration pattern depends on a number
of factors: the size of the particles they contain, the
direction and velocity of the winds, the location and
nature of the surfaces over which the particles are
transported and the presence or absence of water
and natural vegetation.
The following are some of the major features of
wind deposition:
1. Dunes. Dunes are, in fact, hills of sand formed
by the accumulation of sand and shaped by the
movement of winds. They may be active or live
dunes, constantly on the move, or inactive fixed
dunes, rooted with vegetation. Dunes are most well
represented in the erg desert where a sea of sand is
being continuously moved, reshaped and redepos-
ited into a variety of features. Because of their great
contrast in shape, size and alignment, they have
been given a long list of fanciful names, such as
attached dune or head dune, tail dune, advanced
dune, lateral dune, wake dune, star dune, pyramidal
dune, sword dune, parabolic blow-out dune, hairpin
72
tuture position of tho bsrchan
Fig.7.6 Crescentic sand dune-barchan
dune, smoking dune and transverse dune. However,
the following two types of common dune, barchans
and seifs, will be described in more detail.
(a) Barchan (Barkhan). These are crescentic
dunes which occur individually or in groups. They
are live dunes which advance steadily before winds
that come from a particular prevailing direction.
They are most prevalent in the deserts of Turkestan
and in the Sahara. Barchans are initiated probably
by a chance accumulation of sand at an obstacle,
such as a patch of grass or a heap of rocks. They
occur transversely to the wind, so that their horns thin
out and become lower in the direction of the
wind due to the reduced frictional retardation of the
winds around edges. The windward side is convex
and gently-sloping while the leeward side, being shel-
tered, is concave and steep (the slip-face) (Fig. 7.6).
The crest of the sand dune moves forward as more
sand is accumulated by the prevailing wind. The
sand is driven up the windward side and, on reaching
the crest, slips down the leeward side so that the
dune advances. The rate of advancement varies from
8 metres (25 feeQ a year for the high dunes mea-
suring up to 30 metres (100 feet) high to 15 metres
(50 feet) ayear, for the lower dunes which may be
only a dozen metres high.
The migration of the barchans may be a threat to
desert life for they may encroach on an oasis burying
palm trees or houses. Long-rooted sand-holding
trees and grasses are therefore planted to halt.the
advance of the dunes thus preventing areas of fertile
land from being devastated. Under the action of
winds, barchani take a chaotic changing pattern.
Several barchans may coalesce into a line or irreg-
ular ridges, ever-changing with the direction of the
winds. Ergs or sandy deserts are thus most difficult
to cross.

Fig.7.7 Longitudinal dunes-seifs
(b) Serls or longitudinal dunes. Seif is an Arabic
word meaning'sword'. They are long, narrow ridges
of sand, often over a hundred kilometres long lying
parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds. The
high serrated ridges may attain a height of over 60
metres (200 feet). The crestline of the seif rises and
falls in alternate peaks and saddles in regular succes-
sions like the teeth of a monstrous saw. The domi-
nant winds blow straight along the corridor between
the lines of dunes so that they are swept clear of sand
and remain smooth. The eddies that are set up blow
towards the sides of the corridor, and, having less
power, drop the sand to form the dunes. In this marr-
ner, the prevailing winds increase the length of the
dunes into tapering linear ridges while the occasional
cross winds tend to increase their height and width.
Extensive seif dunes are found in the Sahara Desert,
south of the Qattara Depression; the Thar Desert
and the West Australian Desert (Fig. 7.7).
2. Loess. The fine dust blown beyond the desert
limits is deposited on neighbouring lands as loess. It
is a yellow, friable material and is usually very fer-
tile. Loess is in fact, fine loam, rich in lime, very
coherent and extremely porous. Water sinks in read-
ily so. that the surface is always dry. Streams have
cut deep valleys through the thick mantle of soft
loess and badland topography may develop. It is so
soft that roads constructed through a loess region
soon sink and their walls rise steeply.
The most extensive deposit of loess is found in
north-west China in the loess plateau of the Huang
He (Hwang Ho) basin. It is estimated to cover an
area of 650 000 sq km (250,000 square miles), and
the deposits have accumulated to a thickness of 60
to 150 metres (200 to 500 feeQ! In China, such yel-
lowish wind-borne dust from the Gobi Desert is
called 'Huangtu' - the yellow earth. But the original
73
term loess actually comes from a village in Alsace,
France, bearing that name, where such deposits
occurred. Similar deposits also occur in some parts
of Germany, France and Belgium, and are locally
called limon. They are also wind-borne but were
blown from material deposited at the edge of ice-
sheets during the Ice Ages. In parts of the Mid-
West, U.S.A. loess was derived from the ice-sheets
which covered northern North America and is
termed adobe.
Landforms due to Water Action in
Deserts
Few deserts in the world are entirely without rain or
water. The annual precipitation may be small, 127
to 254 mm (5 to 10 inches), and comes in irregular
showers. But thunderstorms do occur and the rain
falls in torrential downpours, producing devastating
effects. A single rainstorm may bring several centi-
metres of rain within a few hours, drowning people
who camp in dry desert streams and flooding mud-
baked houses in the oases. As deserts have little veg-
etation to protect the surface soil, Iarge quantities of
rock wastes are transported in the sudden raging tor-
rents, or flash-floods. Loose gravels, sand and fine
dust are swept down the hill sides. They cut deep
gullies and ravines forming bqdland topography.
Subsequent downpours widen and deepen the gullies
when they wash down more soft rocks from the sur-
face. There is so much material in the flash floods
that the flow becomes liquid mud. When the masses
of debris are deposited at the foot of the hill or the
mouth of the valley, an alluvial cone or fan or 'dry
delta' is formed, over which the temporary stream
discharges through several channels, depositing
more material. The pasty alluvial deposits are sub-
jected to rapid evaporation by the hot sun and down-
ward percolation of water into the porous ground,
and soon dry up leaving mounds of debris.
Apart from gullies there are many larger dry chan-
nels or valleys. These are deepened by vertical cor-
rasion by raging torrents during the occasional
cloudbursts. These are the wadis and are dry for
most of the time. Some desert streams are fed by the
melting snow of the distant mountains outside the
deserts and rivers flow as exotic streams. The water
carves out steep walls, which rise abruptly from the
stream bed. In Algeria such gorges are termed
chebka.
In arid and semi-arid areas the outflowing streams
from the upland regions are both short and inter-
mittent. They drain into the lower depressions so
that drainage is almost entirely internal. Sometimes
water collected in a depression or a desert basin does
not completely disappear by evaporation or seepage,
and a temporary lake is formed. Such lakes contain
a high percentage of salts, because of high evapo-
ration, and are glistening white when they dry up.
The lakes and the alluvial plains formed by them are
called playas, salinas or salars in the United States
and Mexiqo, and shotts in northern Africa (Fig. 7.8).
The floor of the depression is made up of two fea-
tures, the bajada and the pediment. The bajada is
a depositional feature made up of alluvial material
laid down by the intermittent streams. The pediment Fig. 7.8 Intermont desert basin
is an erosional plain formed at the base of the
surrounding mountain scarps.

Ouestions and Exercises

1. Draw annotated diagrams and explain very (e) Great Dust Bowl:
briefly any three of the following desert fea- (f) flash-floods.
tures: 6. (a) State the different types of dunes caused
(a) yardangs; by wind action in deserts.
(b) barchans; (b) What are the principal factors that have
(c) pediments; contributed to such differences, especially
(d) inselbergs; in their size and appearance?
(e) wadis. (c) What has given rise to the crescent shape
2. Attempt a simple classification of deserts. of the barchan (barkhan) type of dune?
Justify your basis of classification by bringing 7. (a) In what kinds of environment is wind
out their distinct differences in appearance, action most dominant?
formation and outstanding features. (b) How do the clear, blue skies of desert
3. With the aid of diagrams, explain the major lands affect the surface rocks?
differences between any three of the following (c) How does the absence of vegetation in
pairs of desert landforms: deserts affect the resultant landform?
(a) zeugen and yardangs; 8. (a) Explain how insolation affects weathering
(b) mesas and inselbergs; in hot deserts.
(c) crescentic barchans and longitudinal seifs; (b) Suggest ways by which weathering is
(d) bajadas and pediments; caused as a result of condensation occur-
(e) millet seed and dreikanter. ring in deserts at night.
4. Explain concisely the processes of deflation, (c) Describe how occasional thunderstorms
abrasion and deposition by winds. With the aid produce devastating effects on desert
of diagrams explain two topographical features landforms.
formed by any two of the above processes. 9. Wind is the most dominant agent in the sculp-
5. The following terms are closely related to ture of desert landforms.
desert landforms. For any four of them, define With reference to the above statement:
with reference to examples what the terms (a) Describe the abrasive work of winds;
mean: (b) Explain how rock particles are transported
(a) erg landscape; by wind;
(b) loess deposits; (c) Name Ttve outstanding features in deserts
(c) badland topography; caused by wind action.
(d) rock pedestais; 10. Name three features produced by wind erosion

74
 and another two features by wind deposition
which are frequently seen in tropical deserts.
For one of each type:
(a) draw a diagram to show the main charac-
teristic features;
(b) describe its physical appearance;
(c) explain how it is formed;
(d) name one area where an example can be
found.
11. (a) Why are badlands often found in semi-arid
regions of the world?
(b) What agents of erosion are normally
responsible for badland formation?
(c) Name an area in the northern hemisphere
where extensive badlands can be seen.
12. 'Though wind is the most potent agent in arid
erosion, the role of water cannot be dis-
counted.' With reference to the above state-
ment:
(a) Describe the work of water in desert lands.
(b) What prominent features are produced by
water action in deserts?
(c) Define 'flash floods' and say why such
floods are dangerous.

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. The most typical feature of a canyon 4. The most outstanding characteristic C the relief of the ground
is its of arid deserts is D the subterranean drainage pat-
A U-shaPed valleY A its high relative humidity tem
B irregular slope surfaces B its small diurnal range of temper-
C muddy river banks ature The 'ridge and furrow' landscape of
D large volume of water C its vast expanse of barren sand the hot deserts refers to that formed
D the presence of waves of reces- by
2. Loess is wind-blown dust that is de- sional moraines A inselbergs
posited outside the desert limits. It is
B mesas
also known by other names but nol 5. The shape and size of sand dunes C zeugens
by the name are influenced by the following ex- D barchans
A serir cept
B limon A the size of the sand particles
C adobe B the velocity of the wind
D huangtu

75
Chapter 8 Limestone and Chalk Landforms

Limestone and Chalk

Limestone and chalk are sedimentary rocks of.
organic origin derived from the accumulation of cor-
als and shells in the sea. In its pure state, limestone
is made up of calcite or calcium carbonate, but where
magnesium is also present it is termed dolomite.
Chalk is a very pure form of limestone, white and
rather soft. Limestone is soluble in rain-water.
which, with carbon dioxide from the air, forms a
weak acid. A region with a large stretch of limestone
therefore possesses a very distinct type of topogra-
phy. It is then termed a karst region, a name derived
from the Karst district of Yugoslavia where such
topography is particularly well developed. 8.8 A limestone pavement

Gharacteristic Features of a Karst
Region
Generally speaking, karst regions have a bleak land-
scape, occasionally broken by precipitous slopes.
There is a general absence of surface drainage as
most of the surface water has gone underground.
Streams rising on other rocks only flow over lime-
stone for a short distance and then disappear under-
ground. For the greater part of their course, they cut
8.A A limestone escarpment. Notice that the valley is culti-
vated but the limestone is bleak and treeless. lnstitute of
Geological Science
their way along the joints and fissures of the rock
wearing out a system of underground channels. The
surface valleys are therefore dry. When the water
penetrates to the base of the limestone and meets
non-porous rocks it re-emerges on to the surface as
a spring or resurgence.
Limestones are well jointed and it is through these
joints and cracks that rain-water finds its way into
the underlying rock. Progressive widening by solu-
tion enlarges these cracks into trenches and a most

76
 rain-water or mild acid

Fig. 8.1 Limestone pavement

intriguing feature called limestone payement is devel-
oped. The enlarged joints are called grikes and the
isolated, rectangular blocks are termed clints. The
limestone pavements may have been formed
beneath the soil and are now exposed by the removal
of the soil cover (Plate 8.B and Fig. 8.1).
On the surface of the limestone are numerous
swallow holes, which are small depressions carved
out by solution where rain-water sinks into the
limestone at a point of weakness. They are also
known as sink holes. Gaping Ghyll in Yorkshire is a
fine example. These holes grow in size through con-
tinuous solvent action-
Once water has sunk into the limestone, it etches
out caverns and passages along joints or bedding
planes. When the roof of an underground tunnel

alternating scar and scree. I scree

slopes developed on bands h
Fig.8.2 Limestone scenery cave collaPsed of different resistance I scar
dry valleY forming a gorge gilKe
Swallow holes or sink
holes where stream goes
limestone
u ndergrounc, pavement

o lrmestone
surface v)4ith no-rivers
>cJ
-b;t
2o-
ec

o
o
E

.:;
Y'O
ii6 o
€
:t-E-s
E

stream reappears on
cave with stalactites and surface
stalagmites
undergrouncl
course of stream

77
Fig. 8.3 The formation of dolina, uvala and polje in lime-
stone regions

collapses, a precipitous limestone gorge such as the

Cheddar Gorge is formed. Where a number of
swallow holes coalesce a larger hollow is formed
and is called a doline (Fig. 8.2). Several dolina may
merge as a result of subsidence to form a large de-
pression called an uvala. Some of them are a
kilometre across, containing much clayey soil from
the limestones. weathered after their subsidence
(Fig. 8.3).
In Yugoslavia, some very large depressions called
polje may be as large as a hundred square
kilometres but these are partly due to faulting. Dur-
ing the rainy season, parts of the floor which are at
8.C A limestone cave in Phuket lsland, Thailand. Note the
stalactites. Goh Cheng Leong
or near the water-table may become temporary
lakes, but the drier areas are fertile and may sup-
port large villages.
Where subterranean streams descend through
swallow holes to underground passages, the region
may be honey-combed with caves and caverns
(Plate 8.C), some containing ponds and lakes. The
most spectacular underground features that adorn
the limestone caves are stalactites, stalagmites and

Fig. 8.4 Limestone cave

stalactites stalagmites

underground cavern formed

bv solullon in a zone of weakness

calclte plllar

stream flowing
through underground
passages

78
pillars. Stalactites are the sharp, slender, downward-
growing pinnacles that hang from the cave-roofs.
The water carries calcium in solution and when this
lime-charged water evaporates, it leaves behind the
solidified crystalline calcium carbonate. As moisture
drips from the roof it trickles down the stalactite
and drops to the floor where calcium is deposited to
form stalagmites. They are shorter, fatter and more
rounded. Over a long period, the stalactite hanging
from the roof is eventually joined to the stalagmite
growing from the floor to form a pillar (Fig. 8.4).
Such features are commonly seen in any well-
developed limestone caves e.g. Batu Caves, Kuala
Lumpur; Mammoth Caves, Kentucky and Carlsbad 8.D A dry valley in the chalk region of southern England
Cave, New Mexico, in the U.S.A. and Postojna
Caves, Yugoslavia. ulation is often sparse. The only mineral of impor-
tance is lead which occurs in veins in association with
limestone. Besides this, good quality limestones are
The Major Limestone Regions of the
often used as building materials or quarried for the
World cement industry. In Peninsular Malaysia, the lime-
The most characteristic stretch of limestone occurs stone outcrops of the Kledang Range and the Main
in north-west Yugoslavia. Other regions include: the Range are quarried for the Pan-Malaysia and Tasek
Causses district of southern France, the Pennines of Cement Works.
Britain, Yorkshire and Derbyshire in particular, the
Kentucky region of the United States, the Yucatan
Peninsula of Mexico, the Cockpit Country of Chalk
Jamaica and the limestone hills of Perlis. Peninsular The landforms of chalk are rather different from
Malaysia. those of other limestones. There is little or no sur-
face drainage and valleys which once contained riv-
ers are now dry. These are often called coombes.
Human Activities of Karst Regions The chalk forms low-rounded hills in southern and
Karst regions are often barren and at best carry a south-eastern England, where they are called
thin layer of soil. The porosity of the rocks and the 'downs' and in northern France. The chalk is cov-
absence of surface drainage make vegetative growth ered with short turf, and in places with woodland,
difficult, so that limestone can usually support only and is used for pasture and sometimes for arable
poor grass and.short turf; some sheep grazing is pos- farming. Because of the friable nature of the rock,
sible. Limestone vegetation in tropical regions, how- swallow holes and underground cave networks do
ever, is luxuriant because of the heavy rainfall all the not generally develop.
year round. Settlements are scattered and the pop-

Ouestions and Exercises

1. Choose three ottstanding features of a karst (a) clints and grikes;
region. With the aid of diagrams, describe their (b) dolina and uvalas;
appearance and explain how they have been (c) stalactites and stalagmites.
formed. For any two of. them, with the aid of annotated
2. The following features are associated with diagrams, explain their origin and locate an
karst topography: actual example of each.

79
 Explain why: (c) Compare and contrast the physical fea-
(a) Karst regions have very little surface drain- tures of a limestone cave and that of a
age, chalk cliff.
(b) Subterranean streams produce magnificent 8. (a) What is meant by 'underground scenery'?
underground scenery. (b) Name four characteristic features that
(c)Limestone areas have little agriculture and tourists normally encounter in regions with
are sparsely peopled. such scenery.
4, With the aid of labelled diagrams, describe and (c) Attempt to sketch the features that typify
account for the development of physical fea- an'underground scenery'.
tures which result from the action of. water in: 9. (a) Briefly distinguish between the following:
(a) limestone regions; i. a dry valley and a glaciated valley;
(b) deserts; ii. a limestone gorge and a canyon;
(c) granite uplands. iii. a polje and a playa.
5. Draw a large diagram of a karst region and (b) With the aid of simple sketches or dia-
indicate the following: swallow holes, lime- grams, attempt to show their contrasting
stone gorge, dry valleys, limestone pavement features.
with clints and grikes. Describe briefly how any (c) Name an area where each of the above fea-
two of them have been formed. tures may be found.
6. (a) What type of weathering is dominant in 10. (a) Describe the manner in which a land sur-
limestone regions? face may be changed by:
(b) Describe how rain-water acts on limestone i. the action of rain-water on limestone
surfaces. regions;
(c) For any large stretch of limestone regions ii. temperature changes in temperate con-
in which you are familiar describe some of tinental interiors;
the characteristic physical features. iii. glaciers moving down a valley.
(a) Distinguish between 'limestone' and (b) Draw annotated diagrams (where rele-
'chalk'. vant) to illustrate your answer.
(b) Why are 'karst' features normally found in
hard, jointed limestone hills rather than in
softer and more porous chalk?

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. The most characteristic feature of limestone pavement which is the re- c Swanland in West Australia
the karst region is sult of D Patagonia in Argentina
A its lack of mineral resources A the action of rain-water on well-
B the absence of surface drainage jointed limestone 5. Select from the terms given below
C the presence of extensive flood B frost action on a bedded lime- those that are associated with a karst
plains stone plain region:
D the predominance of earthquakes C rivers running through a karst re- I
dolines
glon II erratics
2. Cave dwellers in limestone regions D overgrazing in a chalk country III inselbergs
may suffer from the risk of being IV grikes
A frost-bitten V canyons
B gas-poisoned 4. From the following list of geog- VI coombes
C buried alive raphical regions, the best developed A I, III and V
D drowned karst landscape is found in B I, IV and VI
A the Dinaric Alps of Yugoslavia C II, IV and VI
3. Photograph 8.B on page 76 shows a B northern Honshu in Japan D III, IV and V

80
Chapter 9 Lakes
General
Lakes are amongst the most varied features of the
earth's surface. They occupy the hollows of the land
surface in which water accumulates. They vary tre-
mendously in size, shape, depth and mode of for-
mation. The tiny ones are no bigger than ponds or
pools, but the large ones are so extensive that they
merit the name of seas, e.g. the Caspian Sea which
is | 223 km (760 miles) long, as much as 980 metres
(3,2I5 feet) deep, with a total area of 373 230 sq km
(143,550 square miles) and is bigger than the whole
of Malaysia!
Lakes may exist temporarily filling up the small
depressions of undulating ground after a heavy
shower. But those which are deep and carry more
water than could ever be evaporated remain per-
manent. Most of the lakes in the world are fresh-
water lakes fed by rivers and with out-flowing
streams, e.g. Lake Geneva, Lake Poyang and the
Great Lakes of North America. In regions of low
precipitation and intense evaporation where there
are few rivers strong enough to reach the sea,
streams drain into a lake forming a basin of inland
drainage. Because of the intense evaporation these
lakes are saline. For example the Dead Sea has a
salinity (salt content) of 250 parts per thousand, and
the Great Salt Lake of Utah, U.S.A. has a salinity
of 220 parts per thousand. But, the Black Sea, into
which drain manv larse rivers. has a salinitv of less
Fig. 9.1 Earth movement
rift valley lakes
Fig. 9.1 Earth movement
than 17 parts per thousand! Playas or salt lakes, are
a common feature of deserts.
It must be pointed out that lakes are only tem-
porary features of the earth's crust; they will even-
tually be eliminated by the double process of
draining and silting up. In regions of unreliable rain-
fall, lakes dry up completely during the dry season.
In the hot deserts lakes disappear altogether by
the combined processes of evaporation, percolation
and outflow. Though the process of lake elimination
may not be completed within our span of life,
it takes place relatively ,quickly in terms of geologi-
cal time.
The Formation and Origin of Lakes
The following are the various ways in which lakes
can be formed. Each of them is placed in a specific
category, though in a few cases the lakes could have
been formed by more than one single factor.
LAKES FORMED BY EARTH MOVEMENT
l. Tectonic lakes. Due to the warping, sagging,
bending and fracturing of the earth's crust, tectonic
depressions occur. Such depressions give rise to
lakes of immense sizes and depths. They include
Lake Titicaca, occupying a huge depression in
the intermont plateau of the Andes, 3 810 metres
(12,500 feet) above sea-level, the highest lake in the
world; and the Caspian Sea, the largest lake, almost
5 times larger than its nearest rival, Lake Superior.
2. Rift valley lakes. Due to faulting, a rift valley
is formed by the sinking of land between two parallel
faults, deep, narrow and elongated in character.
Water collects in these troughs and their floors are
often below sea-level. The best known example is
the East African Rift Valley which runs through
Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia,
and extends along the Red Sea to Israel and Jordan
over a total distance of 4 800 km (3,000 miles).
It includes such lakes as Lakes Tanganyika
(1 430 m/4,7W feet deep, the world's deepest lake),
Malawi, Rudolf, Edward, Albert, as well as the
Dead Sea 392 metres (1,286 feet) below mean sea-
level, the world's lowest lake (Fig. 9.1).
 rtr r$
.T

9.A Blea Water in Westmorland, England, a typical corrie

lake J.K. St. Joseph

LAKES FORMED BY GLACIATION country Suomi-the Land of Lakes. It is said that

1. Cirque lakes or tarns. A glacier on its way there are over 35 000 glacial lakes in Finland (Plate
down the valley leaves behind circular hollows in the e.B)!
heads of the valleys up in the mountains. Such hol- 4. Lakes due to morainic damming of valleys.
lows are the armchair-shaped cirques or corries Valley glaciers often deposit morainic debris across
(Plate 9.A). Their over-deepened floors may be
Fig. 9.2 Lakes formed through glaciation
filled with water to become cirque lakes, e.g. Red
Tarn in the English Lake District (Fig. 9.2). Those
that occupy glacial troughs are long and deep and a
are termed ribbon lakes, e.g. Lake Ullswater.
2. Kettle lakes. These are depressions in the out-
wash plain left by the melting of masses of stagnant
ice. They are irregular because of the uneven
morainic surface and are never of any great size or
depth, e.g. the meres of Shropshire in England, and
the kettle-lakes of Orkney in Scotland.
3. Rock-hollow lakes. These are formed by ice-
scouring when valley glaciers or ice sheets scoop out
hollows on the surface. Such lakes of glacial origin
are abundant in Finland. In fact. the Finns call their

82

9.8 Some of the lakes of Finland scoured out by ice action
Camera Press
a valley so that lakes are formed when water
accumulates behind the barrier. Both lateral and
terminal moraines are capable of damming valleys,
e.g. Lake Windermere of the Lake District, Eng-
land.
5. Lakes due to the deposition of glacial drifts. In
glaciated lowlands with a predominant drumlin land-
scape, where drainage is poor, there are intervening
depressions. These depressions are' often water-
logged, forming small lakes like those
of Countv
Downs in Northern Ireland.
LAKES FORMED BY VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
l. Crater and caldera lakes. During a volcanic
explosion the top of the cone may be blown off leav-
ing behind a natural hollow called a crater. This may
be enlarged by subsidence into a caldera. These
depressions are normally dry, bounded by steep
Fig. 9.3 Lake formed through volcanic activity
83
9.C Lake Toba, a crater lake is a scenic spot that attracts
many tourists,
ciiffs and roughly circular in shape. In dormant or
extinct volcanoes, rain falls straight into the crater
or caldera which has no superficial outlet and forms
a crater or caldera lake. The outstanding ones are
the Crater Lake in Oregon, U.S.A. which in fact
occupies a caldera; Lake Toba in northern Sumatra
(Plate 9.C) and Lake Avernus near Naples (Fig.
e.3).
2. Lava-blocked lakes. In volcanic regions a
stream of lava may flow across a valley, become
solidified and thus dam the river forming a lake, e.g.
a lava flow blocks the Jordan valley forming the Sea
of Galilee which is an inland lake, rather elongated
in shape (Fig. 9.a).
3. Lakes due to subsidence of a volcanic land sur-
face. The crust of a hollow lava flow may collapse.
The subsidence leaves behind a wide and shallow
depression in which a lake may form, e.g. Myvatn
of lceland.
Fig. 9.4 Lava-blocked lake
*
,/ 't]t
 no sur{ace
Fig. 9.5 A karst lake formed above the groundwater-table
in a limestone regions
LAKES FORMED BY EROSION
1. Karst lakes. The solvent action of rain-water
on limestone carves out solution hollows. When
these become clogged with debris lakes may form in
them. The collapse of limestone roofs of under-
ground caverns may result in the exposure of long,
narrow lakes that were once underground, e.g. the
Lac de Chaillexon in the Jura Mountains.
The large depressions called po[ies, which nor-
mally do not have surface outlets, may contain lakes.
During wet periods these may cover most of the
polje floor but they shrink during dry periods due to
seepage (Fig. 9.5). An example is Lake Scutari in
Yugoslavia.
Solution is important in other rocks such as rock
salt. Local subsidence may occur when the under-
lying beds of rock salt are gradually removed in
solution. Many of the meres of Cheshire, England,
were probably caused by this, and are also the result
of salt-mining operations.
2. Wind-deflated lakes. The deflating action of
winds in deserts creates hollows. These may reach
groundwater which seeps out forming small, shallow
lakes. Excessive evaporation causes these to become
salt lakes and playas. These are found in the Qattara
Depression in Egypt, and the Great Basin of Utah,
U.S.A. (Fig. e.6).
LAKES FORMED BY DEPOSMON
1. Lakes due to river deposits. A river may
shorten its course during a flood by cutting across its
meandering loops, leaving behind a horseshoe-
shaped channel as an ox-bow lake, e.g. those that
84
Sand dunes
Fig. 9.6 Wind-deflated lake
occur on the flood-plains of Lower Mississippi,
U.S.A. and Rio Grande Mexico.
2. Lakes due to marine deposits. The action of
winds and waves may isolate lagoons along coasts by
building spits or bars. As these lagoons of shallow
water are enclosed only by a narrow spit of land,
comprising mud, sand and shingle, they may drain
away at low tide. They are commonly found off the
deltas of large rivers such as the Nile and the
Ganges. In East Germany and Poland, lagoons are
called haffs. Strong on-shore winds are capable of
pushing coastal sand d.unes landwards, and these
may enclose marshy lagoons. This type of lagoon is
well developed in the Landes of south-west France.
3. Lakes due to landslides. screes and ava-
lanches. Lakes formed by these processes are also
known as barrier lakes. Landslides or screes may
block valleys so that rivers are dammed. Such lakes
are short-lived, because the loose fragments that pile
across the valleys will soon give way under the pres-
Fig. 9.7 Deposition (a barrier lake formed by the deposition
of an obstacle)

9.D Lake Mead, an artificial lake formed by the construction
of the Hoover Dam in Nevada Servizio Editoriale Fotografico
sure of water. When they suddenly give way, the
dammed water rushes down, causing floods. Exam-
ples of lakes of this type are, Lake Gormire in York-
shire, blocked by landslides; Ffynnon Frech on
Snowdon blocked by screes (Fig. 9.7).
LAKES FORMED BY HUMAN AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
1. Man-made lakes. Besides the natural lakes,
Man has now created artificial lakes by erecting a
concrete dam across a river valley so that the river
water can be kept back to form reservoirs (Fig. 9.8).
Amongst such man-made lakes, the most imposing
is Lake Mead above the Hoover Dam on the
Colorado River, U.S.A. (Plate 9.D).
2. Lakes made by animals. Animals like beavers
are particularly interesting. They live in communi-
ties and construct dams across the rivers with timber.
Such beaver dams are quite permanent and are
found in North America, e.g. Beaver Lake in
Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.
3. Other types of lake. These include ornamental
lakes, especially made to attract tourists, e.g. Lake
Gardens in Kuala Lumpur and Taiping Lakes. Man's
mining activities, e.g. tin mining in Peninsular
Fig. 9.8 Human activities (a lake made by constructing a
concrete dam across a river valley)
85
Malaysia, have created numerous lakes. Inland fish
culture has necessitated the creation of.many fishing-
lakes.
Lakes and Man
A careful examination of the lakes of the world will
reveal their immense human significance. In coun-
tries where they are found in abundance, such as
Finland,, Canada, U.S.A., Sweden and the East
African states, lakes, together with other inland
waterways, have played a dominant role in the
human, economic, social and cultural life of the peo-
ple. The pattern of settlement, commerce and com-
munication is very closely related to the distribution
of the water features.
The following are the major uses of lakes and their
associated human activities.
l. Means of communication. Large lakes like the
Great Lakes of North America provide a cheap and
convenient form of transport for heavy and bulky
goods such as coal, iron, machinery, grains and tim-
ber. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways pen-
etrate more than 2 740 km (1,700 miles) into the
interior. They are thus used as the chief arteries of
commerce. It is estimated that the annual tonnage
passing through the Sault-Ste. Marie Canal, or the
Soo Canal, between Lake Huron and Lake Superior
is greater than the combined annual tonnage of the
Suez and Panama Canals.
2. Economic and industrial development. Early set-
tlements and town sites were very much influenced
by the presence of lakes. Lakes are an even more
decisive factor when they are drained by large rivers
with outlets to the sea. The Great Lakes-St. Law-
rence waterways were responsible for the develop-
ment of the interior wheat farms and lakeside
industries. Raw materials, minerals and fuels were
economically handled and assembled in the
'H O M E S' district (Lake f/uron, Ontario, Michigan,
^Erie and Superior), which has since become one of
the greatest industrial districts of the world. Simi-
larly, Lakes Poyang, Dongting (Tung Ting) and the
lakes of the central Chang Jiang (Yangtze) basin
have greatly assisted in the commercial and indus-
trial development of Wuhan (Wuchang, Hanyang
and Hankou (Hankow)).
3. Water storage. Lakes of either natural or artifi-
cial origin are vital sources of domestic water supply
to surrounding towns and industrial cities. For exam-
ple in Britain, Lake Thirlmere supplies water to
Manbhester, Loch Kartrine to Glasgow, Lake
Vyrnwy (in Wales) to Liverpool. The MacRitchie
Reservoir supplies Singapore and the Ayer Itam
Reservoir supplies Penang.
4. Hydro-electric power generation. In mountain-
ous districts, lakes or man-made reservoirs are used
to furnish a good head of water to generate hydro-
electric power. Natural lakes are preferred to arti-
ficial reservoirs because the volume of water that
flows from them varies very little throughout the
year. For instance, the Niagara River flowing from
Lake Erie to Lake Ontario has a very regular supply
of water for its power stations, whereas the Catawba
River in the Carolinas which does not flow from a
lake, has very little water during the dry season.
Cotton mills have been forced to close down during
the period of drought due to insufficient power sup-
plies to run the mills. The Aswan Dam on the Nile
in Egypt and the Lloyd Barrage on the Indus at Suk-
kur suffer from similar defects. The Abu Bakar Dam
of the Cameron Highlands supplies much hydro-
electricity for central Peninsular Malay-sia.
5. Agricultural purposes. As mentioned earlier,
most lakes will eventually be eliminated, and when
they dry up, their former beds are covered with thick
layers of fertile alluvium. They make excellent agri-
cultural land like the fertile Vale of Pickering in
Yorkshire, or the rich Red River Valley of Canada
which was in fact the former site of Lake Agassiz.
Modern multi-purpose dams, besides generating
hydro-electric power also supply water for irriga-
tion, e.g. the Sennar Dam on the Blue Nile in Sudan,
the Burrinjuck Dam on the Murrumbidgee in Aus-
tralia, and the Ghulam Mohammed Barrage on the
Indus in Pakistan.
6. Regulating river flows. A river with large lakes
in its basin seldom experiences serious floods or lack
of water. By absorbing the excess water during
heavy rain, a lake reduces the effects of serious
flooding downstream. In the dry season, it releases
its water so that a steady flow of the river is main-
tained. Because lakes retain part of the sediment
load, rivers leaving lakes have clearer water. Lakes
that have such functions include the Poyang and
Dongting (Tung Ting) on the Chang Jiang (Yangtze
Kiang), Tonle Sap on a tributary of the Mekong, and
Lake Constance on the upper Rhine. Where such
lakes are not available, and flooding is a serious
problem, artificial reservoirs are constructed, e.g.
the Hoover Dam on the River Colorado and the
Bhakra and Nangar Dams on the Sutlej in India.
7. Moderation of climate. Large and deep lakes
which are heated more Slowly than the land by dav
86
and cooled more slowly than the land by night,
exercise an appreciable effect in moderating the cli-
mate of a regioh in the same way as oceans affect
adjoining land masses. Water in the lakes cools the
air in summer by absorbing part of the heat and
warms it in winter by releasing the heat. For exam-
ple, the eastern shores of Lakes Erie, Ontario and
Huron have a much milder winter than those of the
west, because the on-coming breezes are warmed
and early frosts are minimized. This part of the Lake
Peninsula is therefore important for grapes and fruit
farming. Large lakes like Lake Michigan and the
Caspian Sea,afso exert a slight influence on the cloud-
iness and precipitation of the region. Their large
expanse of water acts almost like part of the ocean,
and helps to precipitate atmospheric moisture into
rain. The leeward side of Lake Michigan records a
little more precipitation than the windward side,
though the actual amount is often not easily notice-
able. Small lakes have practically no effect at all on
either temperature or rainfall.
8. Source of food. Many large lakes have important
supplies of protein food in the form of freshwater
fish. Sturgeon is commercially caught in the Caspian
Sea, salmon and sea trout in the Great Lakes and
in Tonle Sap in Kampuchea, fishing is a leading
occupation. Amateur fishermen have found fishing
in lakes and rivers a most rewarding pastime. In
many countries, artificial lakes have been created for
inland fish breeding. This is particularly important
in China, Japan and Singapore.
9. Source of minerals. Salt lakes provide valuable
rock salts. In the Dead Sea, the highly saline water
is being evaporated and produces common salt,
almost indispensable for human well-being. Borax
is mined in the salt lakes of the Mojave Desert.
Gypsum, mined in Cheshire and Stassfurt, a
short distance from Berlin, is so rich in potash and
other chemical deposits, that they have given rise to
a wide range of chemical industries. In both these
areas, the salts are obtained from deposits formed in
an earlier geological period.
10. Tourist attraction and health resorts. Some of
the world's best frequented holiday and health
resorts are located on lakesides for example, Lake
Geneva, Lake Lucerne, Lake Lugano, Lake Como,
Lake Placid (New York), Lake Vaner and Lake
Vatter (Sweden), the English Lake District and
Taiping Lakes. The glacier-formed lakes of the Alps
have made the tourist industry a national occupation
of the Swiss.
Ouestions and Exercises
1. Locate any three of the following lakes: Lake For any four of. them, locate a dam and a river
Tanganyika, Great Salt Lake, Lake Toba, Lake in which the damming has taken place. Explain
Como, Lake Victoria, Lake Scutari, Lake briefly how each of the above purposes has been
Mead. successfully achieved.
(a) With the aid of sketch maps, explain their 5. Each of the following terms are in one way or
mode of formation; another connected with lake formation and
(b) State their specific value to the countries uses. For any five of them, give a concise expla-
thev serve: nation of their implications and give a good
(c) Name another lake outside that country example of each:
which has fairly similar origins. (a) basin of inland drainage;
2. Explain how each of the following types of lake (b) tectonic lakes;
are formed. Quote an example of each and (c) haffs;
locate them in clear sketch maps: (d) beaver dams;
(a) ox-bow lake; (d) playas;
(b) kettle lake; (f) barrier lakes;
(c) crater lake; (g) tarns.
(d) karst lake. 6. Distinguish between:
3. (a) With the help of large, labelled diagrams, (a) freshwater lakes and basins of inland drain-
explain how lakes may be formed by any age;
three of the following: (b) kettle lakes and crater lakes;
i. glaciation; (c) tarns and haffs.
ii. earth movement; Explain any two of the following:
iii. volcanic activitv: (a) 'Lakes are temporary features of the earth's
iv.erosion; surface.'
v.deposition. (b) 'Glaciation creates a great variety of lakes.'
(b) Quote three actual examples of each. (c) 'Rivers intercepted by large inland lakes
(c) State three uses of man-made lakes. have small deltas.'
4. Rivers may be dammed for: 8. (a) What are the chief economic uses of lakes?
(a) generating hydro-electricity; (a) Name three lakes in any one continent and
(b) controlling floods; say what each is most noted for.
(c) irrigating crops; (c) Name rwo well-known lakes in your own
(d) supplying drinking water; country. With the aid of annotated diagrams
(e) assisting inland water transport. describe how each is formed.

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. Glaciation in temperate regions has B controlling floods B Lake Titicaca, South America
given rise to many kinds of lakes C channelling lava-flow C Lake Baikal, Asia
formed in different wavs but thev do D generating hydro-electric power D Lake Como, Europe
not include the
A corrie lake 3. Lake Malawi is an example of a lake
B ribbon lake formed by 5. Rift valley lakes are formed through
C kettle lake A earth movements the process of
D crater lake B glaciation A faulting
C erosional processes B folding
2. Fig. 9.8 on page 85 shows a lake cre- D biological activities C glaciation
ated by Man. It may be used for the D vulcanicity
following purposes ercepl ^ The world's highest lake is
A irrigating crops A Lake Victoria. Africa

87
Chapter 10 Coastal Landforms

sucked back and retreats as backwash. Another ele-

The Action of Waves, Tides and
ment in offshore drift is the undertow, which flows
Gurrents near the bottom away from the shore. This current
The coastline, under the constant action of the exerts a pulling effect which can be dangerous to
waves, tides and currents, is undergoing changes seabathers (Fig. 10.1).
from day to day. On calm days, when winds are Marine agents of erosion operate in the following
slight, waves do little damage to the shoreline and ways to transform the coastal landscape.
may instead help to build up beaches and other 1. Corr'asion. Waves armed with rock debris of all
depositional features. It is in storms that the ravages sizes and shapes charge against the base of the cliffs
of the waves reach their greatest magnitude. The and wear them back by corrasion. On-coming cur-
average pressure of Atlantic waves on adjacent rents and tides complete the work by sweeping the
coasts is about 2 932 kgper sq m (600 lb. per square eroded material into the sea.
foot) in the summer and treble that in winter, Dur- 2. Attrition. The constantly moving waves that
ing storms, the pressure exerted is more than transport beach materials such as boulders, pebbles,
29320 kg per sq m (6,0001b. per square foot)! shingle and fine sand also hurl these fragments
Movements of such intensity will wear down not against one another, until they are broken down by
only the cliffs but also sea walls and buildings. Tides attrition into very small pieces. The grinding and
and currents, on contact with the shores, make very polishing of such fragmental materials against cliff
little direct attack on the coastline. Tides affect
marine erosion mainly by extending a line of. erosion Fig. 10.1 The mechanics 'of wave motion
into a zone of erosion. This zone corresponds to the wind turbulences
area between the low water level and the high water _ _ _._a------i--rrri,{, - --rrs tr
level. Currents help to move eroded debris and ,\,\
f\4y
deposit it as silt, sand and gravel along the coasts. iri.,i
The Mechanics of Marine Erosion
The most powerful agents of marine erosion are
wayes. Their origin is due to the sweeping of winds
over the water surface, which sets a series of undu- winddircctioe
lating swells surging forward. These become higher
and swifter. A normal wave in an open ocean may
measure 6 metres (20 feet) high (the vertical height
between the crest and the trough) and 120 metres
(400 feet) long (the wave-length or the horizontal wan l6nClh
distance between one crest and another). During
storms this is greatly increased, depending on the
speed and duration of the winds. On approaching
shallow water near the shores, their speed is reduced
and the waves are curved or refracted against the wind direction+
alignment of the coast. Shallow water, when it is less
than the height of the waves, checks their forward
movement. the crests curl over and break into the
shores in a mass of foam as breakers. The water that
finally rushes up the beach and hurls rock debris X = Friction at the base of the wave swash+
against the land is termed swash. The water is Y = Wave breaking backwash

88 -
faces and against each other is largely responsible
for fine sand which forms the beaches that are so
typical of the seaside resorts.
3. Hydraulic action. In their forward surge, waves
splashing against the coast may enter joints and
crevices in the rocks. The air imprisoned inside is
immediately compressed. When the waves retreat
the compressed air expands with explosive violence.
Such action repeated again and again soon enlarges
the cracks and rock fragments are prised apart.
4. Solvent action. On limestone coasts. the solvent
action of sea water on calcium carbonate sets up
chemical changes in the rocks and disintegration
takes place. This process is limited to limestone
coasts.
The rate of marine erosion depends on the nature
of the rocks, the amount of rock exposed to the s'ea,
the effects of tides and currents, and human inter-
ference in coast protection. Other effects such as
volcanicity, glaciation, earth movement and organic
accumulations have also to be considered.
Goastal Features of Erosion
1. Capes and bays. On exposed coasts, the contin-
ual action of waves on rocks of varying resistance
causes the coastline to be eroded irregularly. This is
particularly pronounced where hard rocks, e.g.
granites and limestones, occur in alternate bands
with softer rocks, e.g. sand and clay. The softer
rocks are worn back into inlets, coves or bays and
the harder ones persist as headlands, promontories
or capes (Fig 10.2). Along the Dorset coast of south-
ern England, Swanage Bay and Durlston Head are
examples. Even where the coast is of one rock type,
irregularities will be caused by variation within the
Fig. 10.2 Coastal features of differential erosion
89
Fig. 10.3 Cliff beds dipping seawards
Fig. 10.4 Cliff beds dipping landwards
rock. Thus Penang Island, made of granite has many
bays and headlands. Very large indentations such as
the Persian Gulf or the Bay of Bengal are due to
other causes such as submergence or earth move-
ment.
2. Cliffs and wave-cut platforms. Generally any
very steep rock face adjoining the coast forms a
cliff.The rate of recession will depend on its geolog-
ical structure, that is the stratification and jointing
of the rocks and their resistance to wave attack. If
the beds dip seawards, large blocks of rock will be
dislodged and fall into the sea. The cliff will rise in
a series of 'steps' as shown in Fig. 10.3. On the con-
trary if the beds dip landwards as illustrated in
Fig. 10.4, the cliff will be more resistant to wave ero-
sion. Some of the best known cliffs are the chalk
cliffs of the English Channel and include Beachy
Head which is 150 metres (500 feet) high, the Seven
Sisters near the mouth of the Cuckmere and
the'White Cliffs' of Dover.
At the base of the cliff the sea cuts a notch, which
gradually undermines the cliff so that it collapses. As
a cliff recedes landwards under the pounding of
waves, an eroded base is left behind, called a wave-
cut platform (Plate 10.B). The platform, the upper
part of which is exposed at low tide, slopes gently
seawards and its surface is strewn with rock debris
from the receding cliff. Further abrasion continues
until the pebbles are swept away into the sea. The
eroded materials are deposited on the offshore ter-
race (Fig. 10.5). When the platform attains a greater
width, e.g. 48 km (30 miles) in the case of the wave-
HT: High Tide zone of initial land
LT: Low Tide wave attack
t, su{ace
V

wave attack
material deposited to leads to notch
form an off-shore terrace
HT
---
LT -----

10.A A natural arch

initial la.nd surface
cut platform of Strandflat off Western Norway, it is
entirely covered with water and further erosion of
the cliffs is negligible.
3. Cave, arch, stack and stump. (Fig. 10.6 and
Plate 10.A and C). Prolonged wave attack on the
base of a cliff excavates holes in regions of local
wave-cut platform weakness called caves, e.g. at Flamborough Head,
off-shore terrace
England. When two caves approach one another
Fig. 10.5 The development of shore profile from either side of a headland and unite, they form
10.8 A wave-cut platform on the Hong Kong coast S.T. Fok

*."
i:1,'.

90
 spray forced out of

Fig. 10.6 Arch, stacks and stumps. Where.two caves are

eroded on either side of a headland they may eventually join
to form a natural arch. lf the top of the arch collapses, stacks
are formed. These are gradually worn down until they
become stumps exposed only at low tide.
an arch, e.g. the Needle Eye near Wick, Scotland.
Further erosion by waves will ultimately lead to the
total collapse of the arch. The seaward portion of
the headland will remain as a pillar of rock known
as a stack. One of the finest examples of a stack is
the Old Man of Hoy in the Orkneys which is of Old
Red Sandstone and is 137 metres (450 feet) high.
Equally outstanding are the Needles, Isle of Wight,
which are a group of stacks cut in chalk and dimin-
ishing in size seawards. In the course of time, these
'stubborn' stacks will gradually be removed. The
vertical rock pillars are eroded, leaving behind only
the stumps which are only just visible above the sea-
level, e.g. those of the St. Kilda group, off the Outer
Hebrides, Scotland.
4. Geos and gloups. The occasional splashing of the
waves against the roof of a cave may enlarge the
joints whep compressed air is trapped inside. A nat-
ural shaft is thus formed which may eventually
pierce through to the surface. Waves breaking into
the cave may force water or spray or just air out of
this hole. Such a shaft is termed a gloup (from the
noise made by the water gurgling inside) or blow-
waves
7 sulge Into
Cave they may
cut a shaft to the
cliff top through which air or
water are forced
Fig. 10.7 Gloup
hole (Fig. 10.7). An example is at Holborn Head in
Caithness, Scotland. The enlargement of blow-holes
and the continued action of waves weakens the cave
roof. When the roof collapses, a long, narrow inlet
or creek develops. Such deep clefts, which may be
30 metres (100 feet) deep and equally long, are
called geos, e.g. the Wife Geo, near Duncansby
Head, Scotland (Fig. 10.8).
Goastal Features of Deposition
1. Beaches. Sands and gravels loosened from the
land are moved by waves to be deposited along the
shore as beaches. This is the most dominant form of
the constructive work of the sea. The eroded mate-
rial is transported along the shore in several distinct
ways. The longshore drift which comes obliquely to

10.C An arch with stack in Sabah known as the tri-foot Fig. 10.8 Geo
stone
geo

Where a
cave roof
collapses, a
narrow inlet or
geo is formed

9l
 waws drNm obliquely lo lhe shore
the coast carries the material along the shore in the
direction of the dominant wind (Fig. 10.9). At the
same time, the backwash removes part of the mate-
rial sedwards-along the bed of the sea,and deposits
it on the off-shore terrace and even beyond. Finer
materials such as silt and mud are deposited in the
shallow waters of a sheltered coast.
The constant action of the waves automatically
sorts out the shoreline deposits in a graded manner.
The coarser materials (cobbles and boulders) are
dropped by the waves at the top of the beach. The
finer materials (pebbles and sand grains) which are
carried down the beach bv the backwash are
10.D Rock pedestals worn off by waves and wind in coastal
Ya Liew near Taipei, Taiwan Goh Cheng Leong
92
Fis 1o 1o rJ:fi;; or a spit
dropped closer to the sea. On smooth lowlands,
beaches may continue for hundreds of kilometres,
like those of the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia,
but in upland regions where the land descends
abruptly into the sea, such as the Chilean coast, long
beaches are absent.
2. Spits and bars. The debris eroded by waves is
continually moved by longshore drift and where
there is an indentation in the coast. such as the
mouth of a river or a bay, material may continue to
be deposited across the inlet. As more materials are
added, they will pile up into a ridge or embankment
of shingle forming a tongue or spit, with one end
attached to the land and the other end projecting
into the sea (Fig. 10.10), e.g. Calshot Spit, South-
ampton Water, England or those along the coast
of Kelantan. Oblique waves may curve the spit into
a hook or recurved spit. When the ridge of shingle
is formed across the mouth of a river or the entrance
to a bay, it is called a bar. The most remarkable
example of a bar is Chesil Beach in Dorset, England,
which extends for over 26 km (16 miles) along the
coast, linking the Isle of Portland with the mainland,
and enclosing a lagoon called the Fleet. Such a con-
necting bar that joins two land masses is better
known as tombolo. On the Baltic coast of Poland and
Germany, large bodies of water are almost com-
pletely enclosed by long bars, locally termed neh-
rungs, to form marshy lagoons or haffs.
3. Marine dunes and dune belts. With the force of
onshore winds, a large amount of coastal sand is dri-
ven landwards forming extensive marine dunes that
stretch into dune belti. Their advance inland may
engulf farms, roads and even entire villages. The
dunes of the Landes, south-west France, cover
15 600 sq km (6,000 square miles); the crests of the
dunes are over 40 metres (130 feet) high. Dunes arg
common in the coastlands of Belgium, Denmark and
the Netherlands. To arrest the migration of the
dunes, sand-binding species of grass and shrubs,
such as marram grass, and pines are planted.
Types of Coast
Despite a great variety of coastal features, coastlines
may be divided into two basic types.
1. Coastlines of submergence. These are due to the
sinking of the land or the rise of the sea, including
such coasts as ria coasts. fiord coasts. estuarine
coasts and Dalmatian or longitudinal coasts.
2. Coastlines of emergence. These are due to the
uplift of the land or a fall in the sea-level. They are
less common and are represented by the uplifted
lowland coast and the emergent upland coast.
COASTLINES OF SUBMERGENCE
1. Ria coasts. During the Ice Age a great deal of
water was locked up in ice. The warmer climate that
followed melted much of the ice. Subsequently there
was an increase in the waters of the oceans and the
sea-level rose appreciably. In some cases it is esti-
mated that there was a rise of almost 90 metres (300
feet) ! In upland coastal regions where the mountains
run at right angles to the sea, that is transverse or
Fig. 10.11 A ria coast (discordant, Atlantic type)
iids:) ), ) / t z z2 2 ) 2)D ), ;;
valleys have,,i,i:l
been drowned
sectaon of a ria
93
discordant to the coast (Fig. 10.11), a rise in the sea-
level submerges or drowns the lower parts of the val-
leys to form long, narrow branching inlets separated
by narrow headlands. They differ from fiords in two
important respects, i.e. they are not glaciated and
their depth increases seawards. A ria coast is typical
of the Atlantic type of coast like those of north-west
France, north-west Spain, south-west Ireland,
Devon and Cornwall. As rias are generally backed
by highland, they support a few large commercial
ports though they have deep water and offer shel-
tered anchorage. They have been extensively used
for siting fishing ports and naval bases such as
Plymouth and Brest.
2. Fiord coasts. Fiords are submerged U-shaped gla-
cial troughs. They mark the paths of glaciers that
plunged down from the highlands. They have steep
walls, often rising straight from the sea, with tribu-
tary branches joining the main inlet at right angles.
Due to the greater intensity of ice erosion, fiords are
deep for great distances inland but there is a shallow
section at the seaward end formed by a ridge of rock
and called the threshold (Fig. 10.12). Off the fiord
coast are ntrmerous islands or skerries which, with
the shallow thresholds, sometimes only 60 metres
(200 feet) deep, complicate coastal navigation. Fiord
coasts are almost entirely confined to the higher lat-
itudes of the temperate regions which were once gla-
ciated, e.g. Norway, (Plate 10.E) Alaska, British
Columbia, southern Chile and the South Island of
New Zealand. Some of the large fiords are extremely
long and deep. For example, the Sogne Fiord of
Norway is 177 km (110 miles) long 6 km (4 miles)
wide and almost | 220 metres (4,000 feet) deep in
Fig. 10.12 A fiord coast (submergent and glaciated)

10.E A fiord coast in Norway Servizio Editoriale Fotografico
its mid-channel. Despite their deep and sheltered
water, few large ports are located in fiords. Their
mountainous background with poor accessibility
inland, attract few settlements. Agriculture is con-
fined to the deltaic fans, built up where streams flow
down to the fiords. The few towns that exist either
as fishing or market centres, e.g. Trondheim, are
only of local importance.
3. Dalmatian coast. This is the longitudinal coast
where mountains run parallel or concordant to the
Fig. 10.13 A Dalmatian coast (concordant, Pacific type)
{,i}g".
'lr n are shallow with lagoons, salt-marshes and mud-
94
coast. The name is taken from the coast of Dalmatia,
Yugoslavia, along the Adriatic Sea, where the sub-
mergence of the coastline produces long, narrow
inlets with a chain of islands parallel to the coast.
The elongated islands are the crests of former ranges
and the narrow sounds were the former longitudinal
valleys (Fig. 10.13). The Dalmatian type of coast is
also typical of the Pacific coast where the ranges are
parallel to the coast, e.g. western coasts of North
and South America but there the coastline is more
regular. Like the ria and fiord coasts, the mountain-
ous nature of the Dalmatian coastline hinders com-
munication inland. It has deep, sheltered harbours
but no distinguished ports. On the Pacific coast,
however, there are some important ports such as San
Francisco.
4. Estuarine coasts. In submerged lowlands, the
mouths of rivers are drowned so that funnel-shaped
estuaries are formed. If their entrances are not silted
by moving sandbanks, they make excellent sites for
ports, e.g. the estuaries of the Thames, Elbe and
Plate are the sites of such great seaports as London,
Hamburg and Buenos Aires. Tidal effects further
enhance the value of the ports and even when there
is a little silting, modern dredges help to keep the
ports open all the time.
COASTLINES OF EMERGENCE
1. Uplifted lowland coast. The uplift of part of the
continental shelf produces a smooth, gently sloping
coastal lowland (Fig. 10.1a). The offshore waters
flats. Where the emergent deposits from the conti-
nental shelves are sandy and gravelly, beaches and
marine dunes are formed. Ports that were once
located on the former coast become inland towns.
Examples of uplifted lowland coasts include the
south-eastern U.S.A.. western Finland. eastern
Sweden and parts of coastal Argentina south of the
Rio de la Plata.
Fig. 10.14 Lowland coastline of emergence
old coastlrne
rarsed beach
rarsed sectron
of continental
shell .formrng
coastal plaln
2. Emergent upland coast. Faulting and earth
movement may thrust up.coastal plateaux so that the
whole region is raised, with consequent emergent
features. A raised beach is the most prominent. The
raised beach is beyond the reach of the waves,
though it may still possess arches, stacks and other
coastal features. The emergent upland coast is quite
straight with steep cliffs and deeper offshore water,
for the waves have not yet eroded lines of weakness
or carved a wave-cut platform (Fig. 10.15), It has
little potential for good port sites. Examples of
emergent upland coasts are found in Scotland, the
western coast of the Deccan, India and the western
Arabian coast facing the Red Sea. Fig. 10.15 Upland emergent coastline

Ouestions and Exercises

1. By reference to specific examples, describe 6, Briefly explain the role of the following in the
some of the major coastal features resulting mechanism of marine erosion:
from the constructive and destructive work of (a) swash;
the sea. (b) undertow;
2. With the aid of annotated diagrams, describe (c) longshore drift;
the appearance and formation of any three of (d) breakers.
the following pairs of features of coastal land- For any two of them draw annotated diagrams
forms: to explain their development and the role they
(a) cliff and wave-cut platform; play in modifying the coastline.
(b) geo and blow-hole; 1 Explain, with the aid of relevant labelled dia-
(c) arch and stack; grams, why:
(d) spits and bars. (a) Bays have beaches while capes have cliffs;
3. How can shorelines be classified? Describe (b) Along the coast of Chile, long beaches are
any one method of classification and explain comparatively absent;
briefly some of the major shoreline features (c) Most of the world's large seaports are sited
that you have classified. on estuarine coasts.
4. With the help of diagrams, explain the distinct 8. (a) 'Storms do great damage to the coasts',
differences between the following coastlines of why is this so?
submergence: (b) What measures are taken by local author-
(a) ria coast; ities to protect the coasts?
(b) fiord coast; 9. Choose three of the following: fiord, haff,
(c) Dalmatian coast; delta, stumps, lagoons, sand-spits, atolls. For
(d) estuarine coast. each of them:
5. Choose any three of the following terms con- (a) draw a diagram to show its characteristic
nected with marine landscape. Explain the features;
meaning of each and state its role in transform- (b) describe its appearance;
ing the coastline: (c) explain its formation;
(a) longshore drift; (d) locate an area where an example could be
(b) undertow; found.
(c) concordant coast; 10. (a) Why do coastlines differ in different parts
(d) raised beach; of the world?
(e) tombolo. (b) What major factors affect the rate of
marine erosion?
(c) Name three f.eatures of marine deposition.

95
Sample Objective Ouestions
1. The Yugoslavian coast is a typical D consistentunderwatercurrentac- A thestructureof therocks
example of tion on a wave-cut platform B the gradient of the coast
A an estuarine coast C the action of the tides and cur-
B adalmationcoast 3. Each ol these pairs of features are rents
C afiordedcoast the result of inter-related progres- D thetiltoftheeanh
D a ria coast sive physical processes. pick out
the incorect pat. 5. The progresive action of the coastal
2. Photograph 10.C on page 91 shows A arch and stack cliff into caves, arches, stacks and
the tri-foot stone of Sabah. It was B doline and uvala stumps is basically the work of
formed by C mesa and butte A spring tides
A the solvent action of tropical rain D fold and fault B ocean waves
on a limestone coast C warm currents
B wind abrasion during the stormy 4. The shape of the coastline is chang- D coral animals
monsoons ing continuously, Its rate of change
C prolonged wave attack on the dependsonthefollowingexcept
base of a cliff

96
Chapter 11 lslands and Coral Reefs
An island is a piece of land surrounded on all sides
by water. It may occur individually or in a group, in
open oceans or seas. Smaller ones of only local sig-
nificance are found even in lakes and rivers. Gen-
erally speaking, all islands may be grouped under the
following types:
Gontinental islands
These islands were formerly part of the mainland
and are now detached from the continent. They may
be separated by a shallow lagoon or a deep channel
(Fig. 11.1). Their separation could be due to subsid-
ence of some part of the land or to a rise in sea-level,
so that the lowland links are submerged by the sea.
Their former connection with the neighbouring
mainland can be traced from the similar physical
structure, flora and fauna that exist on both sides of
the channel. In the course of time, modification by
men and other natural forces may give rise to dif-
ferent surface features. But even then, the basic
structural features will remain the same. Continental
islands may appear as:
1. Individual islands. These lie just outside the
continent, very much associated with the character-
istic features of the mainland of which they were
once part. Some of the outstanding examples are
Newfoundland, separated from the mainland by the
Fig. 11 .1 Continental island
97
Strait of Belle Isle; Malagasy, by the Mozambique
Channel; Sri Lanka by the Palk Strait; Tasmania by
the Bass Strait and Taiwan by the Formosa Strait.
2. Archipelagos or island groups. These com-
prise groups of islands of varying sizes and shapes,
e.g. the British Isles, the Balearic. Islands of the
Mediterranean and also those of the Aegean Sea.
3. Festoons or islgnd arcs. The islands form an
archipelago in the shape of a loop around the edge
of the mainland, marking the continuation of moun-
tain ranges which can be traced on the continent,
e.g. the East Indies, the Aleutian Islands, Ryukyu
Islands, Kurile Islands and other island arcs of the
Pacific coasts.
Oceanic islands
These islands are normally small and are located in
the midst of oceans. They have no connection with
the mainland which may be hundreds of thousands
of kilometres away. They have a flora and fauna
unrelated to those of the continents (Fig. 11.2). The
Galapagos Islands have many unique species of
animals. Due to their remoteness from the major
trading centres of the world, most of the oceanic
islands are very sparsely populated. Some of them
provide useful stops for aeroplanes and ocean steam-
ers that ply between continents across vast stretches
Fig. 11.2 Oceanic island (including a volcanic island)
Oceanic .ts- j
 the Canary Islands. Those of the Indian Ocean are
Mauritius and Reunion. In the Antarctic Ocean are
the South Sandwich Islands, Bouvet Island and
many others (Plate 11.A).
2. Coral islands. Unlike the volcanic islands, the
coral islands are very much lower and emerge just
above the water surface. These islands, built up by
coral animals of various species, are found both near
the shores of the mainland and in the midst of
oceans. Coral islands include the Marshall Islands,
Gilbert and Ellice Islands of the Pacific; Bermuda
in the Atlantic and the Laccadives and Maldives of
the Indian Ocean.

Coral Reefs
In tropical seas, many kinds of coral animals and
marine organisms such as coral polyps, calcareous
algae, shell-forming creatures and lime-secreting
plants live in large colonies. Though they are very
tiny creatures, their ability to secrete calcium car-
bonate within their tiny cells has given rise to a
peculiar type of marine landform. They exist in
numerous species of many forms, colours and
shapes. Under favourable conditions, they grow in
great profusion just below the water-level. Taking
coral animals as a whole, the polyps are the most
abundant and also the most important. Each polyp
resides in a tiny cup of coral and helps to form coral
reefs. When they die, their limy skeletons are
11.A Rarotonga in the Cook lslands, a rugged volcanic is- cemented into coralline limestone. There are also
land in the Pacitic N.Z. High Commission Malaysia
11.8 A coral coast of the Tonga lslands with its lush veg-
etation
of water. Generally speaking, oceanic islands fall
into one of the following groups:
l. Volcanic islands. Many of the islands in the
oceans are in fact the topmost parts of the cones of
volcanoes that rise from the ocean bed. Most of
them are extinct. but there are also some active
ones. The best known volcanic peak of the Pacific
Ocean is Mauna Loa in Hawaii, which is 4 169
metres (13,680 feet) above sea-level. Tracing down-
wards, Mauna Loa is found to have been built up
from the ocean floor at a depth 5 490 metres (18,000
feet) below the water surface! Other volcanic islands
have emerged from the submarine ridges of the
oceans.
The volcanic islands are scattered in most of the
earth's oceans. In the Pacific Ocean, they occur in
several groups such as Hawaii, the Galapagos
Islands and the South Sea islands. In the Atlantic
are the Azores, Ascension, St. Helena, Madeira and

98
non-reef-building species such as the 'precious cor-
als' of the Pacific Ocean and the 'red coral' of the
Mediterranean which may survive in the colder and
even the deeper waters. As a rule, they thrive well
only in the warmer tropical seas.
The reef-building corals survive best under the fol-
lowing conditions:
l. The water temperature must not fall below 20 "C
(68'F). Thisvirtually limits the areal distribution of
corals to the tropical and sub-tropical zones. Again
they will not flourish where there are cold currents
because of the up-welling of the cold water from the
depths that cools the warm surface water. This
explains why coral reefs are generally absent on the
western coasts of continents. On the other hand the
warming effect of the warm currents, e.g. the Gulf
Stream, means that corals are found far to the north
of the West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean. The Pacific
and the Indian Oceans, however, have the most
numerous coral reefs.
2. The depth ofthe water should not exceed 30 fath-
oms or 55 metres (180 feet) because beyond this
depth, sunlight is too faint for photosynthesis to take
place. This is essential for the survival of the micro-
scopic algae, on which the coral polyps depend.
Shallow water of less than 30 metres (100 feet) is. 11.C A fringing reef on the Hong Kong coast
ideal. But there should always be plenty of water as Fig. 11.3(al Section of a fringing reef
polyps cannot survive for too long out of water.
3. The water should be saline and free from sedi-
ment. Corals therefore survive best in the movins \\\\\\\\\\.\*- -- -.^'/ -
ocean water well away from the silty 6oasts oi
muddy mouths of streams. The corals are best devel-
\\\i\\i$N\\\\\N*
oped on the seaward side of the reef, where con- iiiiiii\\isiiii\\\i\ii\\i\\\\\\\N
stantly moving waves, tides and currents maintain an (b) Plan of a fringing reef
abundant supply of clear, oxygenated water. They
also bring an adequate supply of food in the form of
microscopic organism.

Types of Goral Reef

There are three main types of coral reef:
l. Fringing reefs. A fringing reef is a coralline plat-
form lying close to the shore extending outwards
from the mainland (Plate 11.C). It is sometimes sep-
arated from the shore by a shallow lagoon. It is
widest when fringing a protruding headland but
completely absent when facing the mouth of a
stream. The outer edge grows rapidly because of the
splashing waves that continuously renew the supply
of fresh food. The reefs may be about a kilometre
wide, lying just above the level of low water and

99
 bafrior Where it lies above the water-level and sand can
accumulate on it, a little vegetation is possible. The
ln*" barrier reefs have narrow gaps at several places to
allow the water from the enclosed lagoon to return
to the open ocean. Such gaps are very useful for
shipping and provide the only entrances for ships to
Section of a barrier reef enter or leave the lagoon. The best known barrier
reef is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of
t--rni2
0 miles 20
Queensland, Australia. It is 1 930 km (1,200 miles)
long, separated from the coast by a channel 160 km
(100 miles) wide in places and over 60 metres (200
feet) deep.
q 3. Atolls. Atolls are similar to barrier reefs except
$, that they are circular in shape, enclosing a shallow
lagoon without any land in the centre. The encircling
ring is usually broken in a few places to allow the

{u =b"
(bl Plan of a barrier reef
Fig. 11.4 Barrier reef
sloping steeply downwards on the seaward side to a
depth of about 30 metres (100 feet) (Fig. 11.3).
2. Barrier reefs. A barrier reef is separated from
the coast by a much wider and deeper channel or
lagoon (Fig. 11.a). The reef is partially submerged.
11.D. Atafu atoll in the Tokelau island group N.Z. High
Commission Malaysia
free flow of water (Plate 11.D and Fig. 11.5). On the
inside of the reefs, sand and limestone debris collect
and palm trees like coconuts may grow. Such palm
trees thrive well in the brackish water of the lagoon.
The nuts fall into the water and are distributed
widely by floating from one coral island to another.
The calm waters are useful for fishing and canoeing.
Some of the large atolls, e.g. Suvadiva in the Mal-
dives, west of Sri Lanka, have a lagoon over 64 km
(40 miles) across. A number of them provide essen-
tial air bases for trans-Pacific aircraft.

100
 coral reef

i. A fringing reef
(a) Section of an atoll
lagoon barrier reef

t/ ,/

d**
g
ii. Subsidence of the land leads to a barrier reef developing

I ,/
lag atoll

iii. Further subsidence matched by the growth of coral leads

to an atoll

Fig. 11.6(a) Darwin's theory of subsidence (coral reef

growing upwards and outwards to keep pace with subsid-
ing island, passing from fringing reef, to barrier reef and
(b) Plan of an atoll eventually atoll)
Fig. 11.5 Atoll
Fig. 11.6(b) Daly's Glacial Control Theory
The Probable Origin of Goral Reefs coral reel

The subject of the origin of coral reefs has been stud-

ied and debated for over one and a half centuries.
Several theories have been suggested but none is
universally accepted.
The most widely accepted theory is that put for-
ward by the great scientist Charles Darwin, after his i, A fringing reef
voyage to the Pacific islands in 1842. It is known as former sea-level
the subsidence theory. Darwin assumed that all coral
reefs began as fringing reefs around an island or the
topmost portions of extinct volcanoes that stood
above the ocean bed. Due to a general downwarping
of the earth's crust, the islands gradually subsided. ii. lsland is planed when sea is at a lower level
The corals continued to grow upwards to keep pace ,F"
with the subsidence. The growth was more vigorous
at the outward edge than the landward edge because
of the more favourable living conditions for corals,
so the encircling reef widened. It then formed a bar-
rier reef, with a lagoon between the island and the
reef. Eventually, when the land was completely sub-
merged, only the outer rims of the reefs were seen, iii. Sea-level rises and coral grows upwards forming atoll

101
forming an atoll. The submerged islaqd was covered lower the islands. With the return of the warmer cli-
by a layer of sediment so that the characteristic cir- mate, the water that was locked up in the ice sheets
cular lagoon is generally shallow. Thus atolls mark melted. Consequently, there was a rise in the sea-
thepositionof theformerislands(Fig. 11.6a).More level which in some cases submerged these lower
recent researches by oceanographers have revealed islands. On these wave-planed platforms, corals
that the ocean floor has, in fact, been subjected to began to grow upwards at the rate of a third of a
subsidence especially in the Pacific. Darwin's expla- metre in a decade to keep pace with the rising water-
nation was therefore generally correct. level (Fig. 11.6b). Coral reefs, where islands still
Amongst the other theories, perhaps the Ameri- project above sea-level, and atolls were thus formed.
can geographer, R.A. _Daly's glacial control theory Recent evidence of boring through coral formations
put forward in 1910 is worth consideration. During seems to favour Daly's explanation of a change in
his visit to Mauna Kea in Hawaii, he noticed the sea-level and consequent erosion of the islands.
close relationship between glaciation and the devel- However the deepest borings reveal basaltic rocks.
opment of coral reefs. He believed that during the These correspond to the subsided islands envisaged
height of the Ice Ages, the water was too cold for by Darwin. Thus a combination of the two theories
any coral growth to take place. With the absence of accounts for all the important features of coral reefs
a coral barrier, marine erosion was able to attack and and atolls.

Ouestions and Exercises

1. Give a concise classification of the islands of 6. (a) Differentiate between continental and
the world. Quote actual examples of islands to oceanic islands.
justify your proposed classification. (b) Give three examples of each of the above
2. The following are some of the islands of the two types of island.
world. State in which part of the globe they are (c) Which type is normally larger in size than
found. For any three of. them account for their the other?
probable origin: 7. (a) Describe the world's distribution of coral
Sakhalin Island; reefs and atolls.
Andaman Islands; (b) What are the main problems posed by their
Maldive Islands; origin?
St. Helena; 8. (a) Define 'archipelagos', 'festoons' and 'bar-
Hawaiian Islands: rier reefs'.
Crete. (b) Locate in a world map an example of each
3. What are the three general types of coral reef of the above.
formed by coral animals. Point out the distinct (c) For any two of them, draw well-labelled
differences between them. diagrams to illustrate their characteristic
4. Explain clearly how coral reefs are formed. features.
Under what conditions do corals thrive best? 9. Explain the following:
5 With the aid of examples and diagrams, explain (a) Coral reefs are generally absent in swampy
any three of the following terms connected with river deltas.
islands and coral reefs: (b) Mauna Loa in Hawaii is actually an emer-
(a) continental islands; gent peak of a volcanic island.
(b) archipelagos; (c) Much of the flora and fauna of continental
(c) oceanic islands; islands is similar to that of the adjoining
(d) coral polyps; mainland.
(e) fringing reefs; 10. (a) Why are coral reefs confined mainly to
(f) atolls. tropical and sub-tropical waters?
(b) What other factors affect their general dis-
tribution?

r02
Sample Objective O,uestions
1. Of the following
places which is the
most conducive for the formation of
coral reefs?
A Deep, blue seas in the temperate
zone
B Tropical saline seas free from
sediments
C Sub-tropical waters washed by
cold currents
D Enclosed seas with a high salinity
2. Coralanimals such as coral polyps,
calcareous algae and other shell-
forming creatures live in colonies
forming coral reefs. They survive
best under these conditions except
A just below sea level
B in tropical warm waters
C where cold currents wash the
shores
D where the water is saltish
3. The basic difference between a SEA
fringing reef and a barrier reef is LEVEL
that the
A fringing reef is not found within
the tropics
B barrier reef is separated from the
mainland by a wide channel
C fringing reef is much longer than
a barrier reef
D barrier reef is not built by polyps
4. The diagram below shows the cross-
section of an atoll. Its most distinc- 5. The greatest difference between a
tive feature amongst the corals is continental island and an oceanic is-
A It is sited on the volcanic peaks in land is its
the oceans A shape
B It is separated from the mainland B size
by a shallow lagoon C ability to support vegetation
C If is the only type of coral reefs D distance from the mainland
that survive in temperate waters
D It is circular in shape
r03
Chapter 12 The Oceans
Exploring the Oceans
The oceans, comprising more than 70 per cent or 364
million sq km (140 million square miles) of the
earth's surface, have tremendous potential waiting
to be developed. Besides being a source of food -
fish, mammals, reptiles, salt and other marine
foodstuffs-the tides can be harnessed to provide
power. Formal oceanographic investigation began
only with the British expedition of the Challenger
(1873-6), the first successful world-wide deep-sea
expedition.
Oceanography, the science of the oceans, has
become such an important subject in recent years
that researches into the deep seas have been con-
ducted by many institutions, universities, govern-
ment ministries and other international organizations.
The most famous international oceanographic re-
search centre is the International Council for the
12.A Piston covers, such as this, are used to sample the
sediment on the ocean tloors Mohammad Ayob
104
Exploration of the Sea with its headquarters in
Copenhagen. Ocean exploration for the observation
and recording of oceanographic data is a very expen-
sive matter. It involves the operation and mainte-
nance of specially equipped vessels in mid-ocean for
long periods, and large-scale oceanographic researches
are thus best undertaken by international bodies.
The older echo-sounding techniques have now been
replaced by radar sounding and electrical echo
devices to find the precise depths of ocean floors and
map the relief of the oceans. Trained frog-men
equipped with modern breathing apparatus are
employed to gather valuable information from great
depths. Deep-sea core samples are obtained by bor-
ing for the study of the oceanic deposits-the various
kinds of ooze, mud and clay. Automatic-record-
ing thermometers and other sensitive instruments
can be lowered to any required depth by stationary
vessels with laboratory facilities for processing any
required data. For the observation and measure-
ment of current flow, various kinds of current meter
using propellers, vanes or pendulums have been
designed. Sealed bottles and other floating objects
containing instructions for reporting their precise
time and place of discovery are released in large
numbers to compute the rate and direction of drift
and current flow. With all these modern techniques
at the disposal of the oceanographers, our knowl-
edge of the mysteries of the oceans is greatly
increased. But there is still much to be discovered.
The Relief of the Ocean
The ocean basins are in many ways similar to the
land surface. There are submarine ridges, plateaux,
canyons, plains and trenches. A section drawn
across an ocean (Fig. 12.1) illustrates the typical
submarine relief features.
l. The continental shelf. This is, in fact, the sea-
ward extension of the continent from the shoreline
to the continental edge marked, approximately, by
the 100 fathom (180 metres/600 feet) isobath (iso-
baths are contours marking depths below sea-level).
The continental shelf is thus a shallow platform
whose width varies greatly, from a few kilometres
in the North Pacific off the continent of North
America, to over 160 km (100 miles) off north-west
Europe. In some places where the coasts are
extremely mountainous, such as the Rocky Moun-
tain and Andean coasts, the continental shelf may
be entirely absent. Off broad lowland coasts like
those of Arctic Siberia, a maximum width of
1 200 km (750 miles) has been recorded! A width of
900 continental shelf
1,200
1,500 continental slope
1,800
2,100
2,400
2,700
3.000 ocean deep
3.300
105
32-1,60 km (20-100 miles) is generally encountered.
The angle of the slope is also variable, and is nor-
mally least where the continental shelf is widest. .A
gradient of 1 in 500 is common to most continental
shelves.
Many regard the continental shelf as part of the
continent submerged due to a rise in sea-level, e.g.
at the close of the Ice Age, when the ice in the tem-
perate latitudes melted and raised the sea-level by
several hundred metres. Some smaller continental
shelves could have been caused by wave erosion
where the land is being eroded by the sea as shown
in Fig. I2.2. Coiversely such shelves might have
been formed by the deposition of land-derived or
river-borne materials on the off-shore terrace as in
Fig. 12.3.
The continental shelves are of great geographical
significance for the following reasons:
(a) Their shallowness enables sunlight to pene-
trate through the water, which encourages the
growth of minute plants and other microscopic
organisms. They are thus rich in plankton on which
millions of surface and bottom-feeding fishes thrive.
The continental shelves are therefore the richest
fishing grounds in the world, e.g. the Grand Banks
off Newfoundland, the North Sea and the Sunda
Shelf.
(b) Their limited depth and gentle slope keep out
cold under-currents and increase the height of tides.
This sometimes hinders shipping and other marine
activities since ships can only enter and leave port
on the tide. Most of the world's greatest seaports
including Southampton, London, Hamburg, Rotter-
dam, Hong Kong and Singapore are located on
continental shelves.
Fig. 12.1 The relief of the ocean basin (a typical section)
with oceanic deposits - mud, clay and oozes.
sea level
90m
180
270
360
450
arine ridge 540
630
720
810
900
 bontiriental shelf
'_-_-_:_2
-_:_---_:7
Fig. 12.2 Continental shelf formed by processes of erosion
2. The continental slope. At the edge of the conti-
nental shelf, there is an abrupt change of gradient
to about I in20, forming the continental slope.
3. The deep-sea plain. This is the undulating plain
lying two or three kilometres below sea-level, and
covering two-thirds of the ocean floor, generally
termed the abyssal plain. It was once thought to be
featureless, but modern sounding devices reveal that
the abyssal plain is farfrom being level. It has exten-
sive submarine plateaux, ridges, trenches, basins
and oceanic islands that rise above sea-level in the
midst of oceans, e.g. the Azores, Ascension Island.
4. The ocean deeps. These are the long, narrow
trenches that plunge as great ocean deeps to a depth
of 5,000 fathoms or 9 000 metres (30,000 feet)! Con-
trary to our expectations, most of the deepest
trenches are not located in the midst of oceans. They
are more often found close to the continents,
particularly in the Pacific Ocean, where several
deep trenches have been sounded. The great-
est known ocean deep is the Mariana Trench near
Guam Island, which is more than 10 900 metres
(36,000 feet) deep. We can see from this that ocean
trenches are greater in magnitude than the highest
mountains on land, for the highest peak, Mt. Everest
is only 8 848 metres (29,028 feet). Other notable
ocean deeps include the Mindanao Deep (10 700
metres/35,000 feet) the Tonga Trench (9 450
metrespl,000 feet) and the Japanese Trench (8 500
metresp8,000 feet) all in the Pacific Ocean.
The Deposits of the Ocean Floor
Materials eroded from the earth which are not
deposited by rivers or at the coast are eventually
dropped on the ocean floor. The dominant process
is slow sedimentation where the eroded particles very
slowly filter through the ocean water and settle upon
one another in layers. The thickness of the layer of
106
off-shore terrace
Fig. 12.3 Continental shelf formed by processes of deposi-
tion
sediments is still unknown. Its rate of accumulation
is equally uncertain. Generally speaking, we may
classify all the oceanic deposits as either muds, oozes
or clays.
l. The muds. These are terrigenous deposits be-
cause they are derived from land and are mainly
deposited on the continental shelves. The muds are
referred to as blue, green or red muds; their col-
ouring depends upon their chemical content.
2. The oozes. These are pelagic deposits because
they are derived from the oceans. They are made of
the shelly and skeletal remains of marine micro-
organisms with calcareous or siliceous parts. Oozes
have a very fine, flour-like texture and either occur
as accumulated deposits or float about in suspension.
3. The clays. These occur mainly as red clays in the
deeper parts of the ocean basins, and are particularly
abundant in the Pacific Ocean. Red clay is believed
to be an accumulation of volcanic dust blown out
from volcanoes during volcanic eruptions.
Salinity of the Ocean
Almost every known chemical element can be found
in varying proportions in the oceans whose most
characteristic feature is their salinity, in contrast to
the fresh water of lakes and streams. All sea water
contains large amounts of dissolved mineral matter
of which sodium chloride or common salt alone con-
stitutes more than 77 per cent. The other more
important compounds include magnesium, calcium
and potassium, while the rest are distinguishable
only in traces of very minute quantities. Due to the
free movement of ocean water, the proportions of
different salts remain remarkably constant in all
oceans and even to great depths. But the degree of
concentration of the salt solution in oceans does vary
appreciably in different areas. This is expressed as
salinity, the degree of saltiness of water, either as a
 "loo
!se-ez %.
!ou.,
37
[ffilas-eo
Fig. 12.4 World map showing the salinity of oceans
the highest salinity is found in enclosed seas and
adjoining the hot deserts along the tropics.)
percentage or more often in parts per thousand.
Variations are shown in salinity distribution maps by
isohalines, lines joining places having an equal
degree of salinity.
Generally speaking, the average salinity of the
oceans is 35.2 per thousand, about 35 parts of salt
in 1 000 parts of water. In the Baltic Sea, where
there is much dilution by fresh water and melting ice,
the salinity is much lower, only about 7 per thou-
sand. In the Red Sea where there is much surface
evaporation and fewer rivers to bring in fresh water,
the average salinity increases to 39 per thousand. In
enclosed seas, which are areas of inland drainage,
such as the Caspian Sea, the salinity is very high, 180
per thousand, and in the Dead Sea of Israel,/Jordan,
a salinity of 250 per thousand has been recorded.
The highest salinity is perhaps, that of Lake Van, in
Turkey, with 330 per thousand. It is a salt lake, and
salts are collected from its shores. The density of the
water is so high that in Lake Van or the Dead Sea,
it is almost impossible to sink. Beginner-swimmers
will find it much easier to float here than anywhere
else! The variation of salinitv in the various seas
"L. lsz-ss"/.. lsz-zo"l".
f]und er 2o"loo
(Note
those
and oceans is affected by the following factors
(Fig. 12.4):
l. The rate of evaporation. The waters fringing the
High Pressure Belts of the Trade Wind Deserts,
between 20' and 30" N and S, have high salinity
because of the high rate of evaporation caused by
high temperature and low humidity. The temperate
oceans have lower salinity due to the lower temper-
ature and a lower rate of evaporation.
2. The amount of fresh water added by precipitation,
streams and icebergs. Salinity is lower than the
average 35 per thousand in equatorial waters
because of the heavy rainfall and high relative
humidity. Oceans into which huge rivers like the
Amazon, Zaire, Ganges, Irrawaddy and Mekong
drain, have much of their saltiness diluted and have
a lower salinity. The Baltic, Arctic and Antarctic
waters have a salinity of less than 32 per thousand
because of the colder climate with little evaporation
and because much fresh water is added from the
melting of icebergs, as well as by several large pole-
ward-bound rivers, e.g. Ob, Lena, Yenisey and
Mackenzie.
107
3. The degree of water mixing by currents. In
wholly or partially enclosed seas such as the Caspian
Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea and Persian Gulf,
the waters do not mix freely with the ocean water
and they are not penetrated by ocean currents. Sal-
inity is high, often over 37 per thousand. In areas of
inland drainage without links with the oceans, con-
tinuous evaporation under an almost cloudless sky
causes the accumulation of salt around the shores.
In the open oceans where currents freely flow, sal-
inity tends to be near the average 35 per thousand
or even a little lower. The range of salinity is neg-
ligible where there is free mixing of water. by surface
and sub-surface currents.
The Temperature of Ocean Water
Like land masses, ocean water varies in temperature
from place to place both at the surface and at great
depths. Since water warms up and cools down much
more slowly than the land, the annual range of tem-
perature in any part of the ocean is very much
srnaller. It is less than 5.5 'C (10 "F) for most of the
open seas. Generally, the mean annual temperature
Fig: 12.5 World map showing the surface temperatures of
oceans (Note the ocean temperatures decrease from the
tropics to temperate waters)
lllou,, 2s"c t77"Ft f l;;-'i;9r,
108
of the surface ocean water decreases from about
2l "C (70 'F) in equatorial areas to 13 oC (55 "F) at
latitudes 45" N and S, and drops almost to freezing-
point at the poles. The reduction of temperature
with latitude is however never constant, because of
the interference by warm and cold currents, winds
and air masses. Unlike the solid earth, ocean water
is mobile and variations in the temperature between
different parts of the oceans can be expected. Water
flowing out from the Arctic and Antarctic as cold
currents, such as the Labrador Current off north-
east Canada, tends to reduce the surface-water tem-
perature. Ports of eastern Canada even at 45oN are
thus icebound for almost half the year. In the same
way, coasts warmed by warm currents, such as the
North Atlantic Drift, have their surface temperature
raised. The Norwegian coast, even at latitudes 60'
to 70" N is ice-free throughout the year!
The highest water temperatures are found in
enclosed seas in the tropics, e.g. the Red Sea which
records a temperature of 29" to 38'C (85'to 100 "F).
The Arctic and Antaritic waters are so cold that
their surface is permanently frozen as pack-ice down
to a depth of several metres. In the warmer summer,
bo- I soc
(41"-5go F) [Tunaer s'c (41'F]
parts of the ice break off as ice floes that both dilute
the water and lower the surface temperature of sur-
rounding ice-free seas (Fig. 12,5).
The temperature of the oceans also varies verti-
cally with increasing depth. It decreases rapidly for
the first 2fi) fathoms, at the rate of 1 "C for every 18
fathoms (1 "F for every 1.0 fathoms) and then more
slowly until a depth of 500 fathoms is reached.
Beyond this, the drop is scarcely noticeable, less
than 1 oC for every L80 fathoms (or 1 'F tbr every
100 fathoms). In the ocean deeps below 2,000
fathoms (3 700 metres/12,000 feet) the water is uni-
formly cold, just a little above freezing point. It is
interesting to note that even in the deepest ocean
trenches, more than 10 km (6 miles) below the sur-
face, the water never freezes. It is estimated that
over 80 per cent of all ocean waters have a tempera-
ture between 2 "C (35 "F) and 4 oC (40 "F).
The Movements of Ocean Currents
Ocean currents are large masses of surface water
that circulate in regular patterns around the oceans,
as shown in the world map in Fig. 12.6. Those that
flow from equatorial regions polewards have
higher surface temperature and are warm currents.
Those that flow from polar regions equatorwards
have a lower surface temperature and are cold cur-
rents. Their direction of movement is indicated by
the arrows. But why should they follow such a pat-
tern? Some of the underlying factors are explained
below.
1. The planetary winds. Between the equator and
the tropics, the Trade lilinds move equatorial waters
polewards and westwards and warm the eastern
coasts of continents. For example, the North-East
Trade Winds move the North Equatorial Current
and its derivatives, the Florida Current and the Gulf
Stream Drift to warm the southern and eastern
coasts of the U.S.A. Similarly, the South-East Trade
Winds drive the South Equatorial Current which
warms the eastern coast of Brazil as the warm
Brazilian Current.
In the temperate latitudes blow the Westerlies.
Though they are less reliable than the Trade Winds,
they result in a north-easterly flow of water in the
northern hemisphere, so that the warm Gulf Stream
is driven to the western coast of Europe as the North
Atlantic Drift. In a similar manner, the Westerlies
a of the southern hemisphere, drive the West Wind

Fig. 12.6 Ocean currents of the world

61;il$ Arctic Circle

i4\ P K--),ij S'

P
3d""'
Ocean. S,\ North
Atlantic ? N.E. i/bn|oon Drift f"""
23|.N. :la} Current ocean 8.1
-€rn-"*l'll -- --
h
----
Trodc ol Crl

a' $t ,i\
),
OrFoutarrE-0iTdiu-rrrnt.-
". '-'::--/::2
S.W. Monsoon Orifi

(--.-\
South ** *,")t.-.
Ocean
2+"S.J:t':{3ej'Y: - - 31
Atlantic
Ocean
-- - E.ftt _ t,
l_a .$->
nrl EEI
'-r-,-r .::: 6r,E .S,/ (/
(l/1ijj::jfr -s1za.

t South Pacific O"""n i rl

' "",'1
*r-sg:: W93t Wittdd Drift
Scale I
.Y L/

: 215,OOO,OOO

+ warm currents
-_-+coldcurrents
109
Drift equatorwards as the Peruvian Current off
South America and the Benguela Current off south-
ern Africa. The planetary winds are probably the
dominant influence on the flow of ocean currenrs.
The strongest evidence of prevailing winds on cur-
rent flows is seen in the North Indian Ocean. Here
the direction of the currents changes completely with
the direction of the monsoon winds which come from
the north-east in winter and south-west in summer.
2. Temperatures. There is much difference in the
temperature of ocean waters at the equator and at
the poles. As warm water is lighter and rises, and
cold water is denser and sinks, warm equatorial
waters move slowly along the surface polewards,
while the heavier cold waters of the polar regions
creep slowly along the bottom of the sea equator-
wards.
3. Salinity. The salinity of ocean water varies from
place to place. Waters of high salinity are denser
than waters of low salinity. Hence waters of low sal-
inity flow on the surface of waters of high salinity
while waters of high salinity flow at the bottom
towards waters of low salinity. For example in the
Mediterranean region, there is great difference in
salinity between the waters of the open Atlantic and
those of the partially enclosed Mediterranean Sea.
The less saline water of the Atlantic flows on the
surface into the Mediterranean, and this is compen-
sated for by an outflow of denser bottom water from
the Mediterranean (Fig. 12.a).
4. The earth's rotation. The earth's rotation deflects
freely moving objects, including ocean currenrs, ro
the right. In the northern hemisphere this is a clock-
wise direction (e.g. the circulation of the Gulf
Stream Drift and the Canaries Current). In the south-
ern hemisphere it is an anti-clockwise direction (e.g.
the Brazilian Current.and the West Wind Drift).
5. Land. A land mass always obstructs and diverts a
current. For instance, the tip of southern Chile
diverts part of the West Wind Drift northwards as
the Peruvian Current. Similarly the 'shoulder' of
Brazil at Cape Sao Roque, divides the west flowing
equatorial currents into the Cayenne Current which
flows north-westwards and the Brazilian Current
which flows south-westwards.
The Circulation of the Atlantic Ocean
Let us now study more closely the circulation of
ocean currents in the Atlantic Ocean. We shall begin
with the North and South Equatorial Current at the
ll0
equator. The steady Trade Winds constantly drift
two streams of water from east to west. At the
'shoulder' of north-east Brazil, the protruding land
mass splits the South Equatorial Current into the
Cayenne Current which flows along the Guiana
coast, and the Brazilian Current which flows south-
wards along the east coast of Brazil.
In the North Atlantic Ocean, the Cayenne Current
is joined and reinforced by the North Equatorial
Current and heads north-westwards as a large mass
of equatorial water into the Caribbean Sea. Part of
the current enters the Gulf of Mexico and emerges
from the Florida Strait between Florida and Cuba
as the Florida Current. The rest of the eouatorial
water flows northwards east of the Antillei to join
the Gulf Stream off the south-eastern U.S.A. The
Gulf Stream Drift is one of the strongest ocean cur-
rents, 56 to 160 km (35 to 100 miles) wide, 610
metres (2,000 feet) deep and with a velocity of 5 km
(3 miles) an hour. The current hugs the coast of
America as far as Cape Hatteras (latitude 35' N)
where it is deflected eastwards under the combined
influence of the Westerlies and the rotation of the
earth. It reaches Europe as the North Aflantic
Drift. This current, flowing at 16 km (10 miles) per
day, carries the warm equatorial water for over a
thousand kilometres to the coasts of Europe. From
the North Atlantic, it fans out in three directions,
eastwards to Britain, northwards to the Arctic and
southwards along the Iberian coast, as the cool Can-
aries Current. Oceanographic researches show that
almost two-thirds of the water brought by the Gulf
Stream to the Arctic regions is returned annually to
the tropical latitudes by dense, cold polar water that
creeps southwards in the ocean depths. The Canar-
ies Current flowing southwards eventually merges
with the North Equatorial Current, completing the
clockwise circuit in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Within this ring of currents, an area in the middle
of the Atlantic has no perceptible current. A large
amount of floating seaweed gathers and the area is
called the Sargasso Sea.
Apart from the clockwise circulation of the cur-
rents, there are also currents that enter the North
Atlantic from the Arctic regions. These cold waters
are blown south by the out-flowing polar winds. The
Irminger Current or East Greenland Current flows
between Iceland and Greenland and cools the
North Atlantic Drift at the point of convergence.
The cold Labrador Current drifts south-eastwards
between West Greenland and Baffin Island to meet
fhe warm Gulf Stream off Newfoundland, as far
south as 50" N where the icebergs carried south by
the Labrador Current melt.
The South Atlantic Ocean follows the same pattern
of circulation as the North Atlantic Ocean. The
major differences are that the circuit is anti-clock-
wise and the collection of seaweeds in the still waters
of the mid-South Atlantic is not so distinctive.
Where the South Equatorial Current is split at
Cape Sao Roque, one branch turns south as the
warm Brazilian Current. Its deep blue waters are
easily distinguishable from the yellow, muddy waters
carried hundreds of kilometres out to sea by the
Amazon further north. At about 40" S the influence
of the prevailing Westerlies and the rotation of the
earth propel the current eastwards to merge with the
cold West Wind Drift as the South Atlantic Current.
On reaching the west coast of Africa the current is
diverted northwards as the cold Benguela Current
(the counterpart of the Canaries Current). It brings
the cold polar waters of the West Wind Drift into
tropical latitudes. Driven by the regular South-East
Trade Winds, the Benguela Current surges equator-
wards in a north-westerly direction to join the South
Equatorial Current. This completes the circulation
of the currents in the South Atlantic. Between the
North and South Equatorial Currents is the east-
flowing Equatorial Counter Current.
The Girculation of the Pacific Ocean
The pattern of circulation in the Pacific is similar to
that of the Atlantic except in modifications which
can be expected from the greater size and the more
open nature of the Pacific. The circulation can be
easily followed in Fig. 12.6. Try to correlate it with
the currents in the Atlantic.
The North Equatorial Current flows westwards
with a compensating Equatorial Counter Current
running in the opposite direction. Due to the greater
expanse of the Pacific and the absence of an
obstructing land mass the volume of water is very
much greater than that of the Atlantic Equatorial
Current. The North-East Trade Winds blow the
North Equatorial Current off the coasts of the Phil-
ippines and Taiwan into the East China Sea as the
Kuroshio or Kuro Siwo or Japan Current. Its warm
waters are carried polewards as the North Pacific
Drift, keeping the ports of the Alaskan coast ice-free
in winter. The cold Bering Current or Alaskan Cur-
rent creeps southwards from the narrow Bering
Strait and is joined by the Okhotsk Current to meet
the warm Japan Current as the Oyashio, off Hok-
lll
kaido. The cold water eventually sinks beneath the
warmer waters of the North Pacific Drift. Part of it
drifts southwards as the cool Californian Current
along the coasts of the western U.S.A. and coalesces
with the North Equatorial Current to complete the
clockwise circulation.
The current system of the South Pacific is the same
as that of the South Atlantic. The South Equatorial
Current, driven by the South-East Trade winds,
flows southwards along the coast of Queensland as
the East Australian Current, bringing warm equa-
torial waters into temperate waters. The current
turns eastwards towards New Zealand under the full
force of the Westerlies in the Tasman Sea and
merges with part of the cold West Wind Drift as the
South Pacific Current. Obstructed by the tip of
southern Chile, the current turns northwards along
the western coast of South America as the cold
Humboldt or Peruvian Current. The cold water
chills any wind that blows on shore so that the Chi-
lean and Peruvian coasts are practically rainless. The
region is rich in microscopic marine plants and ani-
mals that attract huge shoals of fish. Consequently,
millions of sea-birds gather here to feed on the fish.
Their droppings completely whiten the coastal cliffs
and islands, forming thick deposits of. guano, a valu-
able source of fertilizer. The Peruvian Current eventu-
ally links up with the South Equatorial Current and
completes the cycle of currents in the South Pacific.
The Indian Ocean Circulation
As in the other oceans as illustrated in Fig. 12.6, the
currents of the South Indian Ocean form a circuit.
The Equatorial Current, turning southwards past
Malagasy as the Agulhas or Mozambique Current,
merges with the West Wind Drift, flowing eastwards
and turns equatorwards as the West Australian
Current.
In the North Indian Ocean, there is a complete
reversal of the direction of currents between summer
and winter, due to the changes of monsoon winds.
In summer from June to October, when the domi-
nant winds is the South-West Monsoon, the currents
are blown from a south-westerly direction as the
South-West Monsoon Drift. This is reversed in win-
ter, beginning from December, when the North-East
Monsoon blows the currents from the north-east as
the North-East Monsoon Drift. The currents of the
North Indian Ocean, demonstrate most convincingly
the dominant effects of winds on the circulation of
ocean currents.
Ouestions and Exercises
1. With the aid of large sketch maps, describe and (a) The richest fishing grounds are located on
explain the circulation of currents in either the continental shelves.
Atlantic or the Pacific Ocean. Your map should (b) The average salinity of the Baltic Sea is only
differentiate clearly the warm currents from the 7 per thousand whereas that of the Dead
cold currents. Sea is 250 per thousand.
2. Explain by reference to actual examples the (c) The temperature of ocean water varies both
effects of ocean currents on: horizontally and vertically.
(a) climate; (d) The dominant influence on the circulation
(b) navigation; of ocean currents is wind.
(c) economic activities. 5. Write brief notes on any three of the following
3. What is meant by the relief of the oceans? In terms associated with the oceans:
what ways are the structure and composition of (a) deep-sea core samples;
the relief different from those of the land sur- (b) oceanography;
face? (c) isohalines;
4. Give a reasoned explanation of any three of the (d) Gulf Stream Drift;
following: (e) Sargasso Sea.

rt2
 PART 2

Weather, Climate
and Vegetation

113
Chapter 13 Weather
The Difference between Weather and
Glimate
The term weather should not be confused with cli-
mate, though they are very closely related to each
other in the study of meteorology and climatology.
We don't hear people saying that the climate of the
day is warm or cold, but we do talk of warm
weather, a cold morning, a sunny afternoon, a rainy
day or a chilly night. Any casual remarks about the
atmospheric conditions of a certain place at a certain
tirne are about weather. It is never static, and thus
cannot be generalized. In the same country, even
over a small area, the weather can vary tremen-
dously. It may be sunny in one part of the district,
but raining heavily a few kilometres away. Strong
gales may be experienced along the coasts while the
interior may be relatively calm. It is important to
realize that any place can be subjected to haphazard
changes in weather at any time.
When we speak of climate, we mean the average
atmospheric conditions of an area over a consider-
able time. For climatic averages, a minimum period
of 35 years is desirable. This involves the systematic
observation, recording and processing of the various
elements of climate such as rainfall, temperature,
humidity, air pressure, winds, clouds and sunshine
before any standardization of the climatic means or
averages can be arrived at. The climate of Malaysia
is described as hot, wet, equatorial climate which is
a summing up of the average everyday climate of the
country throughout the year.
The degree of variability in the climate or weather
of a country also differs. Generally speaking, the
climate of temperate latitudes is far more variable
than that of the tropics. T'he climate of the British
Isles is so changeable that many people have com-
mented that 'Britain has no climate, only weather'.
Conversely, the climate of Egypt is so static that it
makes a good deal of sense when people say that
'Egypt has no weather, only climate'.
The lmportance of Climate and
Weather
The profound influence of climate and weather over
Man's activities can be seen from his everyday life.
t14
Forces of nature have regulated to a very great
extent the sort of food we eat, what we wear, how
we live and work. Our mental alertness, our physical
characteristics and even our racial differences when
closely examined have at least some relationship
with climate. The direction of winds once controlled
the pattern of trading routes. The safety of modern
air communications is closely tied to accurate mete-
orological reports from the ground stations. Despite
the advances made in science and technology, farm-
ers and their crops are still at the mercy of the cli-
mate and the weather. Conditions of temperature,
precipitation and humidity may promote or discour-
age the growth of fungus and diseases which may be
injurious to both men and crops. Death rates are
normally high in tropical countries and low in
deserts, because germs are not transmitted readily
in regions of high temperature and low humidity.
Cool, fresh mountain air is always good for health.
Weather Bureaux or Meteorological Stations are
scattered all over the globe, including the oceans,
using some of the most up-to-date weather instru-
ments to gather a wide range of data as raw materials
for the construction of weather maps or synoptic
charts. Though men are still unable to tame the
forces of nature such as floods, droughts, typhoons
or hurricanes, a sound knowledge of the trends or
the weather systems can often help to avoid or
reduce the seriousness of the calamities. Profes-
sional meteorologists are able to forecast the
weather fairly accurately from local observations. A
fall in the barometer, a change of cloud type, a
bright sunset or even a whisper of the wind can be
very useful tips to a weather forecaster in detecting
what is going to happen next. A casual glance at the
sky will be sufficient for a weather expert to sum up
the conditions of the atmosphere.
Today farmers are becoming more and more
dependent upon meteorological services. A knowl-
edge of the likely weather of a place will be useful
for a farmer to plan his work for the season or the
year. Frequent agricultural bulletins issued by the
Meteorological Office will assist farmers to take due
precautions against frosts, hail, heavy snowfall or a
period of possible drought. Sailors at sea are warned
promptly of any on-coming gale or typhoon. Modern
air transport, military operations, geographical
expeditions, even important games and outings,
often take due consideration of meteorological
reports. A fair knowledge of the weather is not only
useful but often essential.
The Elements of Weather and Climate
To collect various climatic data to prepare maps and
charts of them, the following elements of climate are
normally observed and measured by weather instru-
ments.
1. Rainfall. Rainfall including other forms of pre-
cipitation (snow, sleet and hail) is always measured
by a metal instrument called a rain-gauge (Fig. 13 . 1a) .
It consists of a copper cylinder with a metal funnel
either 13 cm or 20 cm (5 inches or 8 inches) in diam-
eter, which leads into a smaller copper container or
a glass bottle. The hole in the funnel that leads down
to the container is very small so that evaporation of
the collected rain is minimized. The gauge should be
at least a third of a metre (one foot) above the
ground and firmly fastened, to avoid splashing. The
instrument should be sited well away from tall build-
ings, high trees and other objects which would
shelter it.
Fig. 13.1(a) A rain gauge Fig. 13.1(b) An ordinary measuring cylinder
l1s
The measurement the rainfall is done by remov-
of.
ing the funnel, emptying the rain in the container
into a graduated cylinder with a 3.8 cm (1+
inch) diameter (Fig. 13.lb). The reading should be
done at eye-level and to an accuracy of 0.25 mm
(0.01 inch). For greater accuracy, a special kind of
taper measure as shown in Fig. 13.1(c) which tapers
at the bottom may be used. It gives an accuracy up
to 0.125 mm (0.005 inch). Twenty-five mm (an inch)
of rainfall means the amount of water that would co-
ver the ground.to a depth of 25 mm, (1 inch) provided
none evaporated, drained off or percolate away. For
meteorological recordings, a rain-day is reckoned as
a period of 24 hours with at least 0.25 mm (0.01
inch) or more rain being recorded. If the amount
exceeds I mm (0.04 inch) it is considered a wet day.
For general reckoning, the average rainfall for
Malaysia is less than 7.6 mm (0.3 inch) a day. Only
a torrential downpour can account for more than
25 mm (1 inch) of rainfall in a day. The rain-gauge
must be examined every day. In temperate regions,
snowfall is carefully melted by warming the funnel
and then measured. For all practical purposes, 25 to
30 cm (10 to 12 inches) of snow may be considered
as equivalent to 25 mm (1 inch) of rain.
mm/in
n.z fi
f
ro.z F1
FI
i--+'
z.^ Fi
.1._
5.0 r-1
H
H
,z.s Fl
\Fr
Fig. 13.1(c) A calibrated
taper measure
 Total annual rainfall of mercury
76 cm (29.9")

14
813 330
E
E
12
.?_
.E 11
305
:
279 G
eto 254 '6
Es 229
I 203
7 178
6 weight of air
152
(average 14.7 lb/sq. i
5 127 atmospheric
(1.o3 kg/cm2)l pressu re
4 102
3 76
2
1

0
51

25
0
L'*"
MJJASOND
months

Fig. 13.2 A rainfall histogram showing the monthly rainfall contarner

of Kota Kinabalu, East Malaysia. Fig. 13.4 A mercury barometer

The daily records of rainfall will be added at the over a year and the latter shows at a glance the range
end of the month to find the total rainfall for that of dry and wet years for 35 years.
month. The total of each month is again added at 2. Pressure. Air is made up of a number of mixed
the end of the year to find the annual rainfall. The gases and has weight. It therefore exerts a pressure
mean annual rainfall is obtained from the averages on the earth's surface which varies from place to
of annual rainfall taken over a long period of say 35 place and from time to time. This force that presses
years. For plotting in rainfall maps, places having on the surface of any object can be fairly accurately
the same mean annual rainfall are joined by a line measured. The instrument for measuring pressure is
called an isohyet, as shown in many atlases. Rainfall a barometer, as shown in Fig. 13.4, invented by the
can also be graphically depicted as shaded rainfall scientist Galileo and his assistant Torricelli in 1643.
columns, one for each month of the year as in The ordinary mercury barometer consists of a long
Fig. 13.2 or in dispersal diagrams, one dot for each glass tube, sealed at the upper and open at the lower
year for as many years as possible as in Fig. i3.3. end. The lower end is inverted in a bowl of mercury,
The former illustrates the monthly rainfall regime whose surface is exposed to the air. Variations in the
atmospheric pressure on the mercury surface are
Fig. 13.3 A rainfall dispersal diagram for Gibraltar for 35 balanced by the column of mercury in the glass tube.
years
This gives the pressure of the air and can be read off
rainfall in inches rainfall in mm quickly from the scale on the glass tube. Any liquid
a very wet year could be used for this purpose, but mercury has been
50 1 270 chosen because it is the heaviest liquid known. If
ordinary water were used, the corresponding column
40 1 016 for normal atmospheric pressure would be 10 metres
mean annual rainfall (34 feet)! At sea-ievel, the mercury column is
30 762 760 mm (29.9 inches). If the pressure increases, the
air pressing on the surface will force up the mercury
20 508 column to about 790 mm (31 inches) (high pressure).
a very dry year When the pressure decreases, as less air presses on
10 254 the surface,.the mercury column will drop about
700 mm (28 inches) (low pressure). As pressure is a
0 force, it is more appropriate to measure it in terms

ll6
 Barome ter
reading Atmospheric pressure at places A,
38'l mm ('15 l
Sga mm t23"1
762 mm {3O"
Fig. 13.5 Pressure decreases with increasing altitude
of a unit of force. A new unit known as the millibar
(mb) was adopted by meteorological stations in
1914. A normal atmospheric pressure equivalent to
1.03 kg per cm2 (14.7 lb. per square inch) in weight
or a reading of.760 mm (29.9 inches) of mercury in
the column is 1 013 millibars. On maps, places of
equal pressure are joined by lines called isobars. In
temperate latitudes, pressure changes are very rapid
in the formation of cyclones and anticyclones. In
normal circumstances, they vary from 960 mb to
1 040 mb.
Pressure readings vary with a number of factors.
A sea-level reading 76 cm (29.9 inches) will be
halved on mountainous regions at 5.6 km (3.5 milds)
above sea-level. This is because as one ascends there
is less air above and so the weight, or pressure is less
(Fig. 13.5). The barometer is also sensitive to gravi-
tational forces at different latitudes. The mercury
itself also expands with an increase in temperature.
Therefore for professional meteorological work
which requires very accurate readings, corrections
have to be made in respect to altitude, latitude and
temperature.
Since a mercury barometer that dips in liquid mer-
cury is inconvenient for outdoor measurement, a
more portable but less accurate type known as the
aneroid barometer is used. This comprises a small
metal container, with most of the air driven out to
form almost a vacuum. As there is practically no pres-
sure at all inside the box, any increase in pressure
on the outside of the box will cause the lid to move
inwards thus registering high pressure by an indica-
tor on the revolving dial. When there is a decrease
in pressure, the lid springs outwards, registering low
pressure by the indicator (Fig. 13.6).
In aeroplanes, a modified type of aneroid bar-
ometer called an altimeter is used. As pressure
decreases with altitude at an approximate rate of
km /Mites
I and C
a/5
Fig. 13.6 An aneroid barometer
25.4 mm (1 inch) drop in the mercury reading for
every 270 metres (900 feet) ascent, the altimeter
gives the reading in metres for height attained
instead of millibars or millimetres. With this, the
pilot will be able to tell the altitude of the plane
above sea-level. For a continuous record ofpressure
changes, as is sometimes required, the self-recording
barogram is used.
3. Temperature. Temperature is a very important
element of climate and weather. The instrument for
measuring temperature is the thermometer which is
a narrow glass tube filled with mercury or alcohol.
It works on the principle that mercury expands when
heated and contracts when cooled. On thermome-
ters, temperatures are marked in one or two ways.
For most scientific purposes, the Centigrade "C is
preferred. Its freezing-point is 0 oC and its boiling-
point is 100'C. In'F (Fahrenheit) the freezing-point
is 32 "F and the boiling-point is 212 "F. The mean
oF.
daily temperature of Malaysia is 26.7 "C or 80 For
rapid conversion of one scale into another, the
following formulae may be used.
To obtain Centigrade : (oF - 32) + 1.8
e.g. to convert 59 oF into Centigrade:
(59-32"\ + L.8: Z7 + 1.8:15 oC.
To obtain Fahrenheit : (1.9 x "c) + 32 "F
e.g. to convert 20'C into Fahrenheit:
(1.8 x 20'C) + 32"F: 36o + 32" -- 68'F.
As the degree of 'hotness' varies tremendously
from one place to another, the siting of the instru-
ment is very important. A temperature taken in
open daylight is very high, because it measures the
direct insolation of the sun. It is better described as
'temperature in the sun'. For agricultural purposes,
rt7
 air space

aig mm (t6%")
I louvorod
oouute
I Air enters Air leaves
''o*
|
I
ftu^ tto"t

+254mm (
Fig. 13.7 A Stevenson Screen

earth temperatures are taken at various depths in the thermometer. The maximum thermometer records
ground. The thermometer is enclosed in a special the highest temperature reached during the day. The
glass tube and the bulb is embedded in paraffin wax, mercury in the closed glass tube expands when the
so that they are less sensitive to abrupt temperature temperature rises. It pushes a metal indicator up the
changes. To assess the possible damages done by tube and this stays at the maximum level when the
ground frosts to crops in temperate latitudes, grass temperature drops. The end of the indicator nearest
temperatures are also taken. the mercury, as indicated in Fig. 13.8, gives the
But the temperatures that we are so accustomed reading of the maximum temperature,. which is 31 "C
to in climatic graphs are shade temperatures, that is (87 "F.) in this case. To reset the mercury for the next
the temperatures of the air. Precautions therefore day's reading, swing it hard or draw the indicator
must be taken to exclude the intensity of the sun's back by a magnet.
radiant heat. This is done by placing the thermo- The minimum thermometer records the lowest
meters in a standard meteorological shelter known
as the Steve.nson Screen (Fig. 13.7). It consists of a Fig. 13.8 Maximum and minimum thermometers
white wooden box raised 1.2 metres (4 feet) above
mrnrmum maximum
the ground on stilts. The roof is double-layered ivith "c l'F. "c | "F.
an intervening air space to exclude much of the + Bulb
direct rays of the sun. The sides of the box are lou- -18 'l

vered like 'venetian blinds' to allow free circulation 101-12

of the air. One side of the screen is hinged to serve nt-7
as a door which can be opened and closed to give w-1
access to the instruments kept inside. The floor of qt4
the screen is also louvered. The Stevenson Screen 50/1 0

normally carries maximum and minimum thermom-

70t21
eters, dry and wet bulb thermometers. Larger ones 23'C t73'F 40t4
&t21 g)/-l
may also contain a self-recording thermogram and g/32 20/-
hygrogram.
1@/38 tot-t2
Maximum and minimum temperatures are meas- 1 l0/43 ot-
ured by the maximum and minimum thermometers.
They are either in the form of separate thermome-
ters or joined in a U-shaped glass tube as in the Six's

118
 LOCAL WEATHE R OBSERVATION
Name of School/Station: Month: Year

Time of reading: WEATHE R RECORDI NG SHEET

7.30 a.m.
RAINFALL RELATIVE HUMIDITY WINDS CLOUDS REMARKS
TEMPERATURE -
Date Mar Min Mean Drv Wet o'J8?'."J:' Direction Speed A Summary of
in /mm 'cl"t b/or % Type3 Cover
b/or b/or '.cloF TP; general weather
I (Beaufort Scalel cono|llons
2
3
4
5
6
7

8
I
10
11 0'3218 t t/o
12 Ill tl zuov 12120 Drll 3t5 909( s.w. \l-_ Cirrus o )lear sky, light mist
13
14
15
16
17
r8
19
20
21

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
n
30
31
Total
Vlean

Summary for the month

1. Highest maximum on Fig. 13.9 A specimen copy of the Weather Recording
2. Lowest minimum on
Sh€et 6 kept in school weather stations
3. Lowest maximum on
4. Highest minimum on
5. Graatest rainfall in 24 hours
6. Number of raindays for the month
7. Any other special remarks
(cl Rainfall read at 7.30 a,m. to be entered to previous day.
Notes (dt Relatiw humidity read at 7.30 a.m. to be €ntered to current
(al Maximum thermometer readings at 7.30 a.m. to b€ entered day.
to previous days. Jf Day of reading is the 12 day. Temperature readings in dark-
(bl Minimum thermometer readings at 7,30 Lm, to be entered ened boxes are taken on the 13 day to get diurnal range of
to current day, temp€rature.

t19
temperature reached during the day; it probably 32
occurs in the middle of the night or early in the 80 27
l.L
morning. The glass tube is filled with alcohol which 70 21 oO
allows the indicator to slide freely along the tube. o 60 16 .go
When the temperature drops, the alcohol contracts
o
50 10i G
and drags the indicator towards the bulb by the sur-
E.
40 4f,
face tension of the indicator. When the temDerature o 30
E
-lE o
rises, the alcohol flows past the indicator leaving it 20 -7
where it was. The end of the indicator farthest from 10 -12
the bulb gives the reading of the minimum temper- 0
MJ J ND -18
ature, which is 23"C (73"F ) in Fig. 13.8. The months
thermometer is then reset by a magnet for the next J F M A M J J A SO N D Range
24 hours' reading. "c
oF.-13 -10 r a rc 22 2s 24 16 g -2 -1o 3g"C
In recording temperature, the maximum temper- 8 14 30 47 60 71 77 7s 61 48 29 14 69oF.
Statistical data of temperature of Shenyang (Mukoen)
ature is entered in the column for the previous day
Mean annual temperature is 6.6"C (44oF.)
and the minimum temperature in the column for
current day because of their respective period of Fig. 13.10 A temperature graph of Shenyang (Mukden)
probable occurrence as shown in a specimen copy of (Mean monthly temperatures from January to December)
the Weather Recording Sheet (Fig. 13.9). The mean
daily temperature is the average of maximum and it could carry, the relative humidity is 50 per cent.
minimum, e.g. (33 "C + 2I"C) + 2:27 "C or 90'F In the equatorial regions, over 80 per cent is com-
+ 70 "F + 2:80'F. But an accurate mean should mon in the morning, which means the air contains
be the average of 24 readings taken at hourly inter- four-fifths as much water vapour as it can carry.
vals during the whole day. In practice this is almost When the relative humidity reaches 100 per cent, the
impossible except with a self-recording instrument. air is completely saturated. The air temperature is
The difference between the maximum and minimum said to be at dew-point. Further cooling will con-
temperatures of a day gives the diurnal range of tem- dense the water vapour into clouds or rain. It is thus
perature. The difference between the hottest month clear that when relative humidity is high the air is
(i.e. July in the northern hemisphere) and the cold- moist, as in the equatorial regions; when it is low,
est month (i.e. January in the northern hemisphere) the air is dry as in the deserts.
gives the annual range of temperature. The instrument for measuring relative humidity is
In diagrammatic representations, monthly mean the hygrometer, which comprises wet- and dry-bulb
temperatures are shown in simple temperature thermometers placed side by side in the Stevenson
graphs (Fig. 13.10) or in temperature distribution Screen (Fig. 13.11). The dry-bulb is, in fact, the
maps as isotherms. For these maps temperatures are ordinary thermometer that measures the shade tem-
reduced to sea-level-that is, shown as if the recording perature mentioned earlier. The wet-bulb is kept
station were at sea-level. Temperatures decrease at wet by a wick that dips into a reservoir of distilled
the rate of 1 "C for 165 metres (L 'F for 300 feet) water. When the air is not saturated, evaporation
ascent in altitude, so for highland stations a higher which produces a cooling effect, takes place from the
temperature is shown than was actually recorded. moist wick. The wet-bulb therefore always shows a
4. Humidity. Humidity is a measure of the damp- lower reading than the dry-bulb. With reference to
ness of the atmosphere which varies greatly from
place to place at different times of day. The actual Fig. 13.11 The hygrometer consisting of wet and dry bulb
amount of water vapour present in the air, whiCh is thermometers
expressed in gram per cubic metre, is called the
absolute humidity. But more important from the
Mercurv in stenl DRY BULB
point of view of weather studies is the relative
humidity. This is the ratio between the actual
amount of water vapour and the total amount the
air can hold at a given temperature, expressed as a
percentage. Warm air can hold more water vapour
than cold air, so if it contains only half the amount

r20
 Rotates freelY
poinls into the

Fig. 13.12 Wind vanes

prepared tables for calculating relative humidity. in mid-air. This is another way of indicating wind
under the difference column of dry- and wet-bulb direction.
reading, the relative humidity can be obtained as a A wind rose is used for recording the direction of
percentage. Normally a large difference indicates a prevailing winds of a place over a period of a month.
low R.H. and a small difference a high R.H. If both It consists of an octagon with the eight compass
have the same reading, R.H. is 100 per cent; the air points. Each of the small rectangles represents the
is saturated. date in which the wind comes from that direction
5. Winds. Wind is air in motion and has both direc- (e.g. on the fourth of the month, the wind is'north-
tion and speed. Unlike other elements in climate east). Those days which are without any wind is
such as rain, snow or sleet, winds are made up of a recorded in the box of the calms, and the number of
series of gusts and eddies that can only be fett but calm days are indicated in the centre of the octagon,
not seen. When leaves fall, trees sway and dust par- e.g. 3 days in that month (Fig. 13.13).
ticles move, we realize that the wind is blowing. But The speed of wind is usually measured by an ane-
there is nothing tangible that we can show or meas- mometer (Fig. 13.1a). It consists of three or four
ure unless we make use of some conventional instru- semi-circular cups attached to the ends of horizontal
ments. spokes mounted on a high vertical spindle. As the
The instrument widely used for measuring wind concave sides of the cups offer greater resistance to
direction is a wind vane or weather cock. As wind
direction is always deflected by trees and tall build- Fig. 13.13 A wind rose
ings, weather cocks and wind vanes need to be
erected in an exposed position, to get a true direc-
tion. It is made up of two parts as shown in
Fig. I3.12(a) and (b). One part is an arrow or vane
on the top, which is free to move with the prevailing
wind. The other part with the four compass points
is stationary and shows in which direction the wind
is moving. Winds are always named from the direc-
tion they blow; an east wind is one that blows from
east to west and a south-west wind is one that blows
from the south-west.
Most of the weather cocks that we see on church
spires and country buildings seldom give a correct
indication of wind direction. They are either too low
or are blocked by taller structures nearby. The direc-
tion of smoke-drift or flag movements in fairly open
spaces provides the most reliable indication of wind
direction. Sometimes a piece of woven-cloth with a
tail is fixed to the top of a high pole and drifts freely

t2l
 strength of winds. The best guide is obtainable from
the Beaufort Wind Scale which was devised by
Admiral Beaufort in 1805 for estimating wind speed.
Frequent reference to the table in your free time will
help you to learn it quickly.
6. Sunshine. As mentioned in Chapter l, the
amount of sunshine a place receives depends on the
seasons, a factor determined by latitude and by the
position of the earth in its revolution around the sun.
Tourist resorts, particularly in the higher temperate

Fig. 13.'14 Simplified sketch to illustrate the main features

of a wind anemometer

the winds, the horizontal spokes will rotate, moving

a central rod which transmits the velocity (speed) of
the wind in kilometres per hour to an electrically
operated dial. But the speed recorded is not abso-
lutely accurate because after the winds have abated,
the rotaton continues due to its own momentum.
With some modifications, the anemometer can also
record wind directions.
Since an anemometer is not easily available, a lit-
tle practice of local wind observations will help us
to assess the speed of winds. By seeing the way some
objects move, a great deal can be said about the Fig. 13.15 A sunshine recorder

The Beaufort Wind Scale

Beaufort Arrow Wind Speed Effects

No.
Scale Indication Description Km/h (mph) (a guide to observation)

o
t--------.
Calm Less than 1.6 (1) Smoke rises vertically

Light air 1.6-s (1-3) Wind direction shown by smoke-drift

but not by wind-vanes
t-----. Slight Breeze 7-1.r (4-7) Wind felt on face: leaves rustle: vanes
moved by wind
\_ Gentle Breeze 13-1e (8-12) Leaves and twigs in constant motion;
winds extend light flags
\.----_ Moderate 2r-29 (13-18) Raises dust and loose paper; small
Breeze branches moved
\\\_ Fresh Breeze 3r-3e (Le-24) Small trees in leaf begin to sway;crested
wavelets form on inland water
\\\_ Strong Breeze 41-s0 (2s-3r) Large branches in motion; whistling
heard in telegraph wires .

\\,_- Moderate s1-61 (32-38) Whole tree in motion; walking incon-

Gale venienced
\\\_ Fresh Gale 63-74 (39-46) Twigs broken off trees; progress generally
impeded

122
 \\\,_ Strong Gale 75-86 (47 -54) Slight structural damage occurs, chimney
pots removed
l0 \\\\__ Whole Gale 88-101 (55-63) Considerable structural damage, trees
\\\\\ uprooted
il u\\\r__ Storm 103-120 (64-75) Widespread damage. very rarely ex-
perienced
t2 \\\L- Hurricane More than
r20 (7s)
Widespread devastation, experienced
only in tropical areas

but not when the rays are faint. On maps, places

front with equal sunshine duration are joined by isohels.
sCold Fig. 13.15 shows a sunshine recorder.
4Occlusionfront 7. Clouds. When air rises, it is cooled by expansion.
-\i\,fs1m After dew-point has been reached, cooling leads to
condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere.
Tiny droplets of water vapour which are too small
to fall as rain or snow (less than 0.01 mm, approx-
imately 0.0005 inches in radius) will be suspended
in the air and float as clouds. Their form, shape,

Fig. 13.17 A synoptic chart showing anticyclonic conditions

in Europe

Fig. 13.16 A synoptic chart showing cyclonic conditions in

Eu rope

latitudes, are most concerned about the numbers of

hours of sunshine they receive. In the tropics, where
sunshine is abundant, people are less interested in the
amount.
In the meteorological station, sunshine duration
is recorded by a sun-dial, I02 mm (4 inches) in
diameter, through which the sun's rays are focused
upon a sensitized card, graduated in hours. A line
is made on the card when it is sufficiently heated,

123
height and movemenls tell us a great deal about the
sky conditions and the weather we are likely to
experience. It is fascinating and very rewarding to
know something about the clouds which we see
every day. For meteorological purposes, the amount
of cloud-cover in the sky is expressed in eights or
oktas (e.g. f O is quarter covered;f O is half cov-
eredl fO is three-quarters obscured andf O is com-
pletely overcast). They are shown on weather maps
by discs, shaded in the correct proportions. De-
tails of cloud type are indicated in code figures
which have been internationally accepted. On maps
places with an equal degree of cloudiness are joined
by lines known as isonephs. As clouds vary so
quickly from time to time at any particular place,
isoneph maps have little significance.
The classification of clouds is based on a combi-
nation of form, height and appearance. Four major
cloud types and their variations can be recognized.
(a) High clou"ds: mainly cirrus (Ci) of feathery
form at 6100-12 200 metres (20,000-40,000 feet)
above ground.
i Cirrus (Ci). This looks fibrous and appears like
wisps in the blue sky; it is often called 'mares' tails'.
It indicates fair weather, and often gives a brilliant
sunset (Plate 13.A).
ii.
Cirrocumulus (Cc). This appears as white glob-
ular masses, forming ripples in a 'mackerel sky'
(Plate 13.B).
13.A Cirrus cloud Royal Netherlands Meteorological lnstitute
|*ttf*ii..***i
124
iii.Cirrostratus (Cs). This resembles a thin white
sheet or veil; the sky looks milky and the sun or
moon shines through it with a characteristic 'halo'
(Plate 13.C).
(b) Medium clouds: mainly alto (Alt) or middle
height clouds at 2 100-6 000 metres (7,000-20,000
feet)
iv. Altocumulus (Alt-Cu). These are woolly,
bumpy clouds arranged in layers and appearing like
waves in the blue sky. They normally indicate fine
weather (Plate 13.D).
v. Altostratus (Alt-St). These are denser, greyish
clouds with a'watery' look. They have a fibrous or
striated structure through which the sun's rays shine
faintly.
(c) Low clouds: mainly stratus or sheet clouds
below 2 100 metres (7,000 feet).
vi. Stratocumulus (St-Cu). This is a rough, bumpy
cloud with the waves more pronounced than in alto-
cumulus. There is great contrast between the bright
and shaded parts.
vii. Stratus (St). This is a very low cloud, uniformly
grey and thick, which appears like a low ceiling or
highfand fog. It brings dull weather with light dizzle.
It reduces the visibility of aircraft and is thus a dan-
ger.
viii. Nimbostratus (Ni-St). This is a dark, dull
cloud, clearly layered, and is also known as a'rain
cloud'. It brings continuous rain, snow or sleet.
r-}
tt
-'ffiffi
13.8 Cirrocr:mulus cloud Meteorologie National Paris
(d) Clouds with great vertical extenti mainly
cumulus or heap clouds with no definite height
(6 100-9 000 metres/20,000-30,000 feet).
ix. Cumulus (Cu). This is a vertical cloud with a
rounded top and horizontal base, typical of humid
tropical regions, associated with up-rising convec-
tional currents. Its great white globular masses may
look grey against the sun but it is a 'fair weather
Fig. 13.18 Fogs formed over Newfoundland by ocean cur-
rents
r25
cloud'(Plate 13.E).
x. Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni). Thisis, infact, an over-
grown cumulus cloud, extdnding for a tremendous
vertical height from a base of 600 metres (2,000
feet) to over 9 000 metres (30,000 feet). Its black and
white globular masses take a fantastic range
of shapes. Its cauliflower top often spreads out like
an anvil. This is frequently seen in tropical after-
Fig. 13.19 Fogs formed in Peruvian Coast by current and
hot air
 13.C Cirrostratus with scattered cumulus Meteorologie
National Paris

noons. It is also referred to as a 'thunder-cloud'and
brings convectional rain, accompanied by lightning
and thunder (Plate 13.F).
8. Otherelements pertaining to visibility. Other ele-
ments affecting visibility include haze, mist and fog.
(a) Haze. This is caused by smoke and dust par-
ticles in industrial areas or may be due to unequal
refraction of light in air of different densities in the
lower atmosphere. The term is usually used in con-
nection with the reduction of visibility in regions of
lower humidity,.less than 75 per cent. When visibility
is less than 2 km (1* miles) haze is present.

l3.D Altocumulus cloud Royal Netherlands Metearological lnstitute

t-Y
,.it

126
13.E Cumulus cloud J. Mondaine

13.F Cumulonimbus cloud Royal Netherlands Meteorologic-

al lnstitute
 (b) Mist. The condensation of water vapour in the
air causes small droplets of water to float about
forming clouds at ground level called mist. It reduces
visibility to about 1000 metres or 1,100 yards.
Unlike haze, mist occurs in wet air, when the rela-
tive humidity is over 75 per cent.
(c) Fog. Ordinary fog is due to water condensing
on dust and other particles like smoke from houses
and tactories. It only occurs in the lower strata of
the atmosphere as a sort of dense'ground cloud'.
The visibility in fog is even less than 1 000 metres.
In industrial areas, like those of the Black Country
and northern England very thick smoky fog, called
smog is formed. The visibility may be reduced to 200
metres (220 yards) or even less.
Fogs that occur on hills are called hill fogs. They
are most common in the morning, even in the trop-
ics, and disperse when the sun rises. In temperate
lands, when days are hot and nights are clear and
Ouestions and Exercises
1. (a) What instruments are normally kept in the
school weather station?
(b) Why is it important that the times of obser-
vation and the method of recording should
be uniform?
(c) Explain what precautions you would take to
ensure that your observations and records
from the various instruments are accurate.
2. Name the instruments you would use to measure
the following elements of weather.
(a) relative humidity;
(b) atmospheric pressure;
(c) wind velocity.
For any two of. the above, and with annotated
diagrams, explain how the instruments work.
3. What weather elements are measured by the fol-
lowing apparatus?
(a) rain-gauge;
(b) the Six's maximum and minimum thermom-
eters:
r28
still, fogs may also result from cooling of the land
surface by radiation. The lower layers of the air are
chilled and water vapour in the atmosphere conden-
ses to form radiation fog, or land fog. When the
cooling surface is over the sea or when a warm ocean
current is brought into contact with a cold current
as off Newfoundland, sea fog is formed (Fig. 13.15).
It varies in depth and thickness. Some sea fogs are
so shallow and light that the masts of ships can be
seen protruding above them.
Fogs are also formed when cold ocean currents
come into contact with hot desert air as off the Ata-
cama Desert of Peru and Chile (Fig. 13.16).
Generally speaking, fogs are more common over
seas than lands, and are most prevalent over coastal
areas. The dry interiors experience haze or mist.
Dense fogs are more likely to occur in the high and
middle latitudes rather than in the tropics.
(c) a wind vane.
Describe how the above apparatus function and
state what special precautions must be taken
when taking readings from them.
4. Either: Explain the following:
(a) Wind speed at 760 metres (2,500 feet) is
greater than that at the surface.
(b) Britain has no climate, only weather.
(c) Fog is, in fact, cloud at ground level.
Or: Distinguish between:
(a) mist and fog;
(b) cirrus and stratus clouds;
(c) climate and weather.
5. Define any three of the following terms or
phrases, in their relation to weather studies:
(a) mean annual rainfall;
(b) diurnal range of temperature;
(c) Beaufort Scale;
(d) synoptic charts;
(e) isotherms.
Sample Objective Ouestions
1. Which of the following is /acsr 5. The Stevenson Screen is usually C the convergence ofwarm and cold
affected by conditions of local weath- painted white to currents
er2 A absorb maximum incoming solar D differences in the physical reliefof
A a geographical outing energy the earth
B an airport ground control station B reflect as much heat as possible
C military operations in the C allow free circulation of air 9. The velocity of the wind is measured
Mekong Basin D look attractive by
D a chess tournament A a wind vane
6. The Centigrade equivalent of 77"F. B a hygrometer
2. Evaporation is the process by which is C an anemometer
A hot air rises A 15"C D a barogram
B cooling takes place B 20"C
10. Which of the following are consi-
C air becomes saturated c 25'C dered impropel as regards the posi-
D a substance changes from liquid D 30"C
to vapour tion of the school weather station
and the recording of daily readings?
7. The winter temperature of Montreal
3. Pick orrt the incorrec, statement ab- (Canada) is much lower than that of
I The school weather station is sited
next to the Geography Room
out weather and climate. London (England) although they are
A The climate of temperate lati- located in almost the same latitudin-
II The rain gauge stands on the ground
surface
tudes is more variable than that al zones because
of the tropics A Montreal receives Westerlies in
III The wind vane is erected on the roof
B Fogs are most commonly seen at
of the Stevenson Screen
winter
noon when the heat is greatest B its coast is bathed bv the cold
IV Maximum thermometer readings at
C Pressure decreases with increas-
7.30 a.m. are entered in the column
Labrador Current
of the previous day in the Weather
ing altitude C the Gulf Stream brings cold water
Recording Sheet
D When relative humidity is high, in to the St.'Lawrence estuary
V Relative humidity reading at 7.30
the air is moist D it has a continental location
a.m. is entered in the column of the
current day in the Weather Record-
4. The amount of heat received in any
part of the earth's surface is deter- 8. Land and sea breezes are basically ing Sheet
miged mainly by its
caused by A IandIV
A latitude A differential heating between land B I, II and III
B longitude and sea C II, III and V
C relief B temperature variations in summer D I. II. IV and V
and winter
D distance from the sea

t29
Chapter 14 Climate

The Atmosphere t.lz

The atmosphere is made up of gases and vapour, and t?
lm
tI
receives incoming solar energy from the sun giving la
rise to what we call climate. We actually live at the 966
l'
x600
bottom of this indefinite layer of atmosphere where
the air is densest. Higher up, the air thins out and I

it is still a matter of conjecture where tlge atmos- I

phere ends. One estimate puts this limit at about I

966 km (600 miles) above sea-level. The lowest I

layer, in which the weather is conflned, is known as

the troposphere. It extends from the earth's surface
L
t><
lo
for a height of 10 km (6 miles), and within it, tem- IU'
lat
II
perature normally falls with increasing altitude. The lm
climatic elements such as temperature, precipita- lrt
tion, clouds, pressure and humidity within the trop- l-
osphere account for the great variations in local I

climate and weather that play such a great part in I

our daily lives. From analyses taken in different I

parts of the globe, it is found that the lower part of I

250
the atmosphere contains a consistent proportion of
T
certain gases: 78 per cent of nitrogen, 2I per cent of I

oxygen, 0.03 per cent of carbon dioxide and minute I

traces of argon, helium and other rare gases. In lo

lz
addition, it has an unpredictable proportion of IU'
water, existing either as a gas like water vapour, a IT
liquid like rain, clouds and sleet or a solid like snow lm
and hailstones, as well as other solid particles like l#
I

smoke and dust. It is because of the variable water I

content of the atmosphere that we have such great

contrasts in weather and climate over different parts Iuo
of the world. If we were to live in a dry atmosphere, l-
| -.1
absolutely without water, there would be no weather ll
t>
and not even much climate. |-.t
lo
la
Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere or the l!
upper layer of the atmosphere. It extends upwards t+
lm
for another 80 km (50 miles) or even more. It is not lr
only very cold, but cloudless, with extremely thin air l-
and without dust, smoke or water vapour but there T6
l(n J
are marked seasonal temperature changes. Beyond
the stratosphere is the ionosphere which goes 400 km tm :i
(250 miles) up. It has electrically conducting layers
which make short-wave radio transmission possible
l*i
{0 miles
kilometres (Approximate scale)
over long distances. Beyond this up to 965 km (600
miles) is the exosphere and the far reaches of the
universe which contain neither air nor sases and is Fig. 14.1 The extent of the atmosphere and outer space

130
extremely dark (Fig. 14.1). Modern artificial satel-
lites, launched in the upperstrata of the atmosphere,
as well as balloons are used to transmit back to earth
valuable information regarding the conditions of the
atmosphere.

lnsolation
The only source of energy for the earth's atmosphere
comes froin the sun which has a surface temperature
of more than 5 982 "C (10,800 'F). This energy trav-
els through space for a distance of 150 million km
(93 million miles) and reaches us as solar energy or
radiant energy in the process called insolation. This
radiation from the sun is made up of three parts, the
visible 'white' light that we see when the sun shines
and the less visible ultra-violet and infra-red rays.
The visible 'white' light is the most intense and has
the greatest influence on our climate. The ultra-
violet rays affect our skin and cause sun-burn when
our bare body is exposed to them for too long a
period. The infra-red rays can penetrate even dust
and fog and are widely used in photography. Only
that part of the sun's radiation which reaches the
earth is called insolation.
What matters most is the effect of the atmosphere
A
upon the incoming solar radiation. It is estimated
that of the total radiation coming to us, 35 per cent
reaches the atmosphere and is directly reflgcted back
to space by dust, clouds and air molecules. It plays
practically no part in heating the earth and its
atmosphere. Another 14 per cent is absorbed by the Fig. 14.2 Solar insolation (i.e. how the sun's rays reach the
water vapour, carbon dioxide and other gases. Its earth and warms its surface).
interception by the air causes it to be 'scattered'and hand, the opaque nature of land allows greater
'diffused' so that the visible rays of the spectrum absorption but all the radiant heat is concentrated
between the ultra-violet and infra-red give rise to the at the surface, and temperature rises rapidly.
characteristic blue sky that we see above us. The Because of these differences between land and water
remaining 51 per cent reaches the earth and warms surfaces, Iand also cools more quickly than water.
the surface. In turn the earth warms the layers of air
above it by direct contact or conduction, and through
the transmission of heat by upward movement of air
Elements of Climate and Factors
currents or convection. This radiation of heat by the
Affecting Them
earth continues during the night, when insolation Of the various climatic glements, temperature, pre-
from the sun cannot replace it. The earth-surface cipitation, pressure and winds are the most impor-
therefore cools at night (Fig. 14.2). tant because of their far reaching global influences.
The rate of heating differs between land and water These elements and their distribution, whether hor-
surfaces. Lands get heated up much more quickly izontal from equatorial to polar regions, or vertical
than the water. Because water is transparent, heat from ground to atmosphere, are in one way or
is absorbed more slowly and because it is always in another affected by some or all of the climatic fac-
motion, its absorbed heat is distributed over a tors: latitude, altitude, continentality, ocean cur-
greater depth and area. Thus any appreciable rise in rents, insolation, prevailing winds, slope and aspect,
temperature takes a much longer time. On the other natural vegetation and soil.

r31
Temperature
longer drslance

THE IMPORTANCE OF TEMPERATURE

l. Temperature influences the actual amount of sun s .aYs,/solar Insolalron l

water vapour present in the air and thus decides the

moisture-carrying capacity of the air.
2. It decides the rate of evaporation and condensa-
tion, and therefore governs the degree of stability of
the atmosphere.
3. As relative humidity is directly related to the tem-
perature of the air, it affects the nature and types of
cloud formation and precipitation.
FACTORS INFLUENCTNG TEMPERATURE
l. Latitude. As explained in Chapter 1. due to the
earth's inclination, the midday Sun is almost over-
head within the tropics but the Sun's rays reach the
earth at an angle outside the tropics. Temperature
thus diminishes from equatorial regions to the poles.
This is illustrated in Fig. 14.3. It shows two bands
of rays coming from the sun to two different lati-
tudes on the earth's surface. Band R1 falls vertically
over the equatorial latitudes on surface E. Band R2
"l'."Y"' ' "
Fig. 14.3 The effect of latitude on solar insolation' This
shows why temperatures are lower in higher altitudes than
in the trooics.
falls obliquely over the temperate latitudes on sur-
face T. Rl travels through a shorter distance through
the atmosphere and its concentrated solar insolation
heats up a smaller surface area; temperature is thus
high. On the other hand, R2 travels through a longer
distance and much of its heat is absorbed by clouds,
water vapour and dust particles. Its oblique ray has
to heat up a large area; temperature is therefore low
(Figs. 14.4, 14.s. 14.6).

Fig.'14.4 World map showing the distribution of July tem-

peratures (isotherms in both "F. and "C)

d a

23%"N

23Y""5

_t_
I Scale 1 : 215,OOO,OOO

Cold Warm Hot Very hot

oc
oo-1ooc 1 oo-21 21o -2goc Orier 2goC
(32o-bo"F.) (50o-70"F.) (7oo-8soF.) (8s"F.)

132
 6 a

23%"N

ls___
N

I
Scale 1 : 215,OOO,OOO

IIil-"is.
ird;.i
El3'10..
(ts"-gzor.)
Elqlun Ei;i:"n lii.,"..
(32o-€ooF.) (soo-7ooF.)
I::";$.
(7o"-85"F.1 (8s"r'l
- - -
Fig. 14.5 World map showing the distribution of January temperature (isotherms in both "F and'C)

showing mean annual temperature

to

---f-
1

I
Scale 1 : 215,OOO,OOO

8o-1g"c 1g"-30"c
o""r 3ooc (ssoF.l
I r",o* 3oc (soFt [$"-tru"", , rr5o-3s"F.l tss"--Es"r.t !
133

-
=:#:|=y
Fig. 14.7 The lapse rate. The effect of altitude on mean
annual temperature in a tropical area
2. Altitude. Since the atmosphere is mainly heated
by conduction from the earth, it can be expected that
places nearer to the earth's surface are warmerthan
those higher up. Thus temperature decreases with
increasing height above sea-level. This rate of
decrease with altitude (lapse rate) is never constant,
varying from place to place and from season to sea-
son. But for all practical purposes, it may be reck-
oned that a fall of 0.6 'C (1 'F) occurs with an ascent
of 300 feet or 1 "C per L64 metres. It is usually more
in summer than in winter. For example in temperate
latitudes, in summer, an ascent of only 85 metres
(280 feet) will cause the temperature to drop by
0.6'C (1 "F), whereas in winter it requires 122
metres (400 feet). Similarly, the lapse rate is greater
by day than at night, greater on elevated highlands
than on level plains. In tropical countries where the
sea-level temperature is27'C (80 "F), a town that is
located at a height of I 370 metres (4,500 feet)
(shown as X in Fig. I4.7) will record a mean tem-
perature of 18'C (65 "F).
3. Continentality. Land surfaces are heated more
quickly than water surfaces, because of the higher
specific heat of water. In other words, it requires
only one-third as much energy to raise the temper-
ature of a given volume of land by 0.6 'C (1 'F) as
it does for an equal volume of water. This accounts
for the warmer summers, colder winters and greater
range of temperature of continental interiors as
compared with maritime districts (Fig. la.8).
4. Ocean currents and winds. Both ocean currents
and winds affect temperature by transporting their
134
,,
..liiHiT,",
,,ili*rr15t,no-
.r,r,lr,*., iti""t a\ ingrto,
warm orevarlrno wind i.
,: summer 21"C {70-F.}
-/ winter -2"c l21"r.l
2g"c l42"r.l
manlrme clrmate continenlal climate
Fig. 14.8 The warming effect of warm ocean currents and
prevailing winds on coastal regions with a Maritime climate
in temperate latitudes
heat or coldness into adjacent regions (Fig. ta.8).
Ocean currents like the Gulf Stream or the North
Atlantic Drift warm the coastal districts of western
Europe keeping their ports ice-free. Ports located in
the same latitude but washed by cold currents, such
as the cold Labrador Current off north-east Canada,
are frozen for several months.
Cold currents also lower the summer temperature,
particularly when they are carried landwards by on-
shore winds. On the other hand on-shore Westerlies,
convey much tropical warm air to temperate coasts,
especially in winter. The Westerlies that come to
Britain and Norway tend to be cool winds in summer
and warm winds in winter and are most valuable in
moderating the climate.
Local winds, e.g. Fcihn, Chinook, Sirocco, Mis-
tral, also produce marked changes in temperature.
5. Slope, shelter and aspect. A steep slope experi-
ences a more rapid change in temperature than a
gentle one. Mountain ranges that have an east-west
alignment like the Alps show a higher temperature
on the south-facing'sunny slope'than the north-fac-
ing 'sheltered slope'. The greater insolation of the
southern slope is better suited for vine cultivation
Fig. 14.9 South-facing slopes are more sunny than north-
facing slopes

warm.
calm air
Fig. 14.10 Temperature inversion at valley bottom on
calm, still night e.g. an Alpine valley in spring
and has a more flourishing vegetative cover. Con-
sequently, there are more settlements and it is better
utilized than the 'shady slope' (Fig. 14.9). In hilly
areas a hot day followed by a calm, cloudless night
during which the air cools more rapidly over the
higher ground may induce cold, heavy air to flow
down the slope and accumulate at the valley bottom
pushing the warmer air upwards. The temperature
may then be lower in the valley than higher up the
slopes as shown in Fig. 14.10. A reversal of the lapse
rate has taken place. This is called a temperature
inversion.
6. Natural vegetation and soil. There is a definite
difference in temperature between forested regions
and open ground. The thick foliage of the Amazon
jungle cuts off much of the in-coming insolation, and
in many places sunlight never reaches the ground.
Fig. 14.11 The effect of cloud cover on temperature
It is, in fact, cool in the jungle and its shade temper-
ature is a few degrees lower than,that of open spaces
in corresponding latitudes. During the day trees lose
water by evapo-transpiration so that the air above
is cooled. Relative humidity increases and mist and
fog may form.
Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils
which are better absorbers. Such soil differences
may give rise to slight variations in the temperature
of the region.
As a whole, dry soils like sand are very sensitive
to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay,
retain much moisture and warm up or cool down
a
more slowly.
7. Cloud cover. Clouds, especially thick cumulus and
stratus clouds affect the temperature of a place by
absorbing the incoming solar insolation in the day,
and blanketing the out-going radiated heat of the
earth as illustrated in Fig. 14.11(a) and (b). This
partly explains why day temperatures in equatorial
regions with their thick layer clouds are never
unbearable, while that of the cloudless deserts expe-
rience scorching heat of over 49 "C (l2O "F). For sim-
ilar reasons, the equatorial regions do not have cold
nights (since much of the radiated heat from the
ground is reflected back by the thick clouds above),
while the cloudless sky of the deserts results in nights
of extreme cold of as low as 13 "C (55 "F). The
radiated heat from the desert is reflected back to
space, almost uninterrupted. It is, therefore, not sur-
prising that the diurnal range of temperature (i.e.
the difference between the hottest hour of the dav
135
and the coldest hour of the nighy'morning) of deserts
is twice or thrice as gre.at as that of the cloudy
equatorial regions (Fig. 1a.11).

Precipitation
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
If air is sufficiently cooled below dew-point, tiny
drops of water vapour will condense around dust par-
ticles. When they float about as masses of minute
water droplets or ice crystals at a considerable height
above sea-level, they form clouds-cirrus, cumulus or
stratus. When condensation occurs at ground level
without necessarily resulting in rain, haze, mist or
fog are formed. In higher latitudes or altitudes,
where condensation of water vapour may take place Fig.'14.12 Convectional rainfall
in the atmosphere at temperatures below freezing-
point, snow falls, either as feathery flakes or individ- panied by thunder and lightning. The summer show-
ual ice crystals. If the moist air ascends rapidly to ers in temperate regions are equally heavy with
the cooler layers of the atmosphere, the water drop- occasional thunderstorms. These downpours may
lets freeze into ice pellets and fall to the earth as hail not be entirely useful for agriculture because the rain
or hailstones. As more and more super-cooled water is so intense that it does not sink into the soil but is
drops accumulate around a hailstone, it increases drained off almost immediately.
steadily in size; some of them weigh as much as a 2. Orographic or relief rain. Unlike convectional
kilogram (2 lb). In a severe hailstorm the hailstones rain which is caused by convection currents, oro-
do great damage to crops and buildings. Very often, graphic rain is formed wherever moist air is forced
the ice-pellets exist as frozen raindrops, melting and to ascend a mountain barrier. It is best developed
refreezing on their way down; this forms sleet. It is on the windward slopes of mountains where the pre-
only when the droplets in clouds coalesce into larger vailing moisture-laden winds come from the sea. The
drops between 0.2 mm and 6 mm (0.008 and air is compelled to rise as shown in Fig. 14.13 and
0.24 in) that rain falls. is thereby cooled by expansion in the higher altitudes
and the subsequent decrease in atmospheric pres-
sure. Further ascent cools the air until the air is com-
Rainfall pletely saturated (relative humidity is 100 per cent).
TYPES OF RAINFALL Condensation takes place forming clouds and even-
There are three major types of rainfall. tually rain. Since it is caused by the relief of the land,
1. Convectional rainfall. This type of rainfall is most it is also known as relief rain. Much of the precipi-
common in regions that are intensely heated, either tation experienced on the windward slopes of the
during the day, as in the tropics, or in the summer,
as in temperate interiors. When the earth's surface Fig. 14.13 Orographic or relief rain
is heated by conduction, moisture-laden vapour rises
because heated air always expands, and becomes
lighter. Air rises in a convection current after a pro-
longed period of intense heating (Fig. 1a.12). In
ascending, its water vapour condenses into cumu-
lonimbus clouds with a great vertical extent. This
probably reaches its maximum in the afternoon when
the convectional system is well developed. Hot, ris-
ing air has great capacity for holding moisture, which
is abundant in regions of high relative humidity. As
the air rises, it cools and when saturation point is
reached, torrential downpours occur, often accom-

136
 N
O 100 200 miles
6 160

TASMAN SEA
32O km

t r8m

914

Fig. 14.14(b) A section across South lsland, New Zealand,

from Westland to Canterbury Plain (A to B),showing heavy
NORTH orographic rain (over 2540 mm/l00 inches) on the windward
ISLAND slopes, with the rain-shadow area on the leeward side
western slopes of the Northern and Central Andes
and in many other areas (Fig. l4.t4a and b).
3. Cyclonic or frontal rain. This type of rainfall is
\ Westland [/lore than 2 540 mm independent of relief or convection. It is purely asso-
(1 00")
1270-2 540 mm
ciated with cyclonic activity whether in temperate
(50-100") regions (depressions) or tropical regions (cyclones).
762-1 27O mm Basically it is due to the convergence (meeting)
(30_50")
Less than 762 mm
of two different air masses with different temper-
(30") atures and other physical properties. As cold air is
Prevailing wind denser, it tends to remain close to the ground. The
warm air is lighter and tends to rise over the
Fig. 14.14(a) Rainfall distribution in New Zealand cold air as shown in Fig. 14.15. In ascent, pressure
decreases, the air expands and cools, condensation
north-east of Peninsular Malaysia, western New takes place and light showers called cyclonic or fron-
Zealand,western Scotland and Wales and the Assam tal rain occur. The heavier and colder air masses
Hills of India and Bangladesh is relief rain. eventually push up the warmer and lighter air and
On descending the leeward slope, a decrease in the sky is clear again. Cyclonic rain tends to occur
altitude increases both the pressure and the temper- when cyclonic activity is greatest, e.g. when the
ature, the air is compressed and warmed. Conse- swing of the climatic belts bring a region into the belt
quently, the relative humidity will drop. There is of the stormy westerlies in the temperate regions. It
evaporation and little or no precipitation. The area also occurs when there is marked temperature differ-
in the lee of the hills is termed the rain-shadow area. ence between two different types of air masses in
The effects of rain-shadow are felt on the Canter- temperate regions, e.g. between the Arctic and the
bury Plain of South Island, New Zealand and the continental air masses.

Fig. 14.15 Cyclonic or frontal rain (depression)

(a) The convergence of warm and (b) Warm air rises over cold air, (c) Cold air eventually pushes up
cold air cyclonic rain occurs warm air and the sky is cleai again

warm
front

warm
front

ffi I
""1,rl,t;:.iii.i.:v#u
warm alr rlslng /

:l!:Jf : r:j +::-:i!::: .l

occluded lront

-)
t37
 Lightning and Thunder
One often wonders what causes lightning and thun-
der during a thunderstorm.
A thunderstorm occurs when the ground is greatly
heated on a hot afternoon causing strong currents of
air to expand and contract between the flat bottom
5r and the anvil top of the cumulonimbus thunder
clouds. As rain droplets fall through such cumulon-
imbus clouds (with a vertical extent of 6 100 metres
(20,000 feet) or more), they are charged with elec-
tricity, producing flashes of lightning when the pos-
itive top of the cloud is attracted to the negative
bottom (Fig. 1a.16). Such flashes of electric cur-
rents sets giant air waves in motion which reach us a
few moments later as roars of thunder.

Pressure and Planetary Winds

Fig. 14.16 Lightning and thunder during a thunderstorm
World pressure belts. We studied in Chapter 12 the
circolation of waters in the oceans and noted that
they follow a regular pattern, flowing from the poles
equatorwards and from the equator polewards. In
the same wav. there is also a circulation of air over

Fig. 14.17 World map showing mean annual rainfall

MODERATE LIGHT VERY LIGHT

" E
VERY WET WET
Less than 25O mm
Over 1 500 mm
(60") %ix:;,,.500mm Eiffl3si.'" ffiffi?'T-;'.q ( 10")

138
 ll*l,iln'Hl"fril"rrain fifflllllHl;::iiffil'' ELittrerain Ttraaewinos fiwesterries
Fig. 14.18 World map showing seasonal distribution of rain
the surface of the earth caused by the differences in
pressure.
Along the equator and within 5 degrees north and
south, is the Equatorial Low Pressure Belt, where
there is intense heating, with expanding air and
ascending convection currents. This equatorial belt
is often termed the Doldrums, because sailors in the
olden days often found themselves becalmed here,
It is a zone of wind convergence.
About 30" N and S occur the Sub-Tropical High
Pressure Belts where the air is comparatively dry
and the winds are calm and light. It is a region of
descending air currents or wind divergence and
anticyclones. It is frequently referred to as the Horse
Latitudes (Fig. 14. l9).
Around the latitudes 60" N and S are two Tem-
perate Low Pressure Belts which are also zones of
convergence with cyclonic activity. The sub-polar
low pressure areas are best developed over the
oceans, where temperature differences between
summer and winter are negligible.
At the North and South Poles 90" N and S where
temperatures are permanently low, are the Polar
High Pressure Belts. Unlike the water masses of
the high latitudes in the southern hemisphere, high
pressures of the corresponding latitudes in the north-
139
ern hemisphere are a little complicated by the pres-
ence of much land. Some pressure differences be-
tween summer and winter can be expected.
The planetary winds. Within this pattern of per-
manent pressure belts on the globe, winds tend to
blow from the high pressure belts to the low pressure
belts as the planetary winds. Instead of blowing
directly from one pressure belt to another, however,
the effect of the rotation of the earth (Coriolis Force)
tends to deflect the direction of the winds. In the
northern hemisphere, winds are deflected to their
right, and in the southern hemisphere to their left
as shown in Fig. 14.19. This is known as Ferrel's
Law of Deflection. The Coriolis Force is absent along
the equator but increases progressively towards the
poles.
For this reason, winds blowing out from the Sub-
Tropical High Pressure Belt in the northern hemi-
sphere towards the Equatorial Low become North-
East Trade Winds and those in the southern hemis-
phere become the South-East Trade Winds. These
trade winds are the most regular of all the planetary
winds. They blow with great force and in a constant
direction. They were thus helpful to early traders
who depended on the wind when sailing the high
seas; hence the name 'trade winds'. Since they blow
 North Pole

v/
Hiqhh

asceno lng a
-+-
,+l
t t/\
liil,Fi,iiiii:jtltll iTempe;aie Lo*iii$itii:#:ii:#iiii
olar

60"N
Easl eiltes

/ r t I I I \ S outh-Westerlies (variable)

descend i ng 30"N
tHorle Laiiirles iri...:;-

I
ascending at(
a
I I
l
lA
P p: g ry..r"r.itiiifi
/
:i:*iiliffi iiXt
North- East Trade Winds

0
l+
I
t- \ \ \\ \ South- East Trade Winds
descending alr q,.P, i-;etiial r-i i9 ri r H'o?bb'r-ititygg:ii:.::i:i'i:iit1:i;; 30"s
'.iii,,l;..n

\\ \\
a-
:end i ng irQ- \
\t
\\
\Ei:.
Fig. 14.19 The distribution of world pressure belts and
planetary winds
from the cooler sub-tropical latitudes to the warmer
tropics, they have great capacity for holdin! mois-
ture. In their passage across the open oceans, they
gather more moisture and bring heavy rainfall to the
east coasts of continents within the tropics. As they
are off-shore on the west coast, these regions suffer
from great aridity and form the Trade Winds Hot
Deserts of the world, e.g. the Sahara, Kalahari,
Atacama and the Great Australian Deserts.
From the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts, winds
blow towards the Temperate Low Pressure Belts as
the variable Westerlies. Under the effect of the Cor-
iolis Force, they become the South-Westerlies in the
northern hemisphere and the North-Westerlies in
the southern hemisphere. They are more variable in
the northern hemisphere, but they play a valuable
role in carrying warm equatorial waters and winds
to western coasts of temperate lands. This warming
effect and other local pressure differences have
resulted in a very variable climate in the temperate
zones, dominated by the movements of cyclones and
anticyclones. In the southern hemisphere where
there is a large expanse of ocean, from 40" S to 60" S,
westerlies blow with much greater force and regu-
larity throughout the year. They bring much precip-
itation to the western coasts of continents. The
\ \ \ North-Westerlies (variable)
60"lS
rlar Earsterlres
\ \./,
Polar Hrgh:.jjjP
South Pole
weather is damp and cloudy and the seas are violent
and stormy. It is thus usual for seafarers to refer to
the Westerlies as the Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties
and Shrieking or Stormy Sixties, according to the
varying degree of storminess in the latitudes in which
they blow.
It must be pointed out that not all the western
coasts of the temperate zone receive Westerlies
throughout the year. Some of them like California,
Iberia. central Chile. southern Africa and south-
western Australia receive Westerlies only in winter.
This is caused by the 'shifting of the wind belts' of
such regions which lie approximately between the
latitudes 30o and 40o N and S. Due to the earth's
inclination, as explained in Chapter 1, the sun is
overhead at midday in different parts of the earth at
different seasons. The entire system of pressure and
wind belts follows the movement of the midday sun.
In June, when the overhead sun is over the Tropic
of Cancer, all the belts move about 5o-10o north of
their average position. The 'Mediterranean'parts of
the southern continents then come under the
influence of the Westerlies and receive rain in June
(winter in the southern hemisphere). In the same
manner, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of
Capricorn in December, all the belts swing 5o-10o

140
 shrflrng ol wrnd belt In temperate latrtude
30 N. ro 40'N
40'N
<#* 30'N
a'"
i ,ii+r;i ffihiTFEn:T
/ :liil pressure:iliiii:i
4(d"
x'
EfF-"trr---Er- if,
summer
(June)
normal posilion
(March and september)
Fig. 14.20 The shifting of the pressure and wind belts in the
northern hemisphere-showing their position in summer and
winter and at the equinoxes
south of their average position. The 'Mediterra-
nean' parts of Europe and California then come
under the influence of the Westerlies and receive
rain in December (winter in the northern hemi-
sphere). This is illustrated in Fig. 14.20.
Lastly, mentiorl must be made of the Polar Eas-
terlies which blow out from the Polar High Pressure
Belts towards the Temperate Low Pressure Belts.
These are extremely cold winds as they come from
the tundra and ice-cap regions. They are more reg-
ular in the south than in the north.
Land and Sea Breezes
and Monsoons
Land and sea breezes are, in fact, monsoons on a
smaller scale. Both are basically caused by differ-
ential heating of land and sea, the former in a diurnal
rhythm and the latter in a seasonal rhythm.
During the day, the land gets heated up much
faster than the sea. Warm air rises forming a region
of local low pressure. The sea remains comparatively
cool with a higher pressure so a sea breeze blows in
from sea to land. Its speed or strength is between
8-32 km.p.h. (5-20 m.p.h.) and it is generally
Fig. 14.21(a) Sea breeze (day)
stronger in tropical than temperate regions. Its influ-
D
40'N
ence does not normally exceed 25 km (15 miles)
from the coast. It is most deeply felt when one stands
facing the sea in a coastal resort.
Westerlrer
At night the reverse takes place. As the land cools
30"N
in wrnter
i\3
. onlv
down much faster than the sea, the cold and heavy
air produces a region of local high pressure. The sea
a"
\ conserves its heat and remains quite warm. Its pres-
sure is comparatively low. A land breeze thus blows
tt' out from land to sea. Fishermen in the tropics often
take advantage of the out-going land breeze and sail
out with it. They return the next morning with
ro#JL[",1 the incoming sea breeze, complete with their catch.
Land and sea breezes are illustrated in Fig. 14.21(a)
and (b).
In the same way, monsoons are caused. Ra-
pid heating in the hot summer over most parts of
India for example induces heated air to rise. The
South-West Monsoon from the surrounding ocean is
attracted by the low pressure over the land and
blows in, bringing torrential rain to the sub-conti-
nent.
Sirnilarly in winter when the land is cold, the sur-
rounding seas remain comparatively warm. High
pressure is created over Indo-Pakistan and the
North-East Monsoon blows out from the continent
into the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal
(Fig. 16.2a and b).
Frihn Wind or Ghinook Wind
Both the Fohn and Chinook winds are dry winds
experienced on the leeward side of mountains when
descending air becomes compressed with increased
pressure. The Frihn wind is experienced in the val-
leys of the northern Alps, particularly in Switzerland
in spring. Chinook winds are experienced on the
eastern slopes of the Rockies in the U.S.A. and
Canada in winter.
As illustrated in Fig. 14.13 air ascending the
southern slopes of the Alps expands and cools. Con-
Fig. 1a.21{b) Land breeze (night)
*---\)
t HP LP|
r41
densation takes place when the air is saturated. Rain
and even snow fall on the higher slopes.
In descending the northern slope, the wind expe-
riences an increase in pressure and temperature. The
air is compressed and warmed. Most of its moisture
is lost and the wind reaches the valley bottom as a
dry, hot wind-the Fohn. It may raise the tempera-
ture by 8'to L7'C (15 o to 30 "F), within an hour! It
melts snow and causes avalanches.In North Amer-
ica it is called Chinook, meaning 'the snow-eater'.
But it has its blessings too, it hastens the growth of
crops and fruits and thaws the snow-covered pas-
tures. In the Rockies, the Chinook has been known
to raise temperature by 19 "C (35 "F) within 15 min-
utes! The occurrence of frequent Chinooks means'
winter is mild.
Cyclonic Activity
TROPICAL CYCLONES, TYPHOONS. HURRICANES AND
TORNADOES
All these are different kinds of tropical cyclone.
They are well developed low pressure system into
which violent winds blow. Typhoons occur in the
China Sea; tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean;
hurricanes in the West Indian islands in the Carib-
bean; tornadoes in the Guinea lands of West Africa,
and the southern U.S.A. in which the local name of
Whirl-wind is often applied, and willy-willies occur
in north-western Australia.
14.A Tropical storm Judy off South-East Asia Royal
Observatory Hong Kong
142
Typhoons occur mainly in regions between 6o and
20' north and south of the equator and are most fre-
quent from July to October. In extent, they are
smaller than temperate cyclones and have a diam-
eter of only 80 to 320 km (50 to 200 miles), but they
have a much steeper pressure gradient. Violent
winds with a velocity of over 160 km.p.h.
(100 m.p.h.) are common. The sky is overcast and
the torrential downpour is accompanied by thunder
and lightning (Plate 14.A). In the wake of the
typhoon, damage is widespread, e.g. in 1922, a
typhoon that hurled huge waves on to the Shantou
(Swatow) coast drowned 50 000 people. Similar
damage occurs in other typhoon-prone areas of the
South China Sea as in Hong Kong (Plate 14.8).
The other tropical cyclones have similar charac-
teristics and differ, perhaps, only in intensity, dura-
tion and locality. Hurricanes have calm, rainless
centres where the pressure is lowest (about 965 mb)
but around this 'eye', the wind strength exceeds
force 12 of the Beaufort Scale (120 km.p.h./
75 m.p.h.) (Fig. M.22). Dense dark clouds gather
and violent stormy weather lasts for several hours.
A terrible hurricane struck Barbados in the West
Indies in 1780, which nearly destroyed the whole is-
land, tearing down buildings and uprooting trees.
About 6 000 inhabitants were reported dead.
Tornadoes are small but very violent tropical and
sub-tropical cyclones in which the air is spiralling at
a tremendous speed of as much as 800 km.p.h.
14.8 Chaos caused by a typhoon in Hong Kong Govern-
ment lnformation Services Hong Kong

Fig. 14.22 A tropical cyclone-a hurricane in the West Indies
(500 m.p.h.)! A tornado appears as a dark funnel
ctoud 75 to 425 metres (250 to 1,400 feet) in diam-
eter. As a tornado passes through a region, it writhes
and twists, causing complete devastation within the
limits of its passage. There is such a great difference
in pressure that houses virtually explode. Tornadoes
are most frequent in spring but can occur at almost
any time. Fortunately they are not common in many
countries and their destructive effects are confined
to a small area. Tornadoes are most typical of the
U.S.A. and occur mainly in the Mississippi basin.
Other local winds are described in Chapters 19 and
2t.
Cyclones. These are better known as depressions and
are confined to temperate latitudes. The lowest pres-
sure is in the centre and the isobars, as shown in cli-
matic charts, are close together. Depressions vary
from 240 to 3 200 km (150 to 2,000 miles) in extent.
They remain quite stationary or move several
hundred kilometres in a day. The approach of a
cyclone is characterized by a fall in barometric read-
ing, dull sky, oppressive air and strong winds. Rain
143
Fig. 14.231al. A cyclone in the northern hemisphere (close
isobars, anti-clockwise winds)
Fig. 14.23(b) An anticyclone in the northern hemisphere
(well-spaced isobars, winds blow in clockwise direction)
or snow falls and the weather is generally bad.
Winds blow inwards into regions of low pressure in
the centre, circulating in anticlockwise direction in
the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the south-
ern hemisphere (Fig. 14.23a). Precipitation resulting
from cyclonic activities.is due to the convergence of
warm tropical air and cold polar air. Fronts are
developed and condensation takes place, forming
either rain, snow or sleet (Fig. 1.4.24).
Anticyclones. These are the opposite of cyclones,
with high pressure in the centre and the isobars far
apart. The pressure gradient is gentle and winds are
light. Anticyclones normally herald fine weather.
Skies are clear, the air is calm and temperatures are
high in summer but low in winter. In winter intense
cooling of the lower atmosphere may result in thick
fogs. Anticyclonic conditions may last for days or
weeks and then fade out quietly. Winds in anticy-
clones blow outwards and are also subject to deflec-
tion, but they blow clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hem-
isphere (Figs. 14.23b and 14.25).
Glimatic Types and Natural Vegetation
It is necessary to divide the world into several
climatic zones, each with its own climatic charact-
eristics, natural vegetation (forest, grasslands
or deserts), crops, animals and human activities.
Though the geographical characteristics may not be
absolutely uniform in each climatic type, they have
many things in common. Fig. 1.4.26 gives the scheme
of the world's climatic types with their seasonal rain-
fall and natural vegetation. Fig. 1'4.27 gives a
comprehensive summary of their various salient
features.
Fig. 14.24 World climatic types and natural vegetation
No, Climate Zone No Climatic Type Sel€ctod Annual Period of Prodominant Prevailing Local Moan Mid Mid
& Latitudo Station Precipita Maxi- Type of Winds Winds Annnal Summsr Winte;
lapproximatef (Country) tion mum Rainfall Tem- Tem- Tsm-
(approxi-
matel (approxi- (approx (approx- (approx
matel irirate) imatel imatbl

A Equatorial I Hot, wet Kuala 2 413 mm All year Convectional N.E. Trader
Zone
27oc 27.1"C 26"c
Equatorial Lumpur (95 inches) ro u ncl (N.E., S.W. (8oor.) (81-F.) (79"F.
(Malavsia) (with
o-10'| Monsoon)
double
maxrma
April &
Octoberl

B Hot Zone 2. Tropical Bombay 1 829 mm Summer Monsoonal Dry N.E. Hurri- 27"C 30"c 24"c
1 o-30'l Monsoon (l ndia) (72 inches) Monsoon canes (8ooF.) (86oF.) (76oF.)
(Winter)
Wet S.W.
Monsoon
(Summer)

3. Tropical Kano 864 mm Summer Convectional N.E. Trades Harmat- 21"c 32"c 22"c
Continental (Nigeria) (34 inches) (89"F.)
tan {7ooF.) 1.72"F.)
lSudan typel

4. Hot D6€rt Massawa 150 mm I rregular Thunder- Simooms 32"c 35"c 26"p
(Ethiopia) (5'9 inches storm (87"F.) (950F.) (78-F.)

c Warm 5. Western Rome 838 mm Winter Cyclonic Westerlies Sirocco I 6"c 24"c 7oc
Tomp€rato Margin {Peni n- (33 inches) (in winterl Mistral (60oF.) (760F.) (45"F.)
Zono lMeditera- sular ltaly)
nean Typel
30-40'$

6. Cmtral Winnipeg 508 mm Summer Convectional Chinook 2"c tgoc

(Central (20 inches) -2o"c
Continental (35oF.) (66oF.) (-4"r.)
(Stepp€ Type Canada)

144
Mean Brief Description Graph Natural Vogetation Typical Vcgvotion Scene
Annual of Climato VegBtation Characteristics Speies
Tom-
perature
Range
{approx-
imate)

oc
1.1 High uniform Equatorial Eyergreen broad- Mahogany, maranti,
e"r.l temperature, and Rain For6t leavgd trses of chengal. ebony,
heavy, well dis- luxuriant greenheart, orchids,
tributed rainfall growth-layer lalang
throughout ths arrangement-
year-no distinct many speci€s-
seasons little under-
growtn

5.50C Concentrated Tropical More open Teak, sal, sandal-

(1 ooF.) neavy summer ''
Monsoon forest with wood, bamboo,
esuarina
/

rain. rest of the Forost bamboo thickets

year hot and dry, iT%
.':i
decidoous trees-
denser under-
with three %.
;.:
-F

growth
distinct seasons %.
:,' tffi"

9"c^ Wet summer and Savanna 'Parkland'or Baobab trees, acacias

(1 7-F.) dry winter-hot
days and cool
,'-1---:-,ii
.,:.,!,
Tropical
Grassland
'bush-veld' land"
scapes with
mulga, mallee
(Australia)
n ights-moderate I' tall grass and
rainfal I scatterecl trees-
deciduous in
nature

g"c Very hot and Hot D6ert Very sparse Cacti, lhorn bushes,
(l 70F.) dry all year round ,---i1l::{;: vegetation ol date palms
a -"n
with occasional i .. ,..:. xerophtic
plants (drought-
thunderstorms- :: l' resisting)-thorny
nights are cold
scrubs & bushes

Winter rain, Meditorra- Transitional Cork oak {Med.

17"c summer drought- n€an vegetation- Europe) Jarrah &
(3 j "F.) Forsst & evergreen tree$, Karri, (S.W.
on-shore westerlies
in winter, off-shor( Shrub6 Mediterranean Australia); Cedar &
trades in summer shrubs, wiry Sequoia (Californial
grass and semi- Shrub: oleander,
arid scrubs laurel, myrtle,
(maquis, chapparal,
etc.)

40oc Continental Stoppo Rolling grass- Tall Prairie grass,

(70"F.) extremes of Temperate land-treeless, short 'steppe'grass
climate-cold Grassland Appearance &
winters, hot quality of grass
summer (with change with the
light summer seasons-green,
rain) brown, decay

r45
No. ]limate Zone No. Iimatic Type Serecred Annual Period of Piedominanl Prwailing Lcsl tlean Mid Mid
I Latitude Station Procipita Maxi- Type of Winds Winds \nnual Summer Winbr
(Country) tion mum Rainfall fem- Tom- Tom-
(approxi- Rainfall
mats) (approxi- approri (approxi- lapproxi
matel natol matel matol

7 Eastern Nanking 1 067 mm Summer Monsoonal S.E. Trades T yphoor 16"c 27"c 2"c
Margin (Central (42 inches) S.E. Mon- H urri- {600F.) (81"F.) (36"F.)
lChina Type) China) soon cane
Tornado

D Cool 8. W6storn London 610 mm Autumn Cyclonic Westerlies l6"c 17"C 4oc
Tomporato Margin (England) (24 inches ano (60"F.) {63oF.) (39"F.)
Zone (Britbh Winter
45-65'l Type)

9. Contral Moscow 533 mm 4"c

Summer Convectional Buron 1g"c -1 1"c
Continontal (Western (21 inches) (39oF.) (66oF.) ( 1 20F.)
(Siberian U.S.S.R.)
Typel

10. Eastarn New York 1 041 mm All year Cyclonic Easterly 10c 23oc
Margin (41 inches)
1 -1oc
(Eastern rouno (s2oF.) 1o4"F.l (310F.)
(Laurantian U.S.A.} (more
Typel rain in
summer)

E Cold Zon€ 11 Arctic Polar Uper- 231 mm rregular Cyclonic Polar lizzards 5oc
(Tundral
I
(more
B
-8.p"c (41"F.)
-22"c
(-8oF.)
65-eo"$ navi k {9.1 inches} Easterlies 117'F.l
(Green- rain in
land) winter)

F Alpine 12. Alpine Pike's 762 mm rregular Orographic All on- Fohn/
I
-7oc 4"c -E.6"c
Zone (Mountain) Peak (30 inches) shore winds Chinook (190 F. (4ooF.l
(Mountain
) Q-F.I
(u.s.A.- or
ranges, Rockies, local winds
4 300 m/
14,111feer

t46
UIEAN Brisf Doscription Graph Natural Vogatation Typical vsgptation Scene
Annual of Climate Vegetation Characteristics
Tom- Sp*i€s
PeTatu r9
Range
(approxi-
matel

25oc
(45"F.)
Warm, wet
summer ano
Walm
Temp€rato
Deciduous broad.
leaved forest on
Evergreen oak,
camphor, magnolia,
-n'"*-i.*{i-'i
cold, dry Mixed lowlands, coni- maple, mulberry,
winters. Typhoonl Forest ferous forests cypress, eucalyptus
affect coastal on mountains, {Australia)
areas bamboo thickets

13" L Warm summers Deciduous Broad-leaved Oak, elm, poplar,

(24" F .l and mild winters Forest deciduous trees- chestnut, maple,
with 4 distinct leaves fall in willow, ash, birch,
seasons-variable autumn-open & beech
weather woodland-sparse
undergrowth

3ooc Cool, brief Coniferous Evergreen coni- Pine, fir, spruce and
(54" F.) summer, lon9 For6t ferous forests- larch (a hardy
bitterly cold conical shaped- deciduous tree found
winter with slim straight with conifers)
light summer trunks, needle-
rain shaped leaves,
little under-
growth

24"c Warm summer Cool Deciduous forests Oak, maple, cedar,

{43oF.) and cool winter Temperate on lowlands and pine, fir, cypress
with a fairly Mixed evergreen conr- and larch
well-distributed For6t ferous forests
rainfall-in on uplands with
drizzles moderate under-
growth & ferns

27"C Cool. brief Tundra Little vegetation- Lichens, mosses,

(49"F.) summer, long (Cold mosses and lichens sedges, bilberry
severely cold Oes€rtl with dwarfed bushes
winter with \.1 stunted trees-
very light frozen snow.
precipitation covered ground
most of the time

2i"c Temperatures Alpine Alpine or moun- Snow-covered ground

(380F.) decreases with (Mountainl tain vegetation is above snow.line-
increased similar to that of alpine pasturage,
altitude. Rain- tundra vegetation, mosses and ferns
fall varies mosses, lichens,
with altitude, ferns, and stunted
aspect and Irees
location

147
 90'
*:i$!'sl9l9r:sql9|1:' li{Pgrii:.::':ii:::
COLD ZONE hurrlr;r ve:c1t:l.itrott loscs, ichens

Arctic Circle,
65" N
Central Continent Ercnth il&rgin...
Sib€rirn lype .l-iubntirn trPP.,, .,. .,,
cooL
TEMPERATE ev{-rrqreen
ZONE cofllero!s
forests

Srrppc type
ffii ;*i 45'N

;ru
WARM Slill)l)c terlrl)erall,
TEMPERATE gr asslan(:l

ZONE
ilfl.m 7;,;,t*a'"'rYi66 30" N
Tropic of Cancur
N
231'N
----'-;ff"-;rd----'
::.::Hniidifiiit M06ppqul typr
savanna, troptcitl
HOT ZONE 4lfiE3i grdssl.rnd dffisc
llflGigDl rllorrsOorl Rain all year round
lllllf{ltr ro,",,' Summer Bain
fltJw*,n,*,, itrli:lpfiltL*. Winter Rain
t 0'N
Little Rain at any time
EOUATORIAL

ffi..ii'':::r:i'::::,'
Climale Types written in black
ZONE
Natural Veg€tation

Fig. 14.25 A simplified Scheme of

the World's Climatic Types and
Natural Vegetation

Ouestions and Exercises

1. There are many ways in which rain may be 4. Distinguish the differences between:
caused. Name any three of them and with the (a) troposphere and stratosphere;
aid of annotated diagrams, describe how each (b) steady Trade Winds and variable Wester-
of them occurs. lies;
2. Attempt to explain the role played by temper- (c) insolation and radiation;
ature in climate. What are the various factors (d) tornado and hurricane.
that affect the distribution of temperature in the 5. Explain any three of the following:
world? (a) anticyclones;
3. Account for the occurrence of any three of the (b) temperature inversion:
following. Make use of any relevant sketches: (c) Roaring Forties;
(a) the planetary winds; (d) lapse rate;
(b) land and sea breezes; (e) Ferrel's Law of Deflection
(c) frontal rain;
(d) lightning and thunder;
(e) Horse Latitudes.

148
Sample Objective Ouestions
1. What causes strong winds to blow?
in
A Differences temPerature be-
tween two places
B The existence of a steep pressure
gradient
C A strong relief feature
D The rotation of the earth
2. Make a careful study of Fig. 13.16
on page 123 which is an extract of a
synoptic chart showing cyclonic con-
ditions in winter in Europe. Which
of the following descriptions about
its weather condition is no, true?
A The centre of Low Pressure is off
north-west Scotland
B Cyclonic rain occurs in most parts
of Scotland
C The temperature in Wales is well
below freezing-point
D The Mediterranean parts of
Europe have fine weather
3. Read this description:'...a violent
storm that comes suddenly as a dark
funnel cloud, spiralling at a
tremendous speed of as much as
800 km/h or 500 m.p.h. It writhes
and twists its way through a small
area, causing houses and trees to be
exploded almost instantaneously,
often accompanied by torential
downpour of rain. . .'. This is an apt
description of
A a typhoon
B a hurricane
C the Harmauan
D a tomado
4. The sun's rays warm the land and
water surfaces, but land warms up
more quickly than water because
A of the greater rate of absorption
on an opaque surface
B there is no radiation
C heat is rapidly distributed
D land has a higher specific heat
5. The temperature at the top of a hill
station in an equatorial region is
15'C (59"F.). Estimate its approxi-
mate altitude above sea-level.
A lower than 1830 metres (6,000
feet)
B between 1 830 and 2 440 metres
(6,000-8,000 feet)
C between 2 440 and 3 050 metres
(8,000-10,000 feet)
D above 3 050 metres (10,000 feeQ
6. Which of the following statements is
incorrect?
A Temperature governs the degree
of stability of the atmosPhere
B Temperature influences the mois-
ture-carrying caPacitY of the air
C TemPerature affects the forma-
tion of cloud tYPes
D TemPerature changes the direc-
tion of planetarY winds
7. Which of the following geographical
regions of the world does not receive
rain all year round?
A eastern coastlands of the U.S.A.
B South-East Asia
C continental U.S.S.R.
D the Guinea coast of West Africa
8. The following statistics refer to the
annual temperature distribution of a
station within the troPics:
Judging from the pattern of the
temperature distribution, the above
station is probably located
A on the floor of a rift valley well
below sea-level
B at the foothill of an extinct volca-
t49
T FMAMT
Temp. ("C.) t4 t4 15 15 15 14
Temp. ('F.) 58 58 59 59 59 58
]ASOND
t4 t4 14 14 74 14
58 58 58 58 58 58
no, 305 metres (1,000 feet) above
sea-level
C in an upland region 2 440 metres
(8 000 feet) above sea-level
D at the peak of a mountain, well
above 4 000 metres (13,120 feet)
9, The western portions of continents
lying between the latitudes 20" and
3ff north and south are alwaYs dry.
This is mainly because
A it has a high rate of evaPoration
B trade winds here blow offshore
C there is rapid radiation at night
D the sky is always blue and cloud-
less
10. Which type of climate has the fol-
lowing characteristics?
I heavy convectional rain all Year
round
II high relative humiditY
III small mean annual temPerature
range
IV plenty ofclouds
A tropical monsoon climate
B savanna type of climate
C British type of climate
D hot, wet equatorial climate
Chapter 15 The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate
Distribution
The equatorial, hot, wet climate is found between
5" and 10'north and south of the equator. Its great-
est extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon.
Za\re, Malaysia and the East Indies. Further away
from the equator, the influence of the on-shore
Trade Winds gives rise to a modified type of equa-
torial climate with monsoonal influences. Within the
tropics, the equatorial highlands have a distinctively
cooler climate, modified by altitude, such as the
Cameron Highlands in Malaysia, the Northern
Andes, and the Kenyan Highlands in East Africa.
Fig. 15.1 shows the regions of the world which
experience a hot, wet equatorial climate.
Glimate
Temperature. The most outstanding feature of an
equatorial climate is its great uniformity of temper-
Fig. 15.1 The hot, wet equatorial regions
J-
I
nor. wer equarorar reorons
I I
Scale 1:215000000
150
ature throughout the year. The mean monthly tem-
peratures are always around 27 "C (80 "F) with
very little variation. There is no winter. Cloudiness
and heavy precipitation help to moderate the daily
temperture, so that even at the equator itself, the
climate is'not unbearable. In addition, regular land
and sea breezes assist in maintaining a truly equable
climate. The diurnal range of temperature is small,
and so is the annual range.
Figs. 15.2(a) and (b) show the rhythm of climate
experienced in two different equatorial regions, one
on a lowland (Kuala Lumpur) and the other on a
highland (Bogota). The uniformity in temperature
is apparent at once. Kuala Lumpur has its hottest
month with27'C (80 oF), and its coolest month with
26"C (78 'F). The annual range is not more than 1 oC
(2 "F). The mean monthly temperatures for Bogota
are comparatively low because of its altitude. lt is
located in the Antles, 2 850 metres (9,350 feet)
above sea-level. Its annual range is equally small,
- -{--
;'ltr
r! -\--\---
g4v
0 km 5440
l_-_J
0 miles 3400
 38/100 sea-level 32190
Rainf all 27lAO
32190
mm/ins.
27 tAO 21170
actual
305112 21170 temperature 16/60
279111 16/60 10/50
2541,!.O 25t'to
f"Tp.
-cl-F. Temp.
229t9 2st9
o "cl" F.
2031a 0
20la
17817 1817
E
16/.l6 E
1 5/6
1315
12715
:o
10614 1014
76/3 '6 813
sl12 512
2511 3t1
0/0 0i0
JFMAMJJ JFMAMJJA D

months months

Kualalumpur: J F' M A M JJASON D. ra,nge/lotal Bogota: J FMAMJJASO N D range/total

Temp. "C: 26 26 27 21 2j 27 l"C Temp.'c: '14 14 15 15 15 14 t4 14 14 14 14 14 l"c
"F.: 79 79 80 80 80 80 79 79 79 79 7A 80 2'F. "F.: 5g 58 59 59 59 58 57 57 57 58 58 58 2"F.
Precip. (mm): 170 l7O 236 279 216 127 104 157 195 274 257 231 2 413 mm Precip. (mm): 94 89 124 244 165 81 56 U 74 213 244 142 1 610 mm
(inches):6.7 67 93 11 0 85 5.0 4r 62 73 !08 r0r 9 l 95 inches ilncnesl: l / 3.5 4.5 9 6 6.5 32 2.6 3.3 2.9 8.4 9.6 5.6 63 4 inches

Fig. 15.2(a) Fig. 15.2(b)

Equatorial Clknate-a lowland station Equatorial Climate-a highland station
Place: Kuala Lumpur (3'N, 102"E) Place: Bogota (4' 38'S, 74' 15'W)
Altitude: 17 m (54 feet) Altitude: 2 661 m (8,730 feet)
Annual precipitation: 2 413 mm (95 inches) Annual precipitation: 1 610 mm (63.4 inches)
Annual temperature range: 1"C (27" - 26'CV2"F. (80' - 78'F.) Annual temperature range: 1oC (15' - 14"CV2"F. (59' - 57'F.)

also 1 "c (2 "F) (15'C-14 "C/i9'F-57'F). The dot-
ted line in the temperature graph shows its temper-
ature reduced to sea-level. Statistics taken from the
various equatorial stations indicate that the annual
range of temperature is small: Singapore, I.27 "C
(2.3"F), Jakarta 1 "C (1.8 "F), Quito 0.4 "C (0.7 "F),
Colqmbo t.7'C (3.2'F). Over the oceansr the
range is even smaller, e.g. Jaluit in the Marshall
Islands in the Pacific Ocean records a range in tcm-
perature of only 0.4'C (0.8 "F).
Precipitation. Precipitation is
"1.
524 mm and 2 540 mm (60 inches and 100 inches),
and well distributed throughout the year. There is
no month without rain, and a distinct dry season like
those of the Savanna or the Tropical Monsoon Cli-
mates, is absent. Instead, there are two periods of
maximum rainfall, in April and October as shown
in Fig. 15.2(a) and (b), which occur shortly after
the equinoxes. Least rain falls at the June and
December solstices. The double rainfall peaks coin-
ciding with the equinoxes are a characteristic feature
of equatorial climates not found in any other type
of climate. But this simple pattern may be upset by
local conditions, e.g. Kota Bharu, Kelantan receives
most of its rainfall from the North-East Monsoon at
the end of the year and Rangoon, Burma, from the
South-West Monsoon between June and September.
As one goes further north and south of the equator,
particularly in coastal districts open to the influences
of the Trades, the tendency is towards a monsoonal
pattern with the heaviest rainfall coming in the sum-
mer months, i.e. June, July and August in the north-
ern hemisphere and December, January and
February in the southern hemisphere.
Due to the great heat in the equatorial belt, morn-
heavy, between ings are bright and sunny. There is much evapora-
tion and convectional air currents are set up,
followed by heavy downpours of convectional rain
in the afternoons from the towering cumulonimbus
clouds (see Chapter 14). Thunder and lightning
often accompany the torrenti.al showers and the
amount of rainfall recorded in one single afternoon
may be as much as the desert receive for the entire
year! Besides the convectionAl rainfall, mountainous
regions also experience much orographic or relief
rain. In addition, there are some intermittent show-
ers from cyclonic atmospheric disturbances caused
by the convergence of air currents in the Doldrums.
The relative humidity is constantly high (over 80
per cent) making one feel 'sticky' and uncomforta-

l5l
ble. The monotonous climate, oppressive and ener-
vating, taxes one's mental alertness and physical
capability, though along the coasts refreshing sea
breezes do bring some relief. As a result, most of the
white settlers, whose bodies are attuned to cooler and
more varied conditions take to the cooler hish-
lands whenever they can.
rlre dr'iifiiiii
Natural Vegetation
Equatorial regions support a luxuriant type of dense
vegetation-the tropical rain forest because of the
very heavy rainfall (over 2 032 mm/80 inches) and
uniformly high temperature (27'C180 "F). In the
Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense and so com-
plete in its vegetational extravagance that a special
term 'selvas' is used. Unlike the savanna, mediter-
ranean and temperate climates, the growing season
in equatorial regions is not restricted by either
drought or cold. Plant growth is continuous through-
out the year-seeding, flowering, fruiting and decay-
ing do not take place in a seasonal pattern.
1. A great variety ofvegetation. The equatorial veg-
etation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that
yield tropical hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony,
greenheart, cabinet woods and dyewoods. There are
smaller palm trees, climbing plants like the lianas or
rattan which may be hundreds of metres long and
epiphytic and parasitic plants that live on other
plants. Under the trees grow a wide variety of cree-
pers, ferns, orchids and lalang.
2. A distinct layer arrangement. From the air, the
tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large riv-
t52
60/r8
LAYER
....3"o"€
LotIYER
LAYER
o
Fig.15.3 Sketch to show the three distinct layers of an
equatorial forest
ers or cleared for cultivation (Plate 15.A). All plants
struggle upwards for sunlight resulting in a peculiar
layer arrangement. The tallest trees attain a height
of 45 metres (150 feet) (Fig. 15.3). Their slender
trunks pierce skywards with widespread branches at
the top. The smaller trees beneath form the next
layer, and the ground is rooted with ferns and her-
baceous plants which can tolerate shade. The under-
growth is sparse as the taller trees cut off most of the
sunlight.
3. Multiple species. Unlike the temperate forests,
where only a few species occur in a particular area,
the trees of the tropical rain forests are not found in
pure stands of a single species. It has been estimated
that in the Malaysian forests as many as 490 species
of trees may be found in a hectare (200 in an acre)
of forest. This has made commercial exploitation of
tropical timber a most difficult task. Many of the
tropical hardwoods do not float readily on water and
this makes haulage an expensive matter. It is there-
fore not surprising that many tropical countries are
net timber importers!
4. Forest clearings. Many parts of the virgin trop-
ical rain forests have been cleared either for lum-
bering or shifting cultivation. When these clearings
are abandoned, less luxuriant secondary forests,
called belukar in Malaysia, spring up. These are
characterized by short trees and very dense under-
growth. In the coastal areas and brackish swamps,
mangrove forests thrive.
Life and Development in the Equatorial
Regions
The equatorial regions are generally sparsely popu-
lated.In the forests most primitive people live as
hunters and collectors and the more advanced ones
practise shifting cultivation. Food is so abundant in
such a habitat that many people worry very little
about the life of the next day. There are numerous
animals, birds and reptiles that can be hunted to
serve the needs of the community. The ever-flowing
rivers and streams provide an inexhaustible supply
of fish which the people spear or trap. From the for-
est, they gather leaves, fruits, nuts and other forest,
products. In the Amazon basin the Indian tribes col-
lect wild rubber, in the Zaire basin the Pygmies
gather nuts and in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang
Asli make all sorts of cane products and sell them
to people in villages and towns. In the clearings for
shifting cultivation, crops like manioc (tapioca),
yams, maize, bananas and groundnuts are grown.
When the fertility is exhausted, the clearing is aban-
doned and they move on to a new plot. Such farming
practices are becoming more and more widespread
even among backward tribes.
With the coming of the Europeans, many large
plantations have been established, especially in Java,
Sumatra, Malaysia, West Africa and Central Amer-
ica. The climate has proved to be very favourable
for the cultivation of certain crops that are highly
15.8 Harvesting oil palm fruits in Malaysia
r53
valued in the industrial West. The most outstanding
is natural rubber, called Hevea brasiliensis. Though
it was first dicovered in its wild state as Para rubber
in the Amazon basin, it has since been transplanted
to other parts of the equatorial lands and is grown
very profitably on large estates. Malaysia and Indo-
nesia are the leading producers, accounting for 44
and24 per cent respectively of the world production.
The home country, Brazil, exports practically no
natural rubber. The problems of tree diseases and
the lack of commercial organization of the Indians
in the Amazon lowlands have brought this unex-
pected 'shift' of rubber cultivation.
Another tropical crop that has achieved an amaz-
ing success is cocoa. It is more extensively cultivated
in West Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea. The
two most important producers are Ghana and the
Ivory Coast (22 and 17 per cent respectively of the
world production). There is a keen demand for the
crop and acreages are rapidly on the increase. Most
of the crop leaves West Africa for Europe or North
America for the cocoa and chocolate industry. From
the same area another crop, oil palm, has done
equally well and many countries outside Africa have
15.C Market gardening in Singapore. In many parts of the
equatorial zone intensive farming, to supply city-dwellers
with vegetables, is profitable. Primary Production Depart'
ment Singapore

15.D Rain all the year round allow wet padi cultivation.
Sometimes double cropping is practised. Jabatan Peneran-
gan Malaysia
now taken to its cultivation (Plate 15.B). Other
crops that have been found suitable for the hot, wet
equatorial climate and are extensively cultivated are
coconuts, sugar-cane, coffee, tea, tobacco, spices,
cinchona, bananas, pineapples and sago (Plate 15.C
and 15.D).
Factors Affecting the Development of
Equatorial Regions
l..Equatorial climate and health. Under conditions
of excessive heat and high humidity, Man is subject
to serious physical and mental handicaps. He per-
spires profusely and loses vigour and energy in such
an enervating environment. He exposes himself to
such dangers as sunstroke and to such diseases as
malaria and yellow fever. Consequently, his capacity
for active work is greatly reduced and his resistance
to diseases is much weakened. Unless there is ade-
quate provision for satisfactory sanitation, physical
and mental health are bound to be affected. Now-
adays, malaria eradication schemes are in irrogress in
most tropical areas and vaccines have been devel-
oped to counteract other diseases.
2. Prevalence of bacteria and insect pests. The hot,
wet climate which stimulates rapid plant growth,
also encourages the spread of insects and pests. As
germs and bacteria are more easily transmitted
through moist air, equatorial conditions are ideal for
the survival of such organisms. Insects and pests not
r54
only spread diseases but are injurious to crops. They
plague both men and animals.
3. Jungfe hinders development and maintenance. The
forest is so luxuriant that it is quite a problem to
clear a small patch of it and even more difficult to
maintain it. Lalang(tall grass) and thick under-
growth spring up as soon as the shade trees are cut
and unless they are weeded at regular intervals, they
may choke and finally kill crops and overwhelm
estates. In the same way, roads and railways con-
structed through the equatorial lands have to cut
through forests, dense thickets and swamps and
those who build and maintain them encounter wild
animals, poisonous snakes and insects. Once com-
pleted, they have to be maintained at a high cost.
Many remote parts of the Amazon basin, Zaire and
Borneo are without modern corhmunication lines.
The rivers form the only natural highways.
4. Rapid deterioration of tropical soil. It is a mis-
conception that tropical soils are rich. In its virgin,
untouched state, due to heavy leaf-fall and the
decomposition of leaves by bacteria, a thick mantle
of humus makes the soil fairly fertile. This is clear
from the shifting cultivators'heavy croppings in their
newly cleared ladangs. But once the humus is used
and the natural vegetative cover is removed, the tor-
rential downpours soon wash out most of the soil
nutrients. The soil deteriorates rapidly with subse-
quent soil erosion and soil impoverishment. One
may quote the Indonesian island of Java as an excep-
tion because of its rich volcanic ashes and the ener-
getic local people. In Malaysia, Singapore and eastern
Brazil, much progress has also been made in the
development of the tropical lands through system-
atic planning and the will of the people to succeed.
5. Dfficulties in lumbering and livestock farming. As
mentioned earlier, though the tropics have great
potential in timber resources, commercial extraction
is difficult. The trees do not occur in homogeneous
stands, there are no frozen surfaces to facilitate log-
ging and the tropical hardwoods are sometimes too
heavy to float in the rivers, even if these flow in the
desired directions.
6. Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an
absence of meadow grass, even on the highlands.
The few animals like bullocks or buffaloes are kept
mainly as beasts of burden. Their yield in milk or
beef is well below those of the cattle in the temper-
ate grasslands. The grass is sotall and coarse that it
is not nutritious. In Africa, domesticated animals are
attacked by tsetse flies that cause ngana, a deadly
disease.
O,uestions and Exercises

(a) Alor Star

32t90
(b) Bombay
24lao
21170

Temp.
Rainfall
mm/in.
Rainfall "c/oF.
mm/in. 610l24

fi8120 508/20

40/6116 rto6/16

305112 30,5112

203t8 ?0,a8

10214 10214

0/0 %
JJ
months

1. The two graphs taken from two different sta-
tions, Alor Star in Peninsular Malaysia and
Bombay in India, show two different types of
climate.
(a) Name the type of climate experienced in
each of the stations.
(b) Describe the major differences in tempera-
ture and precipitation between the two sta-
tions.
(c) In what ways is the rainfall of the two sta-
tions similar?
2. What type of climate is characterized by two
periods of maximum rainfall? Explain why this
is so. What local conditions may upset this nor-
mal pattern?
3. Outline the characteristics of the equatorial cli-
mate and vegetation and for any one equatorial
region describe how the inhabitants overcome
some of the difficulties posed by the environ-
ment.
4. Write brief notes on any three of the following
statements about the equatorial regionS:
(a) Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moder-
ate the temperature of the equatorial
. regions.
(b) The most prominent feature of the tropical
rain forest is its layer arrangement.
(c) Large-scale livestock farming is unknown rn
the hot, wet equatorial areas.
(d) The greatest single drawback to commercial
lumbering in equatorial ?egions is inacces-
sibility.
(e) The equatorial environment is best suited to
plantation agriculture.
5. On a map of the world, locate the hot, wet equa-
torial forest. Relate their vegetational charac-
teristics to the climate of the regions.
6. (a) State three distinct differences between
the hot, wet equatorial type of climate and
the warm temperate eastern margin climate.
(b) In what ways is the equatorial climate mod-
ified by:
i. altitude:
ii. monsoon winds?
7. (a) Why is the equatorial rain forest the most
dense in the world?
(b) Despite the luxuriance of vegetative
growth, the equatorial countries export
very little commercial timber. Suggest rea-
sons for this.
(c) Name two countries within the tropics that
do export large quantities of tropical hard-
wood.

155
8. Name and describe the major tropical crops
which are imported by the temperate nations for
the following purposes:
(a) for making textiles;
(b) for the processing of cooking oil;
(c) for the automobile industry;
(d) for making ropes and saiks.
9. (a) What are the major factors affecting the
development of equatorial regions?
(b) Name three areas within the equatorial zone
which are fairly well developed and densely
populated.
(c) Give reasons for the high population density
in any one of the areas named above.

Sample Objective Ouestions

32190
1. The most distinctive feature of the 27180
hot, wet equatorial climate is its 21t70
A large annual range of tempera- 16/60
ture
10/50
B double maxima of rainfall coin-
25t10
ciding with the equinoxes Tsmp.
C distinct dry and wet seasons 23t9
"c/"F.
D heavy summer rain io 20t8
2. The sketch on Fig. 15.3 on page
€ 1at7

shows the characteristic features of

152
E 15/6

an equatorial rain forest. It attempts

.g 1315

to illustrate the F rct4

A compactness of the forest E 8/3
B presence of thick.undergrowth 5t2
C absence of climbers 311
D distinct threeJayer arrangement
0/o
of the trees JFMAMJJAS OND STATTONX

3. The soils of the equatorial regions
deteriorate rapidly because of
A heavy leaching
B strong winds
C the absence of humus
D overgrazing
4. Wtih reference to the climatic graph
of a station which shows its monthlv
rhythm of temperature and rainfall,
what evidence suggests that the sta-
tion is located on a highland?
A It has an irregular pattern of rain-
fall
B Its total annual precipitation is
heavy
C It has a uniformly low temperarure
D It has no distinct seasons
5. The undergrowth in the equatorial
rain forest is sparse because
A the tropical laterite soil is too in-
fertile
B sunlight cannot reach the ground
of the dense forests
C wild animals and insect pests de-
vour much of the undergrowth
D ground temperature is low

156
Chapter 16 The Tropical Monsoon and
Tropical Marine Climate
Distribution
We have learnt in Chapter 14 that some parts of the
world experience seasonal winds like land and sea
breezes but on a much larger scale. These are the
tropical monsoon lands with on-shore wet monsoons
in the summer and off-shore dry monsoons in the
winter. They are best developed in the sub-continent
of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, Burma, Thai-
land, Laos, Kampuchea, parts of Vietnam and south
China and northern Australia. Outside this zone, the
climate is modified by the influence of the on-shore
Trade Winds all the year round, and has a more
evenly distributed rainfall. Such a climate, better
termed the Tropical Marine Climate, is experienced
in Central America, West Indies, north-eastein Aus-
tralia, the Philippines, parts of East Africa, Mala-
gasy, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil
(Fig. 16.1).
Fig. 16.1 The tropical monsoon and marine regions
N
I
+ Tropical monsoon
Tropical marine
I Scale 1: 215 000 000
157
Glimatic Conditions in Tropical
Monsoon Lands
The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference
in the rate of heating and cooling of land and sea.
In the summer, when the sun is overhead at the
Tropic of Cancer, the great land masses of the north-
ern hemisphere are heated. Central Asia, backed by
the lofty Himalayan ranges, is more than 9 "C (16 "F)
hotter than its normal temperature and a region of
intense low pressure is set up. The seas, which warm
up much slower, remain comparatively cool. At the
same time, the southern hemisphere experiences
winter, and a region of high pressure is set up in the
continental interior of Australia. Winds blow out-
wards as the South-East Monsoon. to Java. and after
crossing the equator are drawn towards the conti-
nental low pressure area reaching Indo-Pakistan as
the South-West Monsoon as shown in Fig. 16.2(a).
Cairns
\- --s-----
 Asiatic Low Pr€ssurs
'l:x'i,,",Nb
-lNF;:::'J
ruh, '"lili")A. /c
TzNSY /
\ \Xb-\."
il ($Wu.\
Fig. 16.2(a) Summer conditions in Asia-South-West Mon- Fig. 16.2(b) Winter conditions in Asia-North-East Monsoon
soon in Indo-Pakistan is on-shore in the rainy reason (July) in Indo-Pakistan is off-shore in the cool, dry season (January)

In the winter, conditions are reversed. The sun is with the sun's northward shift to the Tropic of Can-
overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn and central Asia cer. Bombay has a mean May temperature of 30 "C
is extremely cold, resulting in rapid cooling of the (86 "F) which is considered moderate, for many
land. A region of high pressure is created with out- parts of India are even hotter. The heat is so great
blowing winds-the North-East Monsoon. On cros- that schools and offices are closed. The stifling heat
sing the equator, the winds are attracted to the low and the low relative humidity make outdoor life
pressure centre in Australia and arrive in northern almost unbearaQle. Day temperatures of 35'C (95 "F)
Australia as the North-West Monsoon (Fig. 16.2b). are usual in central India and the mean temperature
In other parts of the world which experience a tro-
pical monsoon climate a similar seasonal reversal of Fig. 16.3
wind directions occurs. Tropical Monsoon Climate
Place: Bombay. India (18'55'N, 73"E)
Altitude: 11 m (37 feet)
The Seasons of the Tropical Monsoon Annual precipitation: 1 829mm (72 inches)
Annual temperature range: 6'C (30' - 24'CV10"F. (86" -
Climate 76'F.)
In countries like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh
which have a true Tropical Monsoon Climate, three 32190
Rainfall 29185
distinct seasons are distinguishable, as illustrated in
mm/in. 27t80
Fig. 16.3.
610124 24175
1. The cool, dry season (October to February).
559122
Temperatures are low, 24'C (76 'F) in Bom- 21t70
wal20
bay and only L0 'C (50 "F) in Punjab, with heavy Temp.
457 118
sinking air. Frosts may occur at night in the colder "cloF.
406/16
north. The centre of high pressure is over the Pun-
356/14
jab. Outblowing dry winds, the North-East Mon-
305112
soon, bring little or no rain at all to the sub-continent
254110
of Indo-Pakistan. However, a small amount of rain
20aa
falls in Punjab from cyclonic sources and this is vital
15216
for the survival of winter cereals. Where the North-
10214
East Monsoon blows over the Bay of Bengal it
s',t12
acquires moisture and thus brings rain to the south- %
eastern tip of the peninsula at this time of the year. trot, dw rainv ! cool, dry
For instance, in Madras 1 270 mm (50 inches) of rain
II Season I! season I SeaSOn

falls during October and November, accounting for N.E, Monsoon S.W. Monsoon N,E. Monsoon
half its annual rainfall. Eombay: J F M A M J J A S O N D range/total
Temp.'C: 24 24 27 2a n 29 27 27 27 2A 21 25 6"C
2. The hot dry season (March to mid-June). As can 'F.: 76 76
Precip.{mm): 2 2
80
0
83
0
86 84 81 81 81 82
18 505 610 368 269 48
8l
10
77 tO'F.
0 t829mm
be seen from Fig. 16.3, the temperature rises sharply (inches):0.1 0.1 0 0 071S924'145106190.4O T2inches

ls8
in Sind may be as high as 43 oC (110'F). Coastal dis-
tricts are a little relieved by sea breezes. There is
practically no rain anywhere. By May, the temper-
ature is so high that an intense low pressure zone is
set up in north-west India. Duststorms are frequent,
followed by long awaited rainstorms that'break' by
the middle of June. The transitional period between
'no rain' and 'plenty of rain' is over.
3. The rainy season (mid-June to September). With
the 'burst' of the South-West Monsoon in mid-June,
torrential downpours sweep across the country to the
delight of everybody. Almost all the rain for the year
falls within this rainy season. For example in Bom-
bay 505 mm (20 inches) are recorded in June,
610 mm (24 inches) in July, 368 mm (14.5 inches) in
August and a further 269 mm (10.6 inches) in Sep-
tember. As much as 95 per cent of the annual rainfall
is concentrated within four months. This pattern of
concentrated heavy rainfall in summer is a charac-
teristic feature of the Tropical Monsoon Climate.
The torrential downpours have an immediate impact
on the local temperature. They lower the tempera-
ture considerably. The mean temperature for Bom-
bay is 30'C (86'F) in May but only 27'C (81 'F) in
July. In the north the drop is even greater as much
as 7 "C (13 'F). Some of the windward stations on
Himalayan foothills have very heavy rainfall, though
this is partly orographic. Cherrapunji has an average
annual rainfall of 10 795 mm (425 inches) and a Altitude: Coastal lowland
record of 22987 mm (905 inches) in 1861.
The Retreating Monsoon
The Tropical Marine Climate
This type of climate is experienced along the eastern
coasts of tropical lands, receiving steady rainfall
from the Trade Winds all the time. The rainfall is
both orographic where the moist Trades meet
upland masses as in eastern Brazil, and convectional
due to intense heating during the day and in sum-
mer. Its tendency is towards a summer maximum as
in monsoon lands, but without any distinct dry
period. Fig. 16.4 shows the rhythm of climate as
experienced in Cairns, on the eastern coast of
Queensland, under the constant influence of the
South-East Trade Winds, and in summer also
affected by the tropical monsoons. Its wettest
months are in January 401 mm (15.8 inches), Feb-
ruary 416 mm (16.4 inches), March 450 mm (17.7
inches) and April 307 mm (12.1 inches), which is
summer in the southern hemisphere. Approximately
70 per cent of the annual rainfall is concentrated in
the four summer months. There is no month without
any rainfall. The range of temperature is typical of
the tropical latitudes with a maximum of 28 "C
(82'F.) in January and a minimum of 21 "C (70'F.)
in July-a range of 6'6'C (12 "F.) for the year. Due
Fi9.16.4
Tropical Marine Climate
Place: Cairns, Australia (17'S, 145" 42' E)
Annual precipitation: 2 235 mm (88 inches)
Annual temperature range: 7 "C (2ff - 21 'Fll12 'F. (82' -
70'F.)
29las
27180

Rainfal 24175
The amount and frequency of rain decreases towards 21170
mm/in
the end of the rainy season. It 'retreats' gradually 18/65
southwards after mid-September until it 'leaves' the
508/
continent altogether. The Punjab plains which 457 11
Temp.
ocl"F.
receive the South-West Monsoon earliest are the 4061
first to see the withdrawal of the monsoon. The skies 356/14
are clear again and the cool, dry season returns in 305/1
October, with the outblowing North-East Monsoon. 254t1
The role of monsoons in India is vital in its econ- 20314
omy. A late monsoon or one that ends far too early 15216
will condemn large stretches of agricultural land to 102t4
drought. There will be widespread famine from crop ,',t12
failure and thousands will perish. When there is too 0/0
much water from the rainy monsoons, severe floods J FM MJ J
months
occur, destroying both crops and lives and disrupting
communications. In no part of the world has the cli- Cairns: JFMAMJJASOND rtngc/tottl
temp. L: 28 27 27 23 23 22 21 2l 23 24 26 27 7"c
mate affected Man's way of life so profoundly as in t_: 82 8l 80 77 74 71 10 70 73 76 79 8'l 12" F
Precip. (mm): 401 417 450 3)7 109 71 4t 43 43 46 10? 2t8 2 235 mm
the monsoon lands. linch*l 158 164 17.7 12.1 4.3 2.8 1.6 1.7 r.7 t8 4.0 8.6 88 Inch6

1s9
to the steady influence of the Trades, the Tropical
Marine Climate is more favourable for habitation,
but it is prone to severe tropicd cyclones, hurricanes
or typhoons, as mentioned in Chapter 14.

Natural Vegetation
The natural vegetation of tropical monsoon lands
depends on the amount of summer rainfall. The
monsoon lands with three distinct seasons, cold, hot
and rainy exert great influence on the appearance of
the vegetation. Trees have to be fairly tolerant of
local physical and climatic conditions to survive. They
grow rapidly in the rainy season, shed their leaves
during the hot dry season and remain comparatively
inactivein the cool season. Trees are normally
deciduous since they shed their leaves during the hot
dry season to withstand excessive transpiration.
The overall vegetation varies from dense tropical
evergreen vegetation to thorny scrubland due to dif-
ferences in precipitation in different parts of the
monsoon lands. Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g.
southern Burma, peninsular India, northern Aus-
tralia and coastal regions with a tropical marine cli-
mate, the resultant vegetation is forest. The forests
ate more open and less luxurianl than the equatorial 16.4 A bamboo thicket in the tropics Goh Cheng Leong
forest with far fewer species. The less dense forest
allows more sunlight to reach the ground, resulting Most of the forests yield valuable timber and are
in denser undergrowth. Bamboo thickets which pre- prized for their durable hardwoods. Teak is the best
dominate in regions of intermediate rainfall often known among these hardwoods. Burma alone
grow to great heights (Fig. L6.5 and Plate 16.,4,). accounts for as much as three-quarters of the world's
With the decrease in rainfall in summer, the for- production. It is so durable a timber that it is exten-
ests thin out into thorny scrubland or savanna with sively used for shipbuilding, furniture and construc-
scattered trees and tall grass. In parts of Indo-pak- tional purposes. Other kinds of timber include sal,
istan, rainfall is so deficient that semi-desert condi- acacia and some varieties of eucalyptus in northern
tions are encountered- Australia.

Fig. 16.5 Main features of a monsoon forest Agricultural Development in the

ftlm
Monsoon Lands
Much of the monsoon forest has been cleared for
agriculture to support the very dense population.
The cultural landscape throughout the length and
breadth of the monsoon lands deeply reflects the
intensity of Man's quest for subsistence. Wherever
possible, crops are grown. The plains are ploughed,
and the hills are terraced to provide farmland. Farms
are small and the people are forever'land hungry'.
In their quest for land, they have removed the nat-
ural vegetation, sometimes wantonly, resulting in
w' qrQ. : anrl snru os;ilt///i!ilLl!iiy"*...
g l gf4rraza.l!17;,.::-'.!i.i : ..:,,w
w,t" l acute soil erosion. This is particularly serious in the
"'. ...nilttu,,., u".,,b,. .,r/b d .., u.b-
sub-continent of India, which has a population of

160
over 625 million, increasing at the rate of 12 million
a year.But in the plains the same piece of land may
have been tilled for generations with little or no
replenishment, and yet be able to yield fairly rea-
sonable returns when irrigated.
Tropical agriculture dependent on natural rainfall
and a large labour force, reaches its greatest mag-
nitude in the monsoon lands. The soil provides the
basis for the livelihood of millions. Farming is not
only the dominant occupation of the greater part of
the people, but also forms the mainstay of the econ-
omy of Indo-Pakistan, China, South-EastAsia, east-
ern Brazil and the West Indies. The following types
of agriculture are recognizable.
1. 'Wet padi cultivation. Rice is the most important
staple crop and is grown in tropical lowlands wher-
ever the rain exceeds 1 780 mm (70 inches). It is
perhaps the most characteristic crop of the monsoon
lands and its total acreage far exceeds that of any
other crops. In fact, very few areas outside the influ-
ence of the monsoons ever take to the cultivation of
padi. There are two main varieties, the wet ,padi,
which is mainly grown on lowlands in flooded fields 16.8 Harvesting sugar.oane in Oueensland, Australia Au-
stralian News and lnformation Bureau
or in terraced uplands, and the dry p'adi grown in
regions of lower rainfall. A minimum of 1 270 mm
(50 inches) of rainfall is required during the growing Indo-Pakistan and banana, coconuts and spices.
season. Droughts and floods that are almost inse- 3. Hlghland plantation farming. The colonlzation of
parable from a monsoonal type of climate can be tropical lands by Europeans gave rise to a new form
very detrimental to its cultivation. Irrigation water of cultivated landscape in the cooler monsoonal
from rivers, canals, dams or wells is extensively used highlands. This is the cultivation of certain tree crops
in the major rice-producing countries. Other food in tropical plantations. Thousands of hectares of
crops like maize, millet, sorghum, wheat, gram and tropical upland forest were cleared to make way for
beans are of subsidiary importance. They are culti- plantation agriculture in which tea and coffee are the
vated in the drier or cooler areas where rice cannot most important crops. These were luxuries in
be grown. Europe in the eighteenth century and the products
2. Lowland cash crops. A wide range of lowland of the plantations were originally meant only for
tropical cash crops are cultivated for the export mar- export to the mother countries where there was a
ket, after local needs have been met. The most greatcraze for the beverages. Later, the local people
important crop in this category is cane sugar. As also got into the habit of drinking them and they
much as two-thirds of the world's sugar production quickly became necessities. Both the beverages
comes from tropical countries. Sugar is either grown became so popular in and out of the tropics that
on plantations or on smallholdings wherever rainfall there was great expansion in their acreages both in
and sunshine are abundant (Plate 16.8). Some of the regions with a Tropical Monsoon Climate and Trop-
major producers include India, Java, Taiwan, Cuba, ical Marine Climate.
Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados. Jute is confined Coffee (Fig. 16.6) originated in Ethiopia, where
almost entirely to the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, in it is still grown, but Brazil now aocounts for about
India and Bangladesh. It has long been a leading a quarter of the world's production of coffee. It is
hard fibre for the manufacture of sacks (gunny). mainly grown on the eastern slopes of the Brazilian
Manila hemp (abaca) is a product of the Philippines, plateau. The crop is also cultivated on the highland
particularly of Mindanao. It is used to make high slopes between 6(X) metres (2,000 feet) and 1 370
quality rope. Other crops include indigo, still culti- metres (4,500 feet) in the Central American states,
vated in India and Java; cotton, a major export of India and eastern Java.

161
 Tea (Fig. 16.7) originated in China and is still an
important crop there, as it requires moderate tem-
peratures of about 16'C (60 oF), heavy rainfall of
over L 520 mm (60 inches) and well-drained high-
land slopes. It thrives well in the tropical monsoon
zone, but preferably at a higher altitude. The best
regions are thus the Himalayan foothills of India and
Bangladesh, the central highlands of Sri Lanka and
western Java, from all of which it is exported (Plate
Fig. 16.6 Coffee berries and leaves
16.C). In China, tea is grown mostly for local con-
sumption. (Also see Chapter 26, page239.)
4. Lumbering. Wherever there are tropical forests
which still have not been felled to make way for the
plough, lumbering is undertaken in the more acces-
sible areas. This is particularly important in conti
nental South-East Asia. Of the tropical deciduous
trees, teak, of which Burma is the leading producer,
is perhaps the most sought after. It is valuable on
account of its great durability, strength, immunity to
shrinkage, fungus attack and insects. It is grown in
hilly districts up to 900 metres (3,000 feet) in altitude
with a moderate rainfall. Under government super-
vision, teak trees which are cut have to be replaced.

Tea picking in a plantation in Sri Lanka Camera Press

t62
This is the only way to ensure the steady supply of
the timber which is the second greatest money-
earner for Burma after rice. In northern Burma, in
the region of the Chindwin River, there are large
teak plantations. It takes as long as L00 years for a
teak tree to mature into commercial timber. Green
teak logs are so heavy that they will not float readily
on water. It is therefore necessary to 'poison' the
tree several years before actual felling, so that it is
dry and light enough to be floated down the Chind-
win and the Irrawaddy to reach the sawmills at Ran-
goon. The individual iogr ure tied in rafts and guided
downstream by crews of men and tugboats. It takes
something like 18 months for a log of teak to reach
Rangoon to be sawn into planks for export.
5. Shifting cultivation. This most primitive form of
farming is widely practised. Instead of rotating the
crops in the same field to preserve fertility, the
tribesmen move to a new clearing when their first
field is exhausted. The clearing, or field, in the midst
of the jungle is usually made by fire, which destroys
practically everything in its way. After planting, litfle
attention is paid to the field either in weeding or
manuring. The crops are left entirely to the care of
nature. The farmers use simple hoes and sticks for
ploughing and seeding. Draught animals are
Ouestions and Exercises
1. The climate of India is characterized by three
distinct seasons. Explain why this is so.
2. With the aid of diagrams or sketch maps,
explain any three of the following state-
ments:
(a) The east coast of continents within the
tropics have heavier rainfall than the inte-
riors or the west coasts.
(b) The Tropical Monsoon Climate resembles
land and sea breezes on a continental
scale.
(c) Near the equatorial latitudes, the period of
maximum rainfall is closely related to the
movements of the overhead sun.
(d) There is a marked difference in tempera-
ture between the east and west coasts of
countries in latitudes 20o to 35" N.
3. In which parts of the monsoon lands has the
natural vegetation been removed by men?
Describe and explain the uses made of the
cleared lands.
r63
unknown and labour is exclusively manual. Their
needs are so basic that every farmer produces much
the same range of crops as his neighbours. Maize or
corn, dry padi, yams, tapioca, sweet potatoes and
some beans are the most common crops. Farming is
entirely for subsistence, i.e. everything is consumed
by the farmer's family, it is not traded or sold.
As tropical soils are mainly latosolic, rapidly
leached and easily exhausted, the first'crop may be
bountiful but the subsequent harvests deteriorate.
'Weeds soon invade the plot. A few years later, the
field has to be abandoned and a new patch cleared
elsewhere. This system of a short period of cultiva-
tion alternating with long periods of fallowing is
probably the best way of using land in many parts
of the tropics, especially where slopes are too steep
for the usual kinds of permanent cultivation.
Shifting cultivation is so widely practised amongst
indigenous people that different local names are
used in different countries. For example , ladang in
Malaysia, taungya in Burma, tamrai in Thailand,
caingin in the Philippines, humah in Java, chena in
Sri Lanka and milpa in Africa and Central America.
(Also see Chapter 26, page 246,Primitive Subsist-
ence Agriculture.)
4. Name the types of climate which have:
(a) rain only in winter;
(b) rain only in summer;
(c) rain throughout the year.
i. Describe the characteristic climatic fea-
tures of any two of the types you have
named.
ii. For any one of them account for its rain-
fall distribution.
5. Contrast the essential characteristics of plan-
tation agriculture and shifting cultivation.
6. (a) In the map of the world shade areas which
have
i. a tropical
monsoon climate;
ii. a tropical
marine climate.
(b) State the distinct differences between the
tropical monsoon and the tropical marine
climate.
(c) Explain why regions outside the tropics do
not experience the monsoon type of cli-
mate.
7. (a) The sub-continent of Indo-Pakistan has the
typical type of tropical monsoon climate
caused by pronounced seasonal pressure
changes on both sides of the equator. With
the aid of an annotated map showing the
pressure systems and wind flow, explain
what causes tropical monsoon weather.
(b) Name other countries outside the sub-con-
tinent of Indo-'Pakistan which also have
this type of tropical monsoon climate.
8. (a) What type of natural vegetation is found
in the tropical monsoon lands?
(b) Name three common species of trees found
in monsoon lands.
(c) What major factors determine the broad
distribution of natural vegetation within
the monsoon lands?
(d) With the aid of a sketch map show the dis-
tribution of the major types of natural veg-
etation in Indo-Pakistan.
(a) Draw a large sketch map to show the chief
rice-growing lands of Asia.
(b) Why are these areas particularly suited to
rice-cultivation?
(c) Name three areas outside Asia where rice
is also grown commercially.
10. (a) Tea, coffee, cotton and sugar-cane are
some of the major crops grown in monsoon
lands. On the map of the world, shade and
name an area where each of these crops is
grown in very large quantities.
(b) Give reasons for the large-scale cultivation
of either tea and cotton or coffee and
sugar-cane in the areas you indicated in
(a).
(c) Name three major importers for both tea
and coffee.

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. The natural vegetation of monsoon C the seasonal reversal of wind A concentrated heavY summer rain
lands varies greatly being much de- direction B frequent light winter showers
pendent on the D the pattern of relief features C distinct four seasons: spring, sum'
A rainfall distribution mer, autumn, winter
B drainage pattern 3. Large areas of troPical monsoon D alternate dry and wet months
C quality of the soil lands are throughout the year
D intensity of sunlight A inhabited by European colonizers
B densely populated 5. The undergrowth in the tropical
C suited to
large-scale pastoral monsoon forest is denser than that of
2. The basic cause of the tropical mon- farming the equatorial rain forest because
soon type of climate is D not fit for the cultivation of in- A the summer heat is greater
A regional differences in tempera- dustrial crops B rain is more evenly distributed
ture C the forest is more open
B the warming effect of the off- 4. The most outstanding charact€ristic D the soil is more fertile
shore currents of the tropical monsoon climate is its

t64
Chapter 17 The Savanna or Sudan
Climate
Distribution
The Savanna or Sudan Climate is a transitional type
of climate found between the equatorial forests and
the trade wind hot deserts. It is confined within the
tropics and is best developed in the Sudan where the
dry and wet seasons are most distinct, hence its
name the Sudan Climate. The belt includes West
African Sudan. and then curves southwards into
East Africa and southern Africa north of the Tropic
of Capricorn as shown in Fig. 17.1. In South Amer-
ica, there are two distinct regions of savannas north
and south of the equator, namely the llanos of the
Orinoco basin and the campos of the Brazilian High-
lands. The Australian savanna is located south of the
monsoon strip running from west to east north of the
Tropic of Capricorn.
Fig. 17.1 Regions of Sudan Climate with savanna ortropical
grasslands
165
Glimate of the Sudan Type
Rainfall. The Sudan type of climate is characterized
by an alternate hot, rainy season and cool, dry sea-
son, as illustrated in Fig. t7.2(a). In the northern
hemisphere, the hot, rainy season normally begins
in May and lasts until September, as in Kano,
Nigeria. The rest of the year is cool and dry. The
annual rainfall for Kano, which is located at a height
of.470 metres (1,539 feet) above sea-level, is 864 mm
(34 inches) and is almost entirely concentrated in the
summer. But the amount varies from 1 219 mm (48
inches) at Bathurst, in Gambia on the coast to only
I27 mm (5 inches) at Khartoum, in Sudan in the
interior. Both the length of the rainy season and the
annual total rainfall decrease appreciably from the
equatorial region polewards towards the desert
Scale 1 :21500000O
 32t90 21170
27lao
.s! 21/70
':: 1
16/60
0/50
=o c--
c>
'tD
E
:
g
FE
-E
O^
.;
etD J.
E Fo
17al TD
305/1 E-
o
2ilt1 127
20318 't02l4
15216 7613
10114 51t2
5112 2511
o/0 oto
JFMAMJJASON JFMAMJJASOND
Months months
Kanol JFMAMJJASO N D range/total Salisbury: J FMAI/JJAS O N D
oC: range/total
Temp.'c: 22 25 29 32 31 28 27 26 27 21 37 9'C Temp. 21 21 20 19 16 14 13 16 l9 22 22 21
72 77 a5 89 88 83 80 78 8o 8l oF.: 69 68 66 61 57 56 60 66
8"C
78 73 17"F. 70 7t 7t 70 15"F.
Precip. {mm}: 0 3 3 13 64 r22 208 307 140 t3 0 0 864 mm Precip. (mml: 191 r88 il4 25 13 0 0 3 8 28 94 147 813 mm
(inches': 0 0.r 0.r 05 2.5 48 82 l2.l 55 o5 0 O 34 inches
(anches):7.5 74 4.5 r.O 0.5 0 0 0.1 03 ll 37 5.8 32inches

Fig. 17.2lal Fig. 17.2(b)

The Savanna or Sudan Climate in the northern hemisphere
Place: Kano, Nigeria (11" 58' N, B" 20, E)
Altitude: 469 metres (1,539 feet)
Annual precipitation: 864 mm (34 inches)
Annuaf temperature range: 9'C 131"-22 "Cy17 .F (Bg.-
72"F\
fringes. On the whole, the annual precipitation is
less than that of the Tropical Monsoon Climate and
the length of the wet and dry seasons differs with the
locality. In the southern hemisphere, the rainy sea-
son is from October to March (the southern sum-
mer) as shown in Fig. 17.2(b) of Salisbury, in
Zimbabwe. Its annual precipitation of 812 mm (32
inches) also varies much from year to year.
Temperature. The monthly temperature hovers
between 2l "C (70 oF) and 32"C (90 'F) for lowland
stations. An annual temperature range of lL oC
(20'F) is typical, but the range increases as one
moves further away from the equator. It is, how-
ever, interesting to note that the highest tempera-
tures do not coincide with the period of the highest
sun (e.g. June in the northern hemisphere) but occur
just before the onset of the rainy season, i.e. April
in Kano and October in Salisbury. There is also a
distinct drop in temperature in the rainy period, due
to the overcast sky and the cooler atmosphere.
Days are hot, and during the hot season, noon
temperatures of over 38'C (100 .F) are quite fre-
quent. When night falls the clear sky which pro-
motes intense heating during the day also causes
rapid radiation in the night. Temperatures drop to
well below 10 "C (50'F) and night frosts are not
The Savanna or Sudan Climate in the southern hemisphere
Place: Salisbury, Zimbabwe (17" 4S,S, 31"8)
Altitude: 1 352 m (4,435 feet)
Annual precipitation: 813 mm (32 inches)
Annual temperature range: B.C (21.-13.C/1S.F. (71"-S6.F.)
uncommon at this time of the year. This extreme
diurnal range of temperature is another character-
istic feature of the Sudan type of climate.
Winds. The prevailing winds of the region are the
Trade Winds, which bring rain to the coastal dis-
tricts. They are strongest in the summer but are rel-
atively dry by the time they reach the continental
interiors or the western coasts of the continents, so
that grass and scattered short trees predominate. In
West Africa, the North-East Trades. in fact. blow
off-shore from the Sahara Desert and reach the
Guinea coast as a dry, dust-laden wind, called locally
the Harmattan, meaning 'the doctor,. It is so dry
that its relative humidity seldom exceeds 30 per cent.
'The doctor' provides a welcome relief from the
damp air of the Guinea lands by increasing the rate
of evaporation with resultant cooling effects, but it
is such a dry dusty wind that, besides ruining the
crops, it also stirs up a thick dusty haze and impedes
inland river navigation.
Natural Vegetation
The savanna type of vegetation, typified by tall grass
and short scattered trees is the product of a tropical
wet-dry climate, transitional between that of the hot

r66
 Savanna
Fig. 17.3 Changes in vegetation from savanna to desert
desert and the tropical forest. It is rather misleading
to call the savanna 'tropical grassland', because trees
are always present amongst the luxuriant tall grass.
Perhaps the terms 'parkland' or'bush veld' describe
the landsqape better.
Equatorwards,the trees increase in size and den-
sity due to an increase in annual rainfall and a less
distinct dry-wet climatic rhythm. But desertwards
the vegetation merges into scrub and thorny bushes
(Fig. 17.3). The continuous grass cover gives way to
short scattered tufts on the desert margins. In Aus-
tralia, this scrubland is particularly well represented
by a number of species: mallee, mulga, spinifex grass
and other bushes.
Trees and plants have to adapt themselves to the
savanna climatic rhythm of long winter drought and
short summer rain. Both trees and plants are there-
fore deciduous in nature, shedding their leaves in the
cool dry season to prevent excessive loss of water
through transpiration and lying dormant during the
17.A The baobab tree is typical of savanna trees. lt has a
thick water-storing trunk with minimum leaves to reduce
transpiration. Poppertoto
t67
long drought. They have long roots (e.g. acacias) to
search for groundwater or broad trunks (e.g. baob-
abs and bottle trees) to store up excessive water
(Plate 17.A). Trees are mostly hard, gnarled and
thorny and may exude gum (e.g. gum arabic). Many
trees are umbrella-shapd to shield their roots from
the scorching heat and to expose only a narrow edge
to the strong trade winds that blow all year round.
Palms which cannot withstand the drought are con-
fined to the wettest areas or along rivers.
In true savanna lands, the grass is tall and coarse'
growing 2 to 4 metres (6 to 12 feet) high. The ele-
phant grass may attain a height of 5 metres (15 feet)
even! The grass which grows in compact tufts has
long roots which reach deep down in search of water.
The appearance of the savanna vegetation changes
with the season. It appears green and fresh in the
rainy season, but turns yellowish-brown and parched
with the ensuing dry season.
Animal Life of the Savanna
The savanna, particularly in Africa, is the home of
wild animals. It is known as the 'big game country'
and thousands of animals are trapped or killed each
year by people from all over the world. Some of the
animals are tracked down for their skins, horns,
tusks, bones or hair, others are captured alive and
sent out of Africa as zoo animals, laboratory speci-
mens or pets. There is such a wealth of animal life
in Africa that many of the animal films that we see
at the cinema are actually taken in the savanna.
There are, in fact, two main groups of animals in
the savanna, the grass-eating herbivorous animals
and the flesh-eating carnivorous animals. The her-
bivorous animals are often very alert and move
swiftly from place to place in search of green pas-
tures. They are endowed with great speed to run
away from the savage flesh-eaters that are always
17.B Giraffes in the savanna. The vegetation is of grass ano
scattered trees. J. Allen Cash
after them. The leaf and grass-eating animals include
the zebra, antelope, giraffe, deer, gazelle, elephant
and okapi. Many are well camouflaged species and
their presence amongst the tall greenish-brown grass
cannot be easily detected (Plates 17.B and C). The
giraffe with such a long neck can locate its enemies
a great distance away, while the elephant is so huge
and strong that few animals will venture to come
near it. It is well equipped with tusks and trunk for
defence.
17.C The savanna vegetation provides an excellent cam-
ouflage for animals. Servizio Editoriale Fotografico
168
The carnivorous animals like the lion, tiger, leop-
ard, hyena, panther, jaguar, jackal, lynx and puma
have powerful jaws and teeth for attacking other
animals. Their natural colourings of light, yellowish-
brown, often with stripes like the tiger or spots like
the leopar{, match perfectly with the tawny back-
ground of the savanna. They often hide themselves
in shady spots up in the branches or amidst the tall
bushes, and many wild animals, as well as hunters
themselves, are caught unaware in this manner.
Along rivers and in marshy lakes are numerous spe-
cies of reptiles and mammals including crocodiles,
alligators, monitors and giant lizards together with
the larger rhinoceros and hippopotamus. In such an
animal paradise there are many diverse species of
birds, snakes, butterflies, moths and insects.
In many parts of East and South Africa, national
parks have been set up which control the killing of
animals. This is a necessity, if many of the rare spe-
cies of animals are to be preserved and protected
from wanton killing. In Kenya there are large hotels
and viewing-towers, built in the heart of the
savanna, with special transport arrangements to
bring tourists in to see the animals in their natural
settings. This is a progressive step made in conserv-
ing animal life in the savanna and shou.ld be encour-
aged.
Human Life in the Savanna
Within the savanna lands of the tropics live many
different tribes who are either cattle pastoralists like
the Masai of the East African Plateau or settled cul-
tivators like the Hausa of northern Nigeria. We shall
examine the life of these two groups of people more
closely, and see how they adapt themselves to the
savanna environment,
The Masai, cattle pastoralists. The Masai are a
nomadic tribe who once wandered with their herds
of cattle in the central highlands of East Africa-in
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. At the height of their
power, in the mid-nineteenth century they num-
bered about 50 000. But today after a century's
tribal clashes, epidemics and natural deaths, their
numbers have been greatly reduced. They are now
mainly confined to the 39 000 sq. km (15,000 square
miles) of Masai reserves in Kenya and Tanzania.
Their old grazing grounds in the Kenyan Highlands
were taken over first by the immigrant white settlers
for plantation agriculture (coffee, tea, cotton) and
dairy farming and later, after independence, by
African farmers. They now occupy the less favoured
areas of the savanna in which are grazed something
likea million cattle and perhaps twice as many sheep
and goats. On the lower slopes of the East African
plateau, where rainfall is as low as 508 mm (20
inches) and there are long periods of drought, the
grass seldom reaches a metre high and is not nutri-
tious. When there is a drought, the Masai move
upwards to the higher and cooler plateau regions in
which their herds can graze on the better pastures.
They build circular huts with sticks, bushes and mud
for temporary shelter. The cattle are kept in a spe-
cial enclosure at night and are prqtected from attack
by wild animals by a strong fence.
The cattle kept by the Masai are the zebu cattle
with humps and long horns. They are treated with
great respect and affection and are never slaugh-
tered for food or for sale. The beef is only consumed
when they die a natural death from old age or dis-
ease. They are never used as draught animals and
are kept entirely for the supply of milk and
blood. Milking is done by women before day-break
and at dusk. The yield is extremely low by any stand-
ard and usually not more than one litre (two pints)
are obtained at a single milking. The milk is drunk
either fresh or sour. Cheese-making is still not
known to the Masai. Blood from both bulls and cows
is drunk. This is obtained by tying a leather cord
around the neck of an animal until the veins swell.
A vein is then punctured by a special arrow-head
and the blood gushes out and is collected and drunk
fresh or clotted (Plate 17.D).
Cattle are kept by every Masai family. They are
considered far more valuable than anything else, and
169
17.D The Masai tribesmen drink the blood as well as the
mifk of their animals but do not kill them for meat. Camera
Press
are symbols of wealth. The richest man has the larg-
est herds of cattle, leaving aside the sheep and goats
which, to the Masai tribes, are of little significance.
Cattle are used in payment for wives, and when the
father of a family dies, the mother divides the live-
stock among the sons. The Masai will not slaughter
the cattle for food, so from the agricultural tribes
such as the Kikuyu of Kenya, they obtain a small
amount of millet, bananas, groundnuts and vegeta-
bles.
Because the number of cattle is more important
to the Masai than their quality, the Masai will not
willingly sell their cattle. So the large area of land
which they occupy in East Africa is not used prof-
itably. Great efforts are being made to get the Masai
to care for their animals properly and raise them for
sale, keeping orrly as many animals as the pasture
can support. Many Masai are responding to modern
techniques but the majority stubbornly continue in
their old ways. Amongst most of the other African
tribes, pastoralism exists side by side with agricul-
ture.
The Hausa, settled cultivators. The Hausa are a
group of settled cultivators who inhabit the savanna-
lands of the Bauchi Plateau of northern Nigeria.
They number almost six million and have been
organized in settled agricultural communities for
hundreds of years. They are more advanced in their
civilization and ways of life than many of the other
African peoples.
The Hausa live in towns or villages. The ancient
Hausa city of Kano, with a population of 300 000 has
long been a focus of routes and trade. They do not
practise shifting cultivation as many tribes do.
Instead, they clear a piece of land and use it for sev-
eral years, growing a wide range of crops like maize,
millet, Guinea corn, groundnuts, bananas and
beans. Some Hausa also cultivate non-food crops,
e.g. cotton and tobacco. When the fertility of the
plot declines, they plant a new field and allow the
old one to lie fallow. This enables natural forces to
act on it until fertility is restored. New crops are then
sown in the old plot again and the harvests are good.
In this manner, the Hausa rotate their crops between
different fields at different parts of the year, which
is a technique employed in advanced agricultural
societies.
Besides cultivation, the Hausa also make use of
domesticated animals. Herds of cattle and goats are
kept for both milk and meat, but they are only sub-
sidiary to crop cultivation. Though they do not con-
tribute much to the income of the Hausa, because
of their small numbers, their manure is used to fer-
tilize the fields. Poultry are raised by the villagers
and both eggs and chicken are consumed.
The farming year is very closely related to the sea-
son of rainfall. In Nigeria, the rainy season begins
in May and lasts till September. The annual precip-
itation is about 1 010 mm (40 inches), falling entirely
in summer. The Hausa sow the seeds in late April
when sufficient rain has fallen. The seedlings sprout
with the heavy rain and grow rapidly throughout the
rainy season. Weeding with traditional hoes is done
at regular intervals till the crops are ripened and har-
vested in September, the beginning of the cool, dry
season. The tall brown bushes are burnt down by the
farmers in preparation for new fields for the follow-
ing year. Sometimes fires may be caused by the dry,
dusty Harmattan.
Problems, Prospects and Development
of the savanna
There is little doubt that in years to come, world
population pressure and the need for greater food
production will necessitate greater economic devel-
opment of the savanna. The deserts or the freezing
tundra form climatic barriers too formidable for
large-scale human intervention to take place. But
the savanna lands with an annual rainfall of over
760 mm (30 inches) and without any severe cold,
should be able to support a wide range of tropical
crops. Pioneer settlements in central Africa, north-
ern Australia and eastern Brazil have shown that the
savannas have immense agricultural potential for
170
plantation agriculture of cotton, sugar cane, coffee,
oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical fruits. Trop-
ical Queensland, despite its scarcity of labour has
been very successful in its attempts to develop its
huge empty land. The newly independent states of
Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi have already
taken to large-scale production of cotton and sisal
hemp. Both crops thrive well in savanna conditions.
In West Africa, the commercial cultivation of
groundnuts, oil palm and cocoa have been gradually
extended into the savanna lands. New drought-
resistant varieties will have to be introduced into
these newly emergent countries to increase their for-
eign earnings in such tropical raw materials. In the
cooler highlands, temperate crops have been suc-
cessfully raised.
But farming in the savanna land is not without
natural hazards. Droughts may be long and trying,
as rainfall is often unreliable. Unless counter-meas-
ures can be taken in the form of adequate provision
for irrigation, improved crop varieties and scientific
farming techniques suitable for the tropical grass-
lands, crop failures can be disastrous for the people,
who have very little to fall back on. The Sudan Cli-
mate, with distinct wet-and-dry periods is also
responsible for the rapid deterioration of soil fertil-
ity. During the rainy season, torrential downpours
of heavy rain cause leaching, in which most of the
plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and
potash are dissolved and washed away. During the
dry season, intense heating and evaporation dry up
most of the water. Many savanna areas therefore
have poor lateritic soils which are incapable of sup-
porting good crops. Unless the soil is properly con-
served through regular manuring, weeding and
careful maintenance, crop yields are bound to
decline.
The savanna is said to be natural cattle country
and many of the native people are, in fact, herdsmen
or pastoralists. Cattle are kept in large numbers and
fed on tall grass or bushes. They provide the people
with milk, blood and meat. Unfortunately, the
native zebu cattle are bony and yield little meat or
milk. They often fall victim to tropical diseases, e.g.
the ngana or sleeping sickness carried by the tsetse
fly in Africa. The export of either beef or milk from
the tropical grasslands is so far not important.
It seems necessary to introduce temperate cattle
such as the English Shorthorn, Friesian or Guernsey
to cross with the tropical zebu,if. cattle rearing is to
be successful in the savanna. In fact, a start has
already been made in tropical Queensland which has
become Australia's largest cattle producing state.
Both meat and milk are exported. In other regions
such as the campos and llanos of South America,
though cattle ranching has been carried out for cen-
turies, little progress has been made so far. The qual-
ity of the grass needs to be improved and a better
network of communications is essential. Above all
cattle breeding and disease control must be carried
Ouestions and Exercises
1. The foflowing are brief descriprions of three
different types of climate.
(a) A very large temperature range, with sum-
mer rain.
(b) Distinct wet and dry seasons with concen-
trated summer rain.
(c) High uniform temperature with well dis-
tributed heavy rainfall.
i. Name the type of climate.
ii. For any two of them, give a fuller
description of the climate and the factors
which give rise to it.
2. Explain why:
(a) The savanna lands have a parkland type of
natural vegetation.
(b) The savanna is the natural home of cattle.
(c) The savanna grass decreases in height and
luxuriance further away from the equator.
(d) Rainfall in the Sudan Climate is concen-
trated in the summer.
3. Write a descriptive account of:
Either: The Masai, pastoralists of East
Africa.
Or: The Hausa, food growers of northern
Nigeria.
You should bear in mind the environmen-
tal influence on their mode of living.
4. It is said that the savanna land holds great
promise for the future. Do you think so? Why?
Outline some of the probable difficulties that
may be encountered in their development.
5. Write brief notes on the following:
(a) The effects of Harmattan in West Africa.
(b) The savanna is the 'Big Game Country'.
(c) Tropical grasslands have great potential
for the cultivation of tropical hot crops,
e.g. cotton, coffee, fruits.
(d) The savanna is a transitional zone between
the equatorial forests and the hot deserts.
t71
out on a scientific basis. In the African savanna, the
attitude of such native herdsmen as the Masai who
treat cattle as prestige animals, not for slaughtering,
will pose many difficulties towards the commercial-
ization of the cattle industry. But as an agricultural
region, the savanna holds great promise for the
future.
6. (a) Briefly describe the main characteristics of
the Savanna or Sudan type of clirnate.
(b) In what respect is it similar to that of the
tropical monsoon type of climate?
(c) What difficulties would this type of climate
present to agricultural development?
1 (a) In which continent is the Sudan type of cli-
mate most common?
(b) Why is this type of climate more suited to
grass than to trees?
(c) Describe how the climate and vegetation
here influence the lives of the people.
8. With the aid of separate sketch maps, cite an
example for each of the following:
(a) a savanna region;
(b) a region of hot, wet forests;
(c) a tundra region.
For any two of. the above regions you have cho-
sen:
i.
briefly outline the characteristics of the
natural vegetation;
ii. show how the main features are related
to the climate of the area.
9. Explain any two of the following statements:
(a) Savanna plants have to adapt themselves
to withstand the lengthy droughts which
come in the cooler part of the year.
(b) The diurnal range of temperature is very
great in deserts.
(c) Man has had a great influence on plant and
animal life the world over.
10. (a) In what ways do conditions in the savanna
grassland differ from those of the Steppe
grassland?
(b) Describe how men make use of the grass-
lands.
(c) Which of the two types of grasslands men-
tioned above is likely to be more inten-
sively used? Give your reasons.
Sample Obiective Ouestions
1. Thc tropical continental savanna
type of climate is best described as
having
A winter rain and summer drought
B summer rain and winter drought
C a mild, wet autumn and a cool.
dry spring
D much rain all the year round
2. The savanna type of vegetation is
different from the other types of
vegetation because of its
A evergreen trees
B widespread scrub
C thorny bushes
D tall grass and scattered trees
3. Tropical savanna land has the
greatest potential for
A extensive wheat farming
B irrigated orchard farming
C cattle rearing
D inland fish culture
4. The savanna or Sudan type of cli-
mate is mainly found
A within the tropics
172
B outside the tropics
C on the castem coastlands of con-
tinents
D where trade winds blow off-shore
5. In savanna lands, the greatest plant
grofih takes place in summer which
coincides with the
A elevation of the midday sun over
the tropics
B period of heaviest rain
C season of light showen
D equinoxes
Chapter 18 The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude
Desert Climate
Distribution
Deserts are regions of scanty rainfall which may be
hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type; or tem'
perate as are the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi.
The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the
effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence they are also
called Trade Wind Deserts. The temperate deserts
are rainless because of their interior location in the
temperate latitudes, well away from the rain-bearing
winds.
The major hot deserts of the world are located on
the western coasts of continents between latitudes
15" and 30" N and S as shown in Fig. 18.1. They
include the Sahara Desert, the largest single stretch
of desert, which is 5 150.km (3,2N miles) from east
to west and at least 1 600 km (1,000 miles) wide. Its
total area of 9 million sq. km (3.5 million square
Fig. 18.1 The hot deserts and mid-latitude deserts of the world
,*,#,,\
Atacama
,i
-- -'i
Or!
E (D.'
;ol.Ei
E':
I
r--1
miles) is larger than all the 50 states of the U.S.A.
put together. The next biggest desert is the Great
Australian Desert which covers almost half of the
continent. The other hot deserts are the Arabian
Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and
Namib Deserts. In North America, the desert
extends from Mexico into the U.S.A. and is called
by different names at different places, e.g. the
Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Des-
erts. In South America. the Atacama or Peruvian
Desert is the driest of all deserts with less than
13 mm (0.5 inches) of rainfall annually.
Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found
on plateaux and are at a considerable distance from
the sea. These are the Gobi. Turkestan and Pata-
gonian Deserts. The Patagonian Desert is more due
to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the
lofty Andes than to continentality.
Ag$'gteqL--
sgld ocean currents
Scale: 1:21500O000
173
 ered, making condensation almost impossible. There
Climate
is scarely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The
Rainfall. Few deserts whether hot or mid-latitude relative humidity is extremely low, decreasing from
have an annual precipitation of more than 250 mm 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per cent
(10 inches). For example, William Creek in Aus- in the desert interiors. Under such conditions, every
tralia has 137 mm (5.4 inches), Jacobabad in Pakis- bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus
tan has 102 mm (4 inches), Yuma, Arizona, U.S.A. regions of permanent drought.
has 84 mm (3.3 inches). In Salah in the mid-Sahara Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
and Arica in the mid-Atacama have practically no Coastal stations like Massawa on the Red Sea, as
rain at all. In the latter, less than 0.5 mm (0.02 illustrated in Fig. 18.2(a) receive light scattered
inches) fell within a period of 17 years in three light showers from the on-shore winds, amounting to
showers! In another station less than 240 km (150 150 mm (5.9 inches) for the year. On the western
miles) away at Iquique, not a single drop of rain was coasts, the presence of cold currents (indicated by
recorded for four years and then a torrential down- arrows in Fig. 18.1) gives rise to mists and fogs by
pour suddenly came one afternoon in which 63 mm chilling the oncoming air. This air is later warmed
(2.5 inches) of rain fell! The aridity of deserts is the by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls.
most outstanding feature of the desert climate. We The dessicating effect of the cold Peruvian Current
shall examine more closely why they are so dry. along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the
The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not
the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts where the air more than 13 mm (0.5 inch)! Rain normally occurs
is descending, a condition least favourable for pre- as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type.
cipitation of any kind to take place. The rain-bearing It 'bursts' suddenly and pours continuously for a few
Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that hours over small areas. Twenty-five millimetres'(1
are on-shore blow outside the desert limits. What- inch) or more of rain may be recorded in one single
ever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to shower! The thunderstorm is so violent, and comes
warmer regions, and their relative humidity is low- so suddenly that it has drastic consequences on de-
sert landforms.
Fis.18.2(a) Temperature. The deserts are some of the hottest
The Hot Desert Climate
Place: Massawa, Ethiopia (16'N, 39'E) spots on earth and have high temperatures through-
Altitude: 20 metres (64 feet) out the year. There is no cold season in the hot de-
Annual precipitation: 150 mm (5.9 inches) serts and the average summer temperature is around
Annual temperature range: 9"C (35"-26'Cy17'F (95.-78.F)
30 "C (86'F). The highest shade temperature re-
-z llil J 38/100
32t90
corded is 58 "C (136 "F) on the 13 September 1922 at
Al Azizia,40 km (25 miles) south of Tripoli, Libya,
cE 27180 in the Sahara. Days are unbearably hot, and in the
=o 21170 open barren sands, 77 "C (170 'F) is often recorded.
c>
.FE .g The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious-
f|r a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation, dry air
{o "-
6(J and a rapid rate of evaporation.
E Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influ-
ence and the cooling effect of the cold currents have
much lower temperatures, e.g. Arica has a mean
51t2
annual temperature of 19'C (66'F), Iquique 18 "C
(65 'F), Walvis Bay, south-west Africa, only 17'C
2511 (63 "F). The hottest months seldom rise beyond
2l "C (70 "F) and the annual temperature range is
0/0 equally small, e.g. 5 'C (9 'F) in Africa,5.5 'C (10 'F)
AM JJ ASOND in lquique and 5.5 "C (10 "F) in Walvis Bay.
months The desert interiors, however, experience much
Massawa: J 'F l\4 JJ ASOND ranqe^otar higher
summer temperatures and the winter months
Temp. C: 26 26 21 29 31 34 33 32 30 27
'F.: 78 79 8l 84 88 92 95 94 92 89 86 8r 17_"_F are rather cold. For example In Salah, in the
Precrp. (mm): 38 15 l5 200 00 008r836
(rnches): 1.5 06 06 0.8 0 00 0 0 03 0.7 t.4 lT'ilft. mid-Sahara, has a temperature of 37 'C (99 'F) in the
174
 27180
hottest month but only 13 "C (55 "F) in the coldest
21170
month. The annual range is 24'C (44 'F). The range
16/@
for Yuma is 20 "C (36 "F) and for Jacobabad is 23 "C
.=o 10/50
(41 "F). In comparison, the station Massawa, illus-
trated in Fig. 18.2(a), located near the coast, facing FE 4140

the Red Sea has only a moderate range of 9 "C (17 FE -1130
"F). Its hottest month is July with a mean tempera- -4t20
ture of 35'C (95 "F) and its coldest month is January
.E
with a mean temperature of.26"C (78 "F). o
The diurnal range of temperature in the desert is 76t3 ?L
Fo-
very great. Intense insolation by day in a region of 6(J
cro
5112 F
dry air and no clouds causes the temperature to rise o
with the sun. The barren ground is so intensely he-
ated that, by noon, particularly in summer, a read- 25t1
ing of 49'C (L20'F) is common. But as soon as the
0/0
sun sets, the land loses heat very quickly by radia- JFMAMJJASOND
tion, and the mercury column in the thermometer months
drops to well below the mean temperature. A daily Kashgr:JFMAMJJASOND range/total
temperature range of 17 'C to 22'C (30'to 40 oF) is Temp. "c:
"F.: -5
l.t 8 '16 21 25 27 24 21 't3 4 -3 32'c
22 g 41 61 10 7t 80 76 69 56 40 26 58"F.
common, though in the Death Valley of California, Precip.(mml: I 0 5 5 20 l0 8 18 8 0 0 5 89 mm
linches):03 0 02 0.2 0'8 0'4 03 07 03 0 O 02 3 5 inches
an exceptionally great diurnal range of 41 'C (74 'F)
has been recorded. Frosts may occur at night in Fis.18.2(b)
winter. These extremes of temperature make de- The Mid-Latitude Desert Climate
Place: Kashi (Kashgar), China (39'N,76" E)
sert living most trying. This explains why the desert Altitude: 1 297 metres (4,255 feet)
people wear thick gowns all day long, to protect Annual precipitation: 89 mm (3.5 inches)
themselves from the glaring heat by day and chilling Annual temperature range: 32 "C (27 'C- (- 5) 'Cy58 'F (80 "-
22'Fl
frost by night, not to mention the sand grains that
are carried by the wind. greater than that of the hot deserts. Continentality
accounts for these extremes in temperature. Winters
are often severe, freezing lakes and rivers, and
Glimatic Conditions in the Mid-Latitude
strong cold winds blow all the time. When the ice
Deserts thaws in early summer, floods occur in many places.
The climatic conditions of the mid-latitude deserts The greptest rnhibiting factors to settlement are the
are in many ways similar to those of the hot deserts. winter cold and the permanent aridity, besides
Aridity is the keynote. These inland basins lie remoteness from the sea.
hundreds of kilometres fiom the sea, and are shel-
tered by the high mountains all around them. As a
result, they are cut off from the rain-bearing winds.
Natural Vegetation
Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic All deserts have some form of vegetation such as
continental mass and bring light rainfall in winter, grass, scrub, herbs, weeds, roots or bulbs. Though
or unexpected convectional storms may bless the they may not appear green and fresh all the time,
parched lands with brief showers in summer. For they lie dormant in the soil awaiting rain which
example Kashi (Kashgar) in western China in the comes at irregular intervals or once in many years.
Gobi Desert, as illustrated in Fig. 18.2(b), has most The environment, so lacking in moisture and so
of its 89 mm (3.5 inches) of annual precipitation in excessive in heat, is most unfavourable for plant
the summer. Due to their coldness and elevation, growth and a significant vegetation cannot be
snow falls in winter. expected. But very rarely are there deserts where
From Fig. 18.2(b), it is clear that summers are very nothing grows.
hot with an average temperature of 27 "C (80 "F) in The predominant vegetation for both hot and mid-
July at Kashi (Kashgar) and winters are extremely latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant
cold with two months below freezing point. The sciub. This includes the bulbous cacti, thorny
annual range of temperature is 32 "C (58 "F) much bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf

t75
 i'l'e"i
lpi
if.*';*..i slr\
18.A Desert plants in Arizona: Desert plants take a variety of forms both above and under the ground. Giant cactus called
saguaro (middleground, left) and Barrel cactus (Middleground, right) appear together with the widespreading hedgehog
cactus (foreground, centre). Many other drought-resistant plants, usually prickly with thick skins and waxy surfaces, such as
the ocotillo (shown in betwen the saguaro and the Barrel cactus in the middleground), the primrose and threadplant (in the
foreground), are found with the cactus plants. They have long roots in search of water and other plant food.

acacias (Plate 18.A). Except for date palms in oases
and well-watered river courses trees are rare because
intense insolation, very low relative humidity, and
rapid radiation would dry out their foliage and kill
them. Along the western coastal deserts washed by
cold currents as in the Atacama Desert, the mists
and fogs, formed by the chilling of warm air over
cold currents, roll inland and nourish a thin cover of
vegetation.
Plants that exist in deserts have highly specialized
means of adapting themselves to the arid environ-
ment. Intense evaporation increases the salinity of
the soil so that the dissolved salts tend to accumulate
on the surface forming hard pans. There are plants
called halophytes (salt lovers) that are adapted to
survive in such saline conditions. Desert soils
deficient in humus since there is little vegetation to
decay and the absence of moisture retards the rate
of decomposition. Plants, whether annuals or per-
ennials must struggle for survival against both aridity
and poor soil.
Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well
spaced out to gather moisture, and search for ground
water. Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage
is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to
reduce the loss of water through transpiration. Some
of them are entirely leafless, with pricks or thorns.
Others like the cacti have thick succulent stems to
store up water for long droughts. There are still oth-
ers that shed their leaves during droughts. The seeds
of many species of grasses and herbs have thick,
are tough skins to protect them while they lie dormant.

r76
They germinate at once when their seeds are mois-
tened by the next rain. In short, all plants must adapt
themselves to survive in such an inhospitable region
as the desert.
Life in the Deserts
Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been
peopled by different groups of inhabitants. They
struggle against an environment deficient in water,
food and other means of livelihood. Some, like the
Egyptians have attained a high level of civilization,
others like the Bedouin Arabs have fared quite well
with their flocks of sheep, goats, camels and horses.
The Bushmen of the Kalahari remain so primitive in
their mode of living that they barely survive. They
are, in fact, a relic of the Old Stone Age in the mod-
ern world. The desert inhabitants may be grouped
under the following categories:
l. The primitive hunters and collectors. Of the pri-
mitive tribes, the Bushmen and the Bindibu are the
best known. Both the tribes are nomadic hunters and
food gatherers, growing no crops and domesticating
no animals. The Bushmen roam the Kalahari Desert
with their bows and poisoned arrows, spears, traps
and snares. They are not only skilful and strong but
have grpat endurance. In order to capture their prey,
they have to be very patient and if necessary run
many kilometres to track down the wounded ani-
mals. In this way, they hunt antelope, and other
smaller animals. The women and children collect
insects, rodents and lizards, and gather honey, roots,
grass and grubs. Great skill is required in obtaining
water in the desert. Dew is carefully gathered from
leaves early in the morning and stored in ostrich
shells. Very often, it is necessary to dig a hole in
damp sand and suck the water up from the ground
through a hollow reed. This is often a very slow
process. Bushmen either wear a loin cloth or go vir-
tually naked. They travel in small family groups, and
live together in open sherms. This is a hollow dug
beneath a thorn tree, surrounded by bushes. At
night a fire is lit to keep the family warm.
The Bindibu or Aborigines of Australia live in very
much the same way as the Bushmen. They are skil-
led trackers and some of them use wooden throwing
sticks or boomerangs and spears. They also domesti-
cate the dingo, a wild dog that assists them in track-
irtg down kangaroos, rabbits and birds. The women
gather grass, roots, seeds, berries, moles and insects,
to supplement their diet. Like the wandering Bush-
177
men, the Bindibu move in family groups in search of
fresh hunting grounds. But one distinct difference is
that they always stay close to a water supply as they
have not devised a means of tapping and storing wa-
ter. They live in wurlies, simple shelters made of
branches and tufts and grass.
2. The nomadic herdsmen. These people represent
a more advanced group of desert dwellers who pur-
sue a livestock. economy. They ride on animals
instead of walking and are heavily clad against the
blazing sun, the stormy winds and the chilly nights.
The Bedouin of Arabia ride on horses and live in
tents; the Tuaregs of the Sahara are camel riders and
dwell in grass zeriba, while the Gobi Mongols ride
on horses to herd their yaks and live in portable
yurts (a kind of tent). The Bedouin are the best
examples of a desert group who have fared well as
nomadic herdsmen. Besides keeping large flocks of
animals, they are also engaged in trade with the car-
avan merchants and the oases people. All round the
year, the Bedouin wander with their herds in search
of water and green pastures. Their wealth is their
animals: sheep, goats, camels and perhaps a few
horses. The animals provide them with all that they
require, daily milk and cheese and on occasions
meat as well. Their skin is used for hides or leather,
for making tents, clothing, belts, footwear and water
bags. From the hair and wool, the Bedouin make
clothes, mats, ropes, rugs and barpets. These can
also be exchanged at trading stations or oases for
other necessities of life which the desert herdsmen
cannot produce like dates, grain, beverages, medi-
cines, firearms and other manufactured articles.
The Bedouin move in groups of about a hundred.
18.B Nomadic herdsmen lead their sheep across the
desert in Syria to pastures Servizio Editoriale Fotografico
They follow a regular pattern of routes, along which
are scanty patches of pastures, wells or springs, In
this manner, one group rarely clashes with the other
in their search for-new grounds to pitch their tents.
Since they move so often, they always travel light
and only essentials are carried along (Plate 18.B).
3. The caravan traders. These were the travelling
merchqnts of the desert. Their journeys across the
wastes of the Sahara or Russian Turkestan some-
times lasted months or even years. They travelled at
night as a team and were well-armed. They carried
a wide range of goods into remote interiors where
their merchandise was highly sought after. These
goods were sold or exchanged for hides, rugs, car-
pets and other valuable products of the deserts.
Though profits were high, the risks were equally
great.
The pack-animal used by the caravans to carry
their goods across the deserts was the camel, aptly
described as the 'ship of the desert'. Unlike horses
which have sharp hooves that sink readily in the
sandy desert, the camel has broad padded feet that
will not slip in the sand. A pack-camel, adequately
fed, can carry a load of 160 kg (350 pounds) and
travel 80 km (50 miles) a day. And a racing camel
can do twice the distance when ridden! The camel
has several other advantages, it provides milk and
hair. It can store up water in its stomach, and fat in
its hump, so that it can go for long periods without
either food or water.
With the introduction of modern air, road and rail
transport, the role of the caravan traders is greatly
reduced. Goods can be conveyed much more
cheaply and with greater security by desert jeeps,
vans or trucks. But between the interior oases and
scattered out-posts beyond the reach of roads, the
caravan routes remain the only form of available
transport.
4. The settled cultivators. For crops to be cultivated
in the desert, irrigation is indispensable. This is
obtained either from oases, rivers or dams, through
a network of canals. In Egypt, the Nile supports a
population of 40 million, mainly concentrated in the
Nile valley and delta. Thp life-giving waters of the
Nile made it possible for the Egyptians to raise many
crops as early as 5 000 years ago. When the Nile
flooded in summer, the overflowed water was caught
in basins with raised banks and led into the fields to
irrigate the crops. This was basin irrigation, which
was widely practised by the ancient Egyptian farm-
ers and is still employed by the Egyptians today.
Rice and cotton are cultivated in summer, followed
178
by wheat, barley, beans and other minor crops in
winter. Modern concrete dams constructed across
the Nile, e.g. Aswan and Sennar Dams are even
more effective for extensive irrigation works. The
flood-water can be held back and controlled and
then released at any part of the year to feed the
fields that yield two, three or even more crops a
year. In the same way, desert cultivators rely on the
Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris-Euphrates in Iraq, and
the Colorado in the Imperial Valley of California,
and are able to irrigate millions of hectares of arid
land for crop production.
In the deserts, wherever there are oases some form
of settled life is bound to follow. These are depres-
sions of varying sizes, where underground water
reaches the surface. Some of them are abnormally
large like the Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco which mea-
sures 13 000 sq. km (5,000 square miles), supporting
many settlements, including large towns. Others
may be so small that they are no bigger than the
mining pools that we are so familiar with, e.g. the
Ghadames Oasis of Libya is only 2,6 sq. km (one
square mile) in size. Life in an oasis is secure and
well-organized. A wall is usually constructed around
the oasis to keep out the violent duststorms called
simooms. The oasis people live in mUd-brick houses
with flat roofs, closely packed together. The streets
are narrow and winding, and the heart of the settle-
ment is dominated by the suq (central market place),
the mosque, school and shopping blocks. Sn4s may
18.C The oasis of El Golea. The dunes are gradually
encroaching on the date palms, Camera Press
also be set up kilometres from anywhere and people
come from a number of surrounding settlements on
special days to trade (Plate 18.C).
Around the settlement are the agricultural lands.
Water is led to the fields by irrigation channels or
drawn up from wells by camels or mules. The most
important tree is the date palm which is grown in
dug-out hollows so that its roots can penetrate deep
into the ground in search of water. Iraq is the world's
greatest producer of dates. The fruit is consumed
locally and also exported. Other crops cultivated
include maize, barley, wheat, cotton, sugar-cane,
fruits and vegetables. With the development of
motor routes across the deserts, many sophisticated
foreign goods can now reach the oases.
5. The mining settlers. The lure of mineral wealth
has attracted many immigrants into the desert. Min-
ing camps and isolated settlements have sprung up
following the discovery of certain mineral deposits.
It was gold that brought immigrants scrambling into
the Great Australian Desert. Water and food sup-
plies have to be brought 480 km (300 miles) from
Perth to keep the mines going. Some of them like
Kalgoorlie and Boulder have become towns of con-
siderable size. In the Kalahari Desert, the discovery
of diamonds and copper has brought many white
men to the 'thirst land' as it is called. Even in the
most arid Atacama, in northern Chile, large mining
camps have been established for the mining of cal-
iche (cemented gravels) from which sodium nitrate.
Ouestions and Exercises
1. Explain how the aridity of the desert is related
to
(a) off-shore Trade Winds;
(b) the Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts (the
Horse Latitudes);
(c) cold ocean currents.
2. State any distinct differences between the hot
deserts and mid-latitude deserts in:
(a) climate;
(b) vegetation;
(c) way of life.
3. With reference to actual examples, describe
the activities and modes of living of the differ-
ent groups of people that inhabit the deserts.
Attempt to account for their differences.
4. Explain any three of the following:
179
a valuable fertilizer, is extracted and exported to all
parts of the world. The mines are worked by local
Indian labourers and supervised by foreign techni-
cians. Besides nitrates, copper is also mined. These
two products have directly or indirectly contributed
to the growing size of the Chilean towns of Arica,
Iquique, Antofagasta and Chuquicamata. The last
named is the world's largest copper town. Similarly
in the deserts of North America, silver is mined in
Mexico, uranium in Utah and copper in Nevada. A
host of other minerals and their by-products have,
in fact, greatly altered the landscape and the econ-
omy of such arid regions.
In recent years, the discovery of oil, in many parts
of the Saharan and Arabian Deserts has transformed
this forgotten part of the globe. In Algeria, oil wells
have been sunk 3 km (2 miles) deep to tap oil. In the
Middle East, pipelines over 1 600 km (1,000 miles)
long have been laid to bring oil from the shores
of the Persian Gulf across Saudi Arabia to Saida
(Lebanon) and Banias (Syria) on the Mediterranean
coast. With half of the world's reserves of oil still
untapped in this region, the deserts here will vir-
tually be paved with gold! In Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi
Arabia the desert landscape is fast changing. New
roads, huge palaces, ultra-modern hospitals, air-con-
ditioned apartments and swimming pools, are exam-
ples of a thriving new era created entirely by
oil-'liquid gold'.
(a) The hot deserts of the world are located on
the western coasts of continents.
(b) Patagonia is a desert in the rain-shadow of
the Andes.
(c) Desert plants must adapt themselves to
survive.
(d) Camels are the 'ships of the desert'.
5. Write brief notes on any three of these topics:
(a) The Bindibu of the Great Australian
Desert.
(b) Date palm cultivation in an oasis.
(c) The role of oil in the development of the
desert economy.
(d) The Bedouin-the wandering herdsmen.
(e) Agricultural development of any selected
desert region.
6. (a) Name the major hot deserts in the north- 8. Define the following terms:
ern hemisphere. (a) epiphytes;
(b) What do they have in common? (b) halophytes;
(c) For any one ofthe deserts you have named (c) saprophytes;
in (a) explain why it is so sparsely popu- (d) hydrophytes.
lated. Select any two of the above and state the type
7. The following are selected statistics of. three of climatic or natural region that they thrive in
different types of climate: best.
Sra- Loca,ion Mean AnnualAnnual Annual Se6on of
9. (a) In what ways is the Atacama Desert dif-
,ton Temperature Temperature Rainfall Maximum ferent from the Patagonia on the other side
Range Rainfall of the Andes?
l9'N 73'E 8l"F l0"F 73 ins Summer (b) What economic activities are important
(27"c\ (5.5'C.) (1825 mm)
B l3'N 45'E 83"F l3'F 2 ins lrregutar
there?
(28"C) (7"C) (50 mm) 10. (a) Why are plants in the deserts considered
C 32"S 1 l6'E 64"F lg'F 34 ins Winrer
(lrc) (lcPC) (850 mm) 'xerophytic'?
(b) State five different ways in which these
(a) Attempt to name each of the stations A, xerophytic plants adapt to survive the arid
B and C. environment.
(b) State the climate experienced in each of (c) In what other climatic regions are xero-
the stations. phytic plants also found?
(c) Give an explanatory account of the differ-
ences in temperature and rainfall between
the three stations.

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. All the following statements about B of the high incidence of sunstroke A The diurnal range of temperature
hot deserts of the world are true er- C camels are expensive to maintain is very great
cept D many caravan traders have taken B Rainfall is irregular and most un-
A They are located on the western to oil prospecting reliable
portions of continents C The relative humidity is very low
B They lie along the Horse Lati- An example of a plant that is cap- D The sky is overcast most of the
tudes able of withstanding long periods of time
C Cold currents bathe their shores drought is the
D Trade winds are on-shore A elm 5. Halophytes are plants that
B acacia A thrive best in swamPy coasts
2. The caravan traders of the Sahara Cfir
D oak
B Survive best in saline soils
Desert are declining in number be- C Can be grown only in the shade
cause 4. Which of the following characteris- D Can trap insects and pests
A caravan routes are being replaced tics of the hot desert climate is /east
bv motorwavs acceptable?

180
Chapter 19 The Warm Temperate Western
Margin (Mediterranean) Climate
Distribution
The Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate is
found in relatively few areas in the world. They are
entirely confined to the western portion of continen-
tal masses, between 30' and 45' north and south of
the equator (Fig. 19.1). The basic cause of this type
of climate is the shifting of the wind belts, explained
in Chapter 14. Though the area around the Medi-
terranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of
'winter rain climate', and gives rise to the more
popular name Mediterranean Climate, the best
developed form of this peculiar climatic type is,
in fact, found in central Chile (Fig. 19.2). Other
Mediterranean regions include California (around
San Francisco), the south-western tip of Africa
(around Cape Town), southern Australia (in south-
ern Victoria and around Adelaide, bordering the St.
Fig. 19.1 Regions with a Mediterranean Climate
t
'----r---
I
I
I M"dit"rtun"un
l8l
Vincent and Spencer Gulfs), and south-western
Australia (Swanland).
Climate
The Mediterranean type of climate is characterized
by very distinctive climatic features.
1. A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades. As
illustrated in Fig. 19.3(a) and (b), the summer
months have arelatively high temperat we (24'Cl7 6"F
in July in Rome and21. 'C/70 "F in January in Cape
Town). The highest temperatures are however
experienced further away from the coast in the moie
continental eastern Mediterranean, in the interiors
of the Balkan peninsula, the Anatolian Plateau and
Mediterranean Middle East. For example, the July
mean for Athens is 27 "C (80 "F), Larisa (Greece)
27 "C (81. 'F) and Beirut (Lebanon) 28 "C (83 "F).
1>n e
Scale: 1 : 215 00O 0OO
 Elsewhere in central Chile, South Africa and Med-
iterranean Australia, due to their coastal position,
the influence of the sea has modified the tempera-
ture and the January means (Southern Summer) are
normally around 21 "C (70 "F).
In summer when the sun is overhead at the Tropic
of Cancer, the belt of influence of the Westerlies is
shifted a little polewards. Rain-bearing winds are
therefore not likely to reach the Mediterranean
lands. The prevailing Trade Winds are off-shore and
there is practically no rain. The air is dry, the heat
is intense and the relative humidity is low. Days are
excessively warm and in the interiors, prolonged
droughts are common. At night, there is rapid radia-
tion but frosts are rare.
2. A concentration of rainfall in winter with on-shore
Westerlies. The Mediterranean lands receive most
of their precipitation in winter when the Westerlies
shift equatorwards. In the northern hemisphere, the
prevailing on-shore Westerlies bring much cyclonic
oroJfiTlfTiTJ rain from the Atlantic to the countries bordering the
Mediterranean Sea. This is the rainy season and is
Fig. 19.2 Central Chile-a region with a typical Mediterra- the most outstanding feature of the Mediterranean
nean Climate-showing the shifting of the wind with most Climate. In almost all other climatic types, maximum
rain falling in winter
rain comes in summer. The mean annual rainfall is
Fig. 19.3(a) Fis.19.3(b)
Mediterranean Climate in the northern hemisphere Mediterranean Climate in the southern hemisphere
Place: Rome, ltaly {u,2'N, 12" E) Place: Cape Town, South Africa (34" S, 18'E)
Altitude: 63 metres (207 feet) Altitude: 12 metres (40 feet)
Annual precipitation: 838: mm (33 inches) Annual precipitation: 635 mm (25 inches)
Annuaf temperature range: 17"C Q4"-7 'Cy31 'F. (76'- Annual temperature range: 8'C (21 '-13'C)/15'F (70"-
45 "F) 55 "F.)
27 lao
27t80
21170
21170
16/60
16/60
1 0/50
10/s0
4140
4t40

; ;
l|r 1021 fu
6O
E 761 E
o

51/2

251 1

0/0
FMAMJJA J J AS O N
months months
Rome:
oc:
JFMAMJJASON D range/rotal cape Town: JFI\4AM JJA o ND range/total
Temp. 78111822222424211712 I l7-C temp. L: 21 21 20 17 15 't3 13 t3 14 18 20 8"C
45 47 51 M 11 71 16 76 70 62 53 46 31"F. 7o 70 68 63 59 56 55 56 58 64 68 15'F.
Precip. {mm): 8f 69 74 66 56 41 t8 25 64 127 112 99 838 mm Precrp. {mm): r8 15 23 48 97 114 94 86 58 4l 28 20 635 mm
(inchesl 3.2 2.7 2.9 2.6 2.2 1.6 0.7 l.O 2.5 5.O 4.4 (inches): 07 0.6 0.9 r.9 38 4.5 3.7 3.4 23 t.l 0.8 25 inches

r82
normally taken as 635 mm (25 inches). Again this
differs greatly from place to place, depending on
relief, continentality and the passage of the passing
cyclones. The annual rainfall for the two selected
stations Rome and Cape Town is 838 mm (33
inches) and 635 mm (25 inches) respectively, which
are quite typical of the regions they represent. The
rain comes in heavy showers and only on a few days
with bright sunny periods between them. This is
another characteristic feature of the Mediterranean
winter rain.
With a little more caution in relating the relief of
the Mediterranean lands to the rainfall distribution,
you will notice that the Mediterranean regions are
often backed by mountains of some kind. In Iberia,
the central Meseta and other Sierras of the peninsula
present an effective barrier to the oncoming Wes-
terlies. As a result the Portuguese coast is much wet-
ter than eastern Spain. Lisbon has an annual rainfall
of nearly 760 mm (30 inches) while Cartagena, along
the eastern coast of Spain does not receive even half
as much. Much heavier precipitation has been
recorded in the highlands on windward slopes facing
the Westerlies. The steep hills of the eastern
Adriatic are the rainiest parts of Europe with
4 623 mm (182 inches) recorded at Crkvice, about
1 100 metres (3,600 feet) above sea-level.
Rain in Mediterranean Europe normally begins in
September, reaching its peak somewhere in October
(127 mmls inches in Rome). Though the downpours
are infrequent, they are often very torrential and in
mountainous districts, destructive floods occur. The
floods come so suddenly that there is practically no
time to do anything about it. The disastrous flood of
Lisbon in 1967 came in the middle of the night and
caused great damage and loss of life in a few hours!
Snow rarely occurs on lowlands and coastal dis-
tricts and even if it does fall on the highlands, it is
moderate and is a source of water supply for hydro-
electric power generation and for irrigation.
3. Bright, sunny weather with hot, dry summers and
wet, mild winters. Considering its mid-latitude
position, the Mediterranean regions have a very
favourable climate, unrivalled by any other climatic
regions. The climatic features are transitional be-
tween those of the Trade Wind Hot Desert in the
south and the Cool Temperate Maritime Climate in
the north. Summers are warm and bright and winters
are so mild and cool that many tourists come at all
times of the year. The sky is almost cloudless and
sunshine is always abundant. In July, Rome has as
much as eleven hours of sunlight, and with the Med-
183
iterranean palm trees around, tourists feel very
much as if they are in the tropics! Even in mid-sum-
mer, the intense heat is never sultry. The combined
effects of on-shore winds and the maritime breezes
keep the temperature down to about 10 'C (50 "F) in
winter and not often exceedingZ4 'C (75 oF) in sum-
mer. The climate is do mild that many of the local
people sleep in the open air. The annual tempera-
ture range is between 8 o and 14 'C (15 " and 25 "F).
The Mediterranean regions are famous for their
health and pleasure resorts, frequented by millions
all the year round.
4. The prominence of local winds around the Medi-
terranean Sea. Many local winds, some hot, others
cold are common around the Mediterranean Sea.
The causes are many and varied. The topography of
the region with the high Alps in the north, the
Sahara desert in the south. continental interiors in
the east and the open Atlantic on the west give rise
to great differences in temperature, pressure and
precipitation. The passing cyclones from the Atlan-
tic, the anticyclones from the north, and the cold air
masses from the continental interiors are often inter-
rupted or channelled by relief features, resulting in
the birth of local winds around the Mediterranean.
These winds, varying in strength, direction and
duration, affect the lives, crops and activities of the
people there. Fig. 19.4 indicates the location and
direction of some of these local winds and the more
important ones are described below.
(a) Sirocco. This is a hot, dry dusty wind which
originates in the Sahara Desert. Though it may occur
at any time of the year, it is most frequent in spring
and normally lasts for only a few days. The Sirocco
blows outwards in a northerly direction from the
desert interiors into the cooler Mediterranean Sea.
It is usually associated with depression from the
Atlantic passing from the coast eastwards inland.
After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco
Fig. 19.4 Local Winds of the Mediterranean Sea
f +;re are.as \--
hot Wlnds i \- \
"riibr x.a:'
-
is slightly cooled by the absorption of the water
vapour. Even then, it is still hot and dry with a tem-
perature of over 40 "C (105 "F). Its scorching breath
withers vegetation and crops. The damage is partic-
ularly serious when it comes during the period when
vines and olives are in blossom. The Sirocco is so
prominent that it is called by many other local
names, such as Chili in Tunisia, Ghibli in Libya, Lev-
eche in Spain, Khamsin in Egypt and Malta. In the
Adriatic and Aegean Sea, this hot wind, better
known as Gharbi, gathers much moisture causing
fog, heavy dew and rain. This may be 'blood rain'
because the wind is carrying the red dust of the
Sahara Desert.
(b) Mistral. In contrast, the Mistral is a cold wind
from the north rushing down the Rh6ne valley in
violent gusts between 65 and 130 km.p.h. (40 and
80 m.p.h.). The velocity of the Mistral is intensified
by the funnelling effect in the valley between the
Alps and the Central Massif, and in extreme cases
trains may be derailed and trees uprooted. In winter
when the Mistral is most frequent the temperature
of the wind may be below freezing-point, though the
sky may be clear and cloudless. As a protective
measure, many of the houses and orchards of the
Rh6ne valley and the Riviera have thick rows of
trees and hedges planted to shield them from the
Mistral.
A similar type of cold north-easterly wind expe-
rienced along the Adriatic coast is called the Bora.
Like the Mistral, it is caused by a difference in pres-
sure between continental Europe and the Mediter-
ranean. This usually occurs in winter, when the
atmospheric pressure over continental Europe is
higher than that of the Mediterranean Sea. The Bora
thus blows outwards into the Mediterranean. This
dry, icy wind is even more vio[ent than the Mistral
and speeds of over 160 km.p.h. (100 m.p.h.) have
been recorded. During strong Boras, ships may be
blown aground and agricultural lands devastated.
Tramontana and Gregale are similar cold winds of
the Mediterranean Sea.
small broad leaves are widely spaced and never
very tall. Though there are many branches they are
short and carry few leaves. The absence of shade is
a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands. Growth
is slow in the cooler and wetter season, even though
more rain comes in winter. Growth is thus almost
restricted to autumn and spring when the tempera-
ture is higher and moisture is just sufficient. The
long summer drought checks growth. One fact is
clear, plants whether trees or shrubs, evergreen or
deciduous, have to adapt themselves to a climatic
environment with a marked rhythmic recurrence of
rain and drought. In many ways, the vegetational
responses to climatic demands in the Mediterranean
are similar to those of the adjacent deserts and the
savanna further south. Plants are in a continuous
struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation
and prolonged droughts. They are, in short, xero-
phytic, a word used to describe the drought-resistant
plants in environment deficient in moisture.
TYPES OF MEDITERRANEAN VEGETATION
Various kinds of vegetation are found in the Medi-
terranean regions.
1. Mediterranean evergreen forests. These are
open woodlands with evergreen oaks, of which the
cork oaks of Spain and Portugal are the best known.
They are found only in the climatically most
favoured regions with a rainfall of well over 635 mm
19.A The giant sequoia of California towers above the sur-
rou nd i n g tr ees Se rv i zi o Ed ito ri al e Fotog rafico

Natural Vegetation
Mediterranean vegetation is of a transitional nature
between that of the hot desert and the temperate
forest. Trees, shrubs, grass or scrub may predomi-
nate depending upon local conditions. precipitation
is only moderate, between 38 mm (15 inches) and
890 mm (35 inches) and evaporation is high. Con-
sequently plant growth is not luxuriant. Trees with

184
(25 inches). The trees are normally low, even
stunted, with massive trunks, deeply fissured barks,
small leathery leaves and wide-spreading root sys-
tem in search of water. The cork oaks are specially
valued for their thick barks, used for making wine-
bottle corks and for export around the world. In
Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the ever-
green oak. The jarrah and karri trees are commer-
cially the most important. The giaht sequoia or
redwood is typical of the Californian trees (Plate
1e.A).
2. Evergreen coniferous trees. These include the
various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses
which have evergreen, needle-shaped leaves and
tall, straight trunks. They appear more on the cooler
highlands and where droughts are less severe. Defo-
restation has reduced their numbers considerably.
3. Mediterranean bushes and shrubs. This is per-
haps the most predominant type of Mediterranean
vesetation. Summers are so dry and hot that in
places forests give place to short, evergreen shrubs
and bushes. The low bushes grow in scattered
clumps and are often thorny. The more common
species are laurel, myrtle, lavender, arbutus and
rosemary, of which a number are strongly scented
or perfumed.
In many areas, due to Man's interference in forest
depletion, or to overgrazing, the original woodlands
degenerate into a scrub vegetation with scattered,
stunted trees and tall bushes. They are so different
from the ordinary woodland or the true desert scrub-
land that special names have been given to them to
distinguish their location in different parts of the
Mediterranean lands. This type of vegetation is
called maquis in southern France, and macchia in
Italy. In California, the term chaparral is used and
in Australia mallee scrub. In limestone uplands,
where the soil is extremely thin and the scrub dete-
riorates into highly xerophytic ground creepers, a
more exact term, garrigue, is used.
4. Grass. Conditions in the Mediterranean do not
suit grass, because most of the rain comes in the cool
season when growth is slow. Slow-growing vegeta-
tion, which cannot replenish its foliage readily, and
which is without deep-penetrating roots, is least
suited here. Even if grasses do survive, they are so
wiry and bunchy that they are not suitable for ani-
mal farming. Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in
the Mediterranean. The grass, which is replaced
by certain drought-resistant varieties of shrubs and
flowering herbs, can however support sheep or
goats. Even this form of grazing has done more harm
l8s
than good for it has promoted soil erosion and
impoverished the hill slopes of the Mediterranean.
Animal fats are not important here and the chief
cooking oil is obtained from olives. Dairy products
are net import items.
Economic Development of the
Mediterranean Regions
Despite the semi-arid conditions over many parts of
the Mediterranean lands, the climate as a whole is
favourable. Its warm, bright summers and cool,
moist winters enable a wide range of crops to be cul-
tivated. One must not forget that the Mediterranean
shore-lands were once the Cradle of Western Civi-
lization. Nowadays the area is important for fruit
cultivation, cereal growing, wine-making and agri-
cultural industries, as well as engineering and min-
ing. We shall deal with some of them in greater
detail below.
1. Orchard farming. The Mediterranean lands are
also known as the world's orchard lands. A wide
range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes,
citrons and grapefruit are grown. The fruit trees
have long roots to draw water from considerable
depths during the long summer drought. In excep-
tionally dry area, irrigation helps to relieve the lack
of moisture. In the Great Valley of California, the
Vale of Chile, the Negev Desert of Israel and the
northern shores of Mediterranean Europe, an elab-
orate system of irrigation canals enables both fruits
and cereals to be successfully raised. The thick,
leathery skin of the citrus fruits prevents excessive
transpiration and,the long, sunny summer enables
the fruits to be ripened and harvested. The various
Mediterranean oranges are so distinctive in their
shape, size, taste and quality that they are called by
different names in their area of production. Of.the
Mediterranean oranges, perhaps, the best known
are the Sunkist oranges from California, exported
for table consumption and for making orange
squash. The Seville oranges of Spain are small but
very sweet and are particularly suitable for making
marmalade. Those from Israel, the Jaffa oranges,
are equally delicious and are specially grown for
export. In Tangiers, the tangerine is of great local
importance. [n the temperate monsoon lands of
China and Japan, which were, in fact, the native
home of the orange, commercial cultivation of the
fruit is less significant, and only in recent years has
there been any serious effort made to popularize
their export as 'mandarin oranges'. The Mediterra-
ffi: t---'
l"
19.B Olive cultivation in Andalusia, Spain. The
gnarled trees are typical of the Mediterranean region. S.E F.
Torino
nean lands account for 70 per cent of the world's
exports of citrus fruits.
The olive tree is probably the most typical of all
Mediterranean cultivated vegetation (Plate 19.B). It
is so hardy and long-rooted that it can survive even
on very poor limestone soils with less than 250 mm
(10 inches) of annual rainfall. Like our coconut
palm, the olive tree is very 'versatile' and has many
uses. The olive can be eaten fresh or pickled with
spices. The fleshy part can be crushed and olive oil
extracted, a valuable source of cooking oil in a
region deficient in animal fat. Soap'and margarine
can also be made with the oil. Besides olives, many
nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts and
almonds are grown and the nuts picked as fruits or
for the chocolate industry. Other important fruits
are peaches, apricots, pears, plums, cherries and
figs.
2. Crop cultivation. Besides orchard fruits, the
Mediterranean climate also supports many field
crops. Cereals are by far the most important. Wheat
is the leading food crop. Though conditions for
extensive wheat cultivation are not as ideal as those
of the cool temperate regions, the Mediterranean
farmers have utilized the seasonal climatic rhythm
to their best advantage. The wheat grown is mainly
small,
hard, winter wheat.It is suitable for both bread-mak-
ing and other food-products such as macaroni, spa-
ghetti and vermicelli. The farmers usually sow the
seeds in autumn, so that they germinate and grow
steadily with the coming winter rain. By spring there
is still sufficient moisture for the wheat to mature.
The sunny weather of early summer ripens the grains
and the wheat is harvested in almost guaranteed
rainless weather. Barley is the next most popular
cereal.
Summer crops are raised only where irrigation is
possible. The water comes mainly from the melting
snow that feeds the many rivers whose sources are
in the highlands. Lowlands are intensively cultivated
and the hill slopes are terraced. In Spain and Italy,
the edges of the terraces are firmly piled with stones
to prevent any soil from being washed away. Gen-
erally speaking, farms are small but there are also
large holdings called haciendas in Spain which
engage large numbers of paid labourers to work the
farms. In a few localities, e.g. the Ebro basin in
Spain, the Po Valley in Italy, and in California, rice
has been successfully cultivated and their yields are
some of the highest in the world. In the more fertile
plains, vegetables, especially beans, and flowers are
grown for the local market. A little cotton and
r86
tobacco are also grown. The mountain pastures, with
their cooler climate, support a few sheep, goats and
sometimes cattle. Transhumance is widely practised.
3. Wine production. This is another speciality of the
Mediterranean countries, because the best wine is
essentially made from grapes. Some 85 per cent of
grapes produced go into wine. The long, sunny
summer allows the grapes to ripen and then they are
hand-picked. Viticulture is by tradition a Mediter-
ranean occupation and the regions bordering the
Mediterranean Sea account for three-quarters of the
world's production of wine. In Spain, Portugal,
France and ltaly, wine is the national drink. The
average wine consumption of the Mediterranean
countries is about 68 litres (15 gallons) per head per
annum, whereas in the U.S.A. it is not even one-
twentieth as much!
Although grapes may be grown in many parts of
the temperate lands, commercial viticulture is 19.C Grapes are grown in many Mediterranean countries'
In Turkey some are dried to make sultanas. They are washed
almost entirely confined to the Mediterranean and then laid out in the sun. Popperfoto
regions. It has been estimated that 40 million tonnes
of the world's total production of 46 million tonnes France the greatest wine regions are located further
of grapes annually are being processed into wine. north, e.g. Champagne in the Paris basin, Bordeaux
The quality of the fermented grape juice is decided in the Garonne basin, Burgundy in the Rh6ne-Sa6ne
by a number of factors including the types of vine valley.
grown, the quality of the soil, the climate of the The world trade in fresh grapes is comparatively
region, the method and extent of. fermentation. The small mainly from Mediterranean South Africa.
fragrance taste and quality of the final product is so Most of the inferior grapes are preserved as dried
varied that the price range is tremendous. Wine may grapes and exported. They are known by several
be as cheap as any soft-drink or as expensive as names, e.g. currants from the Levantine grapes,
brandy. To differentiate the various kinds of wine, raisins from California and sultanas from Turkey
the principal wine areas of the world maintain their (Plate 19.C).
exclusive names. The wine from southern Spain is The other industries associated with Mediterra-
called sherry, from Portugal port wine. Chianti, asti nean agriculture are fruit canning, flour milling and
and marsala come from different parts of Italy. In food processing.

Ouestions and Exercises

1. What is meant by the 'index plant' of a climatic (d) spruce-Cool Temperate Continental Cli-
type? In what ways are the following index mate.
plants representative of the type of climate 2. The statistics on page lt'8 of the annual rainfall
indicated: .rnd annual temperature ranges of four Medi-
(a) teak-Tropical Monsoon Climate; terranean lowland stations are taken from
(b) olive-Mediterranean Climate; the Mediterranean shorelands. Attempt to ex-
(c) cactus-Hot Desert Climate; plain their differences.

187
 Annual
Annual temperature
Station Latitude Longitude rainfall range

(a) Gibraltar 36"N 5"w 914 mm (36") 1l"c (20"F.)

(b) Marseilles 430N )t 584 mm (23") l6"c (28'F.)
(c) Athens 3g'N 24"E 406 mm (16") l8"c (32"F.)
(d) Alexandria 3 l'N 30"E 203 mm 8") ( l3"c (23"F.)

Outline the various types of natural vegetation 6. (a) Why is the Mediterranean type of climate
found in the Mediterranean regions. Relate this so unique?
to climate, soil and human interference. (b) Which other parts of the world, besides the
4. Give an explanatory account of the following Mediterranean shorelands of Europe, also
statements about economic activities of the experience a similar type of climate?
Mediterranean lands: (c) Briefly describe its annual rhythm of tem-
(a) Orchard farming is the predominant occu- perature and rainfall.
pation. 7. (a) The Mediterranean vegetation includes for-
(b) The chief cereal cultivated is hard. winter ests, woodlands, shrubs and grass. Why is
wheat. the vegetation so varied?
(c) Pastoral farming is of little importance. (b) Shrubs of various types are very well-devel-
5. Write geographical notes on any three of the fol- oped in Mediterranean lands. Name some
lowing: of the better known ones.
(a) The Mediterranean Climate is typified by (c) What uses have men made of the Mediter-
dry, sunny summers and wet. mild winters. ranean vegetation?
(b) Hot, dusty Sirocco and cold stormy Mistral. 8. (a) Mediterranean lands are often referred to
(c) Mediterranean woodlands, shrubs and as the 'world's orchard lands'. Why is
scrub. orchard farming so well-developed here?
(d) Three-quarters of the world's wine comes (b) Briefly describe the types of fruit cultivated
from the Mediterranean regions of Europe. here.
(c) What other important crops can be found
in Mediterranean lands?

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. The Mediterranean type of climate B mean annual temperature range B it receives more sun than the
is unique and is found only in certain C mid-winter temperature equatorial regions
parts of the world. Basically it is D pattern of rainfall distriburion C its mean annual temperature nev-
caused by er falls below 21"C (70'F.)
A the rotation of the earth 3. Plants in the Mediterranean lands D its annual temperature range is
B the shifting of the world's planet- have to withstand long periods of
comparable to that of Malaysia
ary wind belts drought during certain times of the
C the alternate belts of low year. They do so in the following
and 5. Mediterranean vegetation can be
ways except
high pressure quite varied. Which of the following
D relief differences over the earth's A by having bulbous stems aptly describes it?
surface B by sending out long roors in I evergreen forest
search of groundwater
.II luxuriant rain trees
2. Study the climatic statistics of the C by turning their broad leaves III open woodland
away from the sun
two selected stations in the southern IV scented scrubs
hemisphere, Cape Town (South D by reducing tinyleaves to thorns V mangrove swamps
Africa), in Fig. 19.3b on page and pricks
182 VI coarse pastures
and Hobart (Tasmania) in Fig. 22.2b 4. The Mediterranean climate is unique A I, III and VI
on page 208. Their most contrasting because B I. II and IV
climatic feature is shown in their A it receives most of its rain from C I, III. IV and VI
A total annual precipitation the westerlies in winter D III, IV, V and VI

188
Chapter 20 The Temperate Continental
(Steppe) Climate

of Hungary and the plains of Manchuria. In North

Distribution
Bordering the deserts, away from the Mediterranean
regions and in the interiors of continents are the tem-
perate grasslands. Though they lie in the Westerly
wind belt, they are so remote from maritime influ-
ence that the grasslands are practically treeless.
These grasslands are so distinctive in their natural
vegetation that, although those which occur in the
southern hemisphere have a much more moderate
climate, they are often dealt with together. In the
northern hemisphere, the grasslands are far more
extensive and are entirely continental. In Eurasia,
they are called the Steppes, and stretch eastwards
from the shores of the Black Sea across the great
Russian plain to the foothills of the Altai Mountains,
a distance of well over 3 200 km (2,000 miles). They
are broken in a few places, being interrupted by the
highlands. There are isolated sections in the Pustaz
Fig. 20.1 The Temperate Grasslands of the world
America, the grasslands are also quite extensive
and are called the Prairies. They lie between the
foothills of the Rockies and the Great Lakes astride
the American-Canadian border (Fig. 20.1).
In the southern hemisphere, due to the narrow-
ness of the temperate portions of the southern con-
tinents, the grasslands are rather restricted and less
continental. In the case of the Pampas of Argentina
and Uruguay, the grasslands extend right to the sea
and enjoy much maritime influence. In South
Africa, the grasslands are sandwiched between the
Drakensberg and the Kalahari Desert; and are fur-
ther subdivided into the more tropical Bush-veld in
the north, and the more temperate High-veld in the
south. The word'veld' is a Dutch word given by the
early pioneer Dutch farmers who came to settle
here. It means 'field' and is pronounced as 'felt'. [n
Australia, the grasslands are better known as Downs

w prrt", tri.il, Grasstand

Temperate Grasslands
scate : 1 : 215 ooo ooo Grassland
Warm ocean curents

189
 21t70 27180
16/60 21 170

1 0/50
16/60
4/40 E8 10/50
4140
.=o -1l30
_E
;9
g.: -7 t20 i:E
.E> -'t2t10 ;
l|!
-18/0 Fo-
-22t-',to 6()
cLO
15216 E
o
.g 12715
10214 10214
7613 7613
oo
:Y\

5112 5112
E
2511 o
2511
0/o 0/o
JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJAS o
months months
Winnipeg:JFMAMJJAS o N D range/total Pretoria: JFMAMJJAS O N D range/rotal
Temp."c: -20 -18 -9 3 1t 17 l9 t8 12 -6 -14 39'C Temp. "C: 22 22 20 17 14 .t2 11 t4 17 20 21 22 1t"c
"F.: -4 o t5 38 52 62 66 64 54 41 21 6 70"F. 1., 72 71 68 62 57 53 52 57 63 68 69 71 2o"F.
Precip. {mml: 23 l8 30 36 51 79 79 56 56 36 28 23 508 mm Precip. (mml: r40, r02 89 25 13 o 6 o 25 51 102 102 660mm
{inches): 0.9 O-7 12 1.4 2.O 3.1 3.1 2.2 2.2 1.4 II 09 20inches (inches) 5.5 4.0 35 1.0 0.5 o 0 0 l.o 20 4.0 40 26inches
Fig.2o.2lal Fig. 20.2(b)
Steppe Climate in the northen hemisphere Steppe Climate in the southern hemisphere
Place: Winnipeg, Canadian Priaries ( 1 5'N, 97.W) Place: Pretoria, Transvaal, Republic of South Africa (25. 2g" E)
Altitude: 232 metres (760 feetl Altitude: 1 326 m (4,350 feet)
Annual precipitation: 508 mm (20 inches) Annual precipitation: 660 mm (26 inches)
Annual temperature range: 39 "C (19" -(-201"Cy70"F. (66.- Annual temperature range: 11'C .22' - 11"Cy20"F.
4"F.) (72" - 52"F.1

and are found in the Murray-Darling basin of south-
ern Australia. In New Zealand, the grasslands are
found in the Canterbury Plains.
Glimate
Temperature. Their location in the heart of conti-
nents means that they have little maritime influence.
Their climate is thus continental with extremes of
temperature. Summers are very warm, over 19 oC
(66 "F) in Winnipeg for July, as illustrated in
Fig.20.2(a) and22"C (72 'F) for January for Pre-
toria as shown in Fig. 20.2(b). Winters are very cold
in the continental steppes of Eurasia because of the
enormous distances from the nearest sea. The winter
months are well below freezing point and in Win-
nipeg the January reading is -20 "C (-4 "F), 20.C
(36'F.) below freezing-point.
In contrast, the steppe type of climate in the
southern hemisphere is never severe. The winters are
so mild that the mean temperature for any of the
winter months is usually between 2 "C (35 "F) and
13'C (55 'F). Temperatures below freezing-point
even in mid-winter (July in the southern hemi-
sphere) are exceptional. Pretoria, the station chosen
to illustrate the steppe type of climate in the south-
ern hemisphere has 11 'C (51 "F) in mid-winter
(July), the coldest month of the year. Statistics from
other parts of the southern continents also show a
mild winter. For example, the July mean (mid-win-
ter) for Johannesburg is 9 'C (49 oF), for Buenos
Aires, 9 "C (49'F), and for Mildura (Murray-Darling
basin) also 9 'C (49'F). These statistics establish
the moderating effects of oceans on the climates of
the southern hemisphere.
The annual range of temperature is great, a direct
result of continentality. Winters are so cold that
parts of the Eurasian Steppes are snow-covered for
several months. The snow melts with the return of
spring and by mid-summer, temperatures soar to
over 1.8 "C (65 'F). It is really hot for its latitude. For
example, the mid-summer temperature for Kiev is
19 "C (67 "F). The stations in the southern hemi-
sphere record even higher temperatures, e.g. 20 "C
(69 "F) in Johannesburg, 23"C (74 'F) in Buenos
Aires and 25'C (77 'F) in Mildura.
It is clear from the two selected stations given that
there is a tremendous difference between the annual
temperature range of the northern and southern
hemisphere, again a factor of continentality. The
range in Winnipeg, in Fig. 20.2(a), is 39'C (70 "F),
nearly three times as great as that of Pretot'ia, in
Fig. 20.2(b), at 11 oC (20 "F). Readings taken in var-
ious other stations of the northern and southern

190
hemispheres confirm this trend. The annual range
for Shenyang (Mukden) in Manchuria is 38 "C
(69 "F). In comparison, the annual range of the
more maritime stations of Johannesburg, Buenos
Aires and Mildura in the southern hemisphere are
very much smaller, 11 "C (20'F) 14 "C (25 'F),
76 "C (28'F) respectively.
Precipitation. In its continental position, the annual
precipitation of the Steppe Climate can be expected
to be light. The average rainfall may be taken as
about 508 mm (20 inches), but this again varies
according to location from 254 mm (10 inches) to
762mm (30 inches). Winnipeg, in Fig.20.2(a), has
508 mm (20 inches) with a distinct summer maxi-
mum from convectional sources, when the continen-
tal interiors are intensely heated. The heaviest rain
comes in the middle of the year with 79 mm (3.1
inches) each in June and July. Most of the winter
months have about 25 mm (an inch) of precipitation,
brought by the occasional depressions of the Wes-
terlies and coming in the form of snow. In many
other continental stations, the annual precipitation
is even less, though the general pattern remains the
same with most of the rain falling in the summer.
The maritime influence in the steppe type of cli-
mate of the southern hemisphere is even better
brought out by the rainfall regime. Its annual pre-
cipitation is always more than the average 508 mm
(20 inches) because of the warm ocean currents that
wash the shores of the steppe-lands here. Pretoria,
in Fig. 20.2(b), has an annual precipitation of
660 mm (26 inches) with the wettest months in
November, December, January and February, the
summer season of the southern hemisphere. There
are three months (June, July and August) without
any rain. This is the period of drought that may have
such a disastrous effect on the sheep rearing industry
here. The dry season is particularly pronounced in
temperate grasslands adjoining deserts, for example
in Australia. Mildura, on the fringe of the mallee
scrub of the Great Australian Desert, and also in the
rain-shadow area of the Great Dividing Range, has
an annual rainfall of only 269 mm (10.6 inches).
Irrigation is essential. The other southern hemi-
sphere stations have moderate rainfall, e.9.762 mm
(30 inches) in Johannesburg and 965 mm (38 inches)
in Buenos Aires.
On the eastern slopes of the Rockies in Canada
and the U.S.A. a local wind, similar to the Fohn in
Switzerland, called the Chinook, comes in a south-
westerly direction to the Prairies and has a consid-
erable effect on the local pastures. It actually comes
l9l
with the depressions in winter or early spring from
the Pacific coast ascending the Rockies and then
descending to the Prairies. It is a hot wind and may
raise the temperature by 22 "C (40 "F) within a mat-
ter of 20 minutes. It melts the snow-covered pastures
and animals can be driven out of doors to graze in
the open fields. The agricultural year is thus accel-
erated. Local farmers welcome the Chinook for
frequent Chinooks mean mild winrtters and early
spring.
Natural Vegetation
Though the term 'steppe vegetation' geographically
refers to the scanty vegetation of the sub-arid lands
of continental Eurasia, many authors, including the
late Professor Sir Dudley Stamp, have extended the
term to include the temperate grassland all over the
world. In this connection, our reference to steppe
grassland is taken to mean the temperate grasslands
of the mid-latitudes: the Steppes, Prairies, Pampas,
Veld and Downs.
It is natural to expect the steppes to be grass-cov-
ered, differing only in the density and quality of the
grass. Their greatest difference from the tropical
savanna is that they are practically treeless and the
grasses are much shorter. Where the rainfall is mod-
erate, above 508 mm (20 inches), the grasses are
tall, fresh and nutritious and are better described as
long prairie grass. This is typical of the grass of the
wheat-lands in North America, the rich black earth
or chernozem areas of Russian Ukraine and the bet-
ter watered areas of the Asiatic Steppes. Where the
rainfall is light, less than 508 mm (20 inches) or
unreliable, or the soil is poor, as in the continental
interiors of Asia the short steppe type of grass pre-
vails. The grasses are not only shorter but also wiry
and sparse, often found in discontinuous clumps,
with bare soil exposed between them. These areas
are less suitable for arable farming and are used for
some form of ranching as in the High Plains of the
U.S.A.
The climatic requirements of grass are quite dif-
ferent from those of trees. They require less mois-
ture than trees and an annual precipitation of.254to
508 mm (10 to 20 inches) is adequate. Their growth
is not abruptly checked by summer droughts or win-
ter cold. The steppe grass can lie dormant through-
out the prolonged drought. They sprout and come
to life as soon as the temperature is about 6 oC
(43'F) warm enough for plant growth and grow
steadilv with verv little moisture.
 The appearance of. the temperate grasslands varies
with seasons. In spring, the grass begins to appear,
green, fresh and blooming with small, colourful
flowers. The light rainfall that comes in late spring
and early summer greatly stimulates their growth
and there is plenty for the animals to graze. The
herdsmen are busiest at this time. In summer, there
is so much heat and evaporation that the grass is
scorched. The carpet of bluish-green grass turns yel-
low and soon brown. Towards autumn, the grass
withers and dies, but the roots remain alive and lie
dormant throughout the cold winter. The winter is
harsh and long, but the snow is never of great
depth. Everything is quiet but with the next spring,
the cycle is repeated and the steppe is alive again.
Trees are very scarce in the steppes, because of the
scanty rainfall, long droughts and severe winters.
The rolling plain is an endless stretch of grass,
whether green or brown, except along the water
courses where a few low willows, poplars or alders
break the monotony. Polewards, an increase in pre-
cipitation gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded
steppes where some conifers gradually appear. Even
then, the trees are very scattered and few in number.
Towards the equator, the steppe grass becomes
shorter and sparser, till it merges into the desert with
thorny scrub.
In the cultivated regions, such as the wheat farms
of the Prairies, double rows of trees are planted
around the house to shield the occupants from the
strong winds which come unobstructed across kilo-
metres of level ground. This provides the greatest
contrast in a land which is essentially grass. There
are no hedges and few fences and the rows of
planted trees form an unusual landmark from the
air!
Economic Development
The temperate grasslands were once the home of
grazing animals; wild horses in the Asiatic Steppes,
swift-footed bison in the Prairies and untamed buf-
faloes in the Pampas. Even as recently as the last
century, these grasslands were dominated by
nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples like the Kirghiz
of the Asiatic Steppes. They roamed far and wide
with their herds and earned a precarious living from
whatever pastures they could find. The Red Indians
of North America were mostly hunters who moved
around after the bison and other animals. Cultiva-
tion was unknown and the region was one of the
most sparsely populated parts of the world. In
192
recent years great changes have taken place in the
grasslands and few areas, in fact, have managed to
retain their original landscape. The grasslands have
been ploughed up for extensive, mechanized wheat
cultivation and are now the 'granaries of the world'.
Besides wheat, maize is increasingly cultivated
in the warmer and wetter areas. The tufted
grasses have been replaced by the more nutritious
lucerne or alfalfa grass for cattle and sheep rearing.
These temperate grasslands are now the leading
ranching regions of the globe. We shall now describe
more closely each of these economic activities.
1. Nomadic herding. This type of migratory animal
grazing has almost disappeared from the major
grasslands. The herders were wandering tribes, e.g.
the Kirghiz, the Kazakhs, and the Kalmuk. They
used to travel over long distances like the Bedouin
of the Arabian Desert, in search of grass and water
for their animals - cattle, sheep, goats and horses.
From these domesticated animals they obtained
meat, milk, wool, hides, bones and horn. You would
be surprised at the number of things they made out
of these. The wool was woven into felt for tents and
garments. The leather was used for making boots,
saddles and belts, which were very essential in a
country where the chief riding animal was the horse.
The bones and horns were not wasted but made into
tools, utensils and weapons. Many of their home-
made products were exchanged at trading posts or
with the caravans for guns, canned food, grains, tea,
coffee, sugar, medicines and other essential goods.
The harsh environment of the nomads, with long
droughts and unreliable showers made the Kirghiz
a tough and fearless people, known as 'the Tartars',
who had long resisted,subjugation by the Russians.
Now, however, under the Communist rdgime they
are being forced to settle down. The steppes which
they used to wander have been made into huge col;
lective farms and state farms for ranching or pro-
ducing cereals (Fig. 20.3).
2. Extensive mechanized wheat cultivation. The
temperate grasslands are ideal for extensive wheat
cultivation. The cool, moist spring stimulates early
growth and the light showers in the ripening period
help to swell the grains to ensure a good yield. The
warm, sunny summer is not only advantageous for
harvesting, but also enables the straw to be dried for
farm use. In addition, the levelness of the Steppes
and other temperate grasslands all over the world
makes ploughing and harvesting a comparatively
easy job. Mechanical ploughs loosen the soil and get
the fields ready for sowing in the shortest possible
 ) oou..o
/\
t
Astrakhan

km
m iles 3OO

lJ wn"u,

Fig.20.3 The Black Earth re-

gion of Ukraine, part of the %l:;\:"^
Eurasian Steooes.

2O.A The Prairies, Saskatchewan, Canada. Notice the grain

elevators by the railway line. National Film Board of Canada.

*:',,::,

,.'P**'
r"/:
,r': -:

--^ffi

4iii:a|;Xr'rdj

r93
time. In the Prairies (Plate 20.A), the Argentinian
Pampas, the Ukrainian Steppes, and the Downs of
Australia, combine-harvesters reap, thresh, winnow
and sack the grains almost as soon as the stalks are
gathered.
One distinct drawback of this form of extensive
mechanized farming is the consequent low yield. For
example, the average yield of wheat in the Prairies
|
is about 547 kgper hectaref23 bushels per acre (1
bushel is approximately equivalent to 27 kg60lb.)
in weight or 36 litres (8 gallons in volume). In the
Pampas and the Australian Downs, the yields are
even lower, not more than 1 345 kg per hectare (20
bushels per acre)! In comparison, the wheat yield in
countries that practise intensive farming are much
higher, at times almost thrice the yield. It is 3 360 kg
per hectare (50 bushels per acre) in the United King-
dom, 3 830 kg (57 bushels) in Denmark and almost
3 968 kg (59 bushels) in the Netherlands! This is
attributed to the greater attention given to a smaller 20.8 A ship is loaded with grain for export at Port Arthur
Ontario. Poppertoto
piece of land, which is not practicable in the exten-
sive wheat-lands where a farmer owns anything from shipments of wheat and flour arrive at her ports from
245 to 16200 hectares (600 to 40,000 acres) as in the almost every part of the temperate grasslands, from
Prairies. But if we consider the yield per man, this is the U.S.A., Argentina, [Jruguay, Australia and the
very much higher in the extensive farms. In this U.S.S.R. (Plate 20.B).
respect, the sparsely populated temperate grasslands Three-quarters of the world's wheat is winter
of the mid-latitudes produce the grcatest quantity of wheat, i.e. wheat sown in winter or late autumn. It
wheat per capita amongst the world's wheat-growing is a hard wheat with a low moisture content, being
nations. They are naturally the greatest wheat ripened in the hot, sunny, continental summer. It is
exporters. Three-quarters of Canada's L0 million best for breadmaking and is extensively traded.
tonnes of annual wheat production is exported, Polewards, where the winter temperatures are too
mainly to Europe which does not produce sufficient cold for the wheat seedlings to survive, spring wheat
wheat to feed her very dense population, despite her is grown. It is the less important soft wheat, more
high wheat yield. Her wheat needs are so great that suitable for making cakes, biscuits and pastes rather

= Fig.2O.4 Wheat and beef

io
tu production in the North
o
F- American grasslands
^"""
$.s*- i ONTARIO

Ns-
J

t94
than bread. In North America, winter wheat is dom-
inant south of the Great Lakes in the U.S.A., while
spring wheat is sown mainly in the Canadian Prairie
provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba.
Scientific plant breeding has now devised cold-resist-
ant varieties that can mature within 110 days. This
has resulted in the northward extension of the wheat
'Canada
cultivation into the Peace River region in
(Fig. 20.a). In the warmer, wetter regions, maize is
increasingly grown. (See also Chapter 26 page 239
'Extensive mechanized cereal cultivation').'
3. Pastoral farming. When pioneer settlers first
moved into the temperate grasslands, there were
very few animals. The natural conditions suit animal
farming. Subsequently, cattle, sheep, pigs and
horses were introduced, and they proved very suc-
cessful. With the development of refrigerated ships
in the late nineteenth century, the temperate grass-
lands became major pastoral regions, exporting
large quantities of beef, mutton, wool, hides. Milk,
butter, cheese and other dairy products are also
important in some parts of the North American
grasslands. The development was particularly spec-
tacular in the southern hemisphere (Figs. 20.5,20.6
and20.7), where the winters are milder and the rain-
fall is more evenly distributed. The original tuft-
Fig. 20.5 Sheep, caftle, wheat and maize production
southern South America
Fig. 20.6 Agriculture in the veld of southern Africa
grass was ploughed up and replaced by sown alfalfa.
The semi-wild cattle in the Pampas were either
crossed with or replaced by the imported pedigree
stock from Europe. Soon the Pampas became so
involved with the pastoral industry that it took the
lead in the world's export of beef. Large estancias
(ranches) were established, linked to the frigorificos
(meat-packing factories) in the coastal ports by a
dense network of roads and railways. The growth
was rapid and towns like Buenos Aires, Bahia
Blanca, Fray Bentos and Montevideo became
known throughout the world (Fig. 20.5). This is also
true of other temperate grasslands. Much beef is
produced in the Great Plains of the U.S.A., and
Australia became the world's leading wool exporter,
in accounting for a third of its total production. In the
Eurasian Steppes, too, increasing emphasis is being
placed on the ranching of animals for meat produc-
tion. (See also Chapter 26 page 231 'Pastoral farm-
ing'.)
Fi1.20.7 The wheat, maize. cattle and sheep producing
areas of Australia. Note the importance of the Downs
w
195
Ouestions and Exercises
1. Compare and contrast tropical and temperate
grasslands in respect of:
(a) their seasonal responses to climatic
changes;
(b) their economic importance.
2. Each of the following temperate grasslands is
paired with an important aspect of its economic
life. For any three of them, give a reasoned
account:
(a) Asiatic Steppes: nomadic herding;
(b) Canadian Prairies: spring wheat cultiva-
tion;
(c) Argentine Pampas: beef cattle ranching;
(d) South African Veld: maize growing;
(e) Australian Downs: sheep grazing.
3. Explain why:
(a) The annual temperature range of Winni-
peg, Canada is much greater than that of
Pretoria, South Africa.
(b) When Chinooks are more frequent in the
Prairies, the winters are milder.
(c) Wheat yields in the Pampas are much
lower than those of Denmark.
4. 'The temperate grasslands are the granaries of
the world.' To what extent is this true?
Account for the geographical factors that make
this possible.
5. Write a geographical account of the interna-
tional trade in wheat.
6. Examine Fig.2O.2(a) and 20.2(b) which show
two selected stations with a Steppe type of cli-
mate in the northern and southern hemisphere,
i.e. Winnipeg in the Canadian Prairies and Pre-
toria in the South African Veld.
(a) Why is the annual temperature range of
Winnipeg more than three times that of
Pretoria?
(b) Why is Pretoria wetter than Winnipeg?
(c) Why is Winnipeg below freezing-point for
more than 5 months ayear whilst this is not
so in Pretoria?
7. The following are brief descriptions of three
different types of climate:
(a) A large annual as well as diurnal range of
temperature, scattered rainfall brought by
thunderstorms and the mean daily temper-
ature is very high.
196
(b) A moderate annual range of temperature
around 7 "C (I2 oF), concentrated heavy
rain in the four summer months of the year
with frequent unpredictable spells of
drought or floods.
(c) A very large annual temperature range, as
much as 30 "C (70 "F), with very cold win-
ters but warm summers. Precipitation is in
the form of snow and rain, the latter occur-
ring mainly in the summer.
1. Name the climate which each of the
above represents.
ii. Name a station and an area which could
have each of the above climates.
iii. Give a full description of any one of the
above climates.
8. The Steppe type of climate supports most of
the following products: wheat, maize, sheep,
cattle. With the aid of sketch maps:
(a) Locate an area with the Steppe type of cli-
mate which is important for each of the
above products.
(b) Name three countries in the southern
hemisphere where all the above named
crops can be grown.
(c) Select any one of the above products and
describe the farming activities involved in
its production throughout the year.
9. Explain any two of the following:
(a) Steppelands of the northern hemisphere
are more extensive than those of the south-
ern hemisphere.
(b) In the southern hemisphere, the Steppe-
lands are located on the eastern parts
of continents.
(c) The Steppelands of the world are at best
moderately populated.
10. (a) Name the major temperate grasslands of
the world.
(b) Select any two from different hemispheres,
and make a comparative study of them
under the following headings:
i. relief;
ii. climate:
iii. economic activities;
iv. population distribution.
Sample Objective Ouestions
1. The Steppe type of temperate con-
tinental climate is much milder in
the southern hemisphere owing to
the
A absence of chinook winds
B influence of the cold currents
C tapering shape of the southern 3. Argentina
continents
D presence of the on-shore wester-
lies
2. Photograph 20.A on page 193 shows
an aerial view of the Canadian
Prairies. Which description is not
apt?
A The ground is level 4. The typical Steppe type ofclimate in
B Farming is intensive the northern hemisphere possesses
C Grain elevators line the railways A a large annual temperature range
D Farm animals are lacking B winter rain and summer drought
C frequent thunderstorms
D low relative humidity in the wet_
is the leading beef expor- ter parts of the year
ter of the world. Which factor is de-
cisive in making this export trade 5. The native pastures of the river
of Eurasia comprises
rT;:T:r, high quarity of its beef ffi"oo
B consumption
low local meat A lucerne grass
C nutritious
large-scale planting of B tussock grass
alfalfa grass C alfalfa grass
D the introduction of refrigeration D lalang

197
Chapter 21 The Warm Temperate Eastern
Margin (China Type) Climate

coastlands of all the three continents: in New South

Distribution
This type of climate is found on the eastern margins
of continents in warm temperate latitudes, just out-
side the tropics (Fig.21.1). It has comparatively
more rainfall than the Mediterranean climate in the
same latitudes, coming mainly in the summer. It is,
in fact, the climate of most parts of China-a modi-
fied form of monsoonal climate. It is thus also called
the Temperate Monsoon or China Type of climate.
In south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mex-
ico, continental heating in summer induces an inflow
of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean. Though less
pronounced, the overall climatic features resemble
those of the China type. It is sometimes referred to
as the Gulf type of climate.
In the southern hemisphere, this kind of climate
is experienced along the warm temperate eastern
Fig.2'1.1 Regions with a Warm Temperate Eastern Margin
Climate
Wales with its eucalyptus forests; in Natal where
sugar-cane thrives; and in the maize belt of the Par-
ana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin. As the regions are
influenced by the onshore Trade Winds all the year
round, without any monsoon variations, the climate
cannot be described as temperate monsoon. It is
sometimes referred to as the Natal type of climate.
Climate
The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is
typified by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry
winter. The mean monthly temperature varies
between 4 'C (40 'F) and 26 'C (78 'F) and is strongly
modified by maritime influence. Occasionally, the
penetration of cold air from the continental interiors
may bring down the temperature to freezing point.

-.+
a'
tY

23fS
- T'-
f
TI

I
I
Scale 1: 215000000

198
Though frosts are rare, they occasionally occur in
the colder interiors. For most of the time, it is pleas-
antly warm. The relative humidity is a little high in
mid-summer when the heat becomes oppressive and
can be very trying to the white settlers, e.g. in Natal.
Rainfall is more than moderate, ranging from
635 mm (25 inches) to 1.524 mm (60 inches). This is
adequate for all agricultural purposes and the Warm
Temperate Eastern Margin Climate supports a wide
range of crops. Areas which experience this climate
are very densely populated. Another important fea-
ture is the fairly uniform distribution of rainfall
throughout the year. There is rain every month,
except in the interior of central China, where there
is a distinct dry season. Rain comes either from con,
vectional sources or as orographic rain in summer, or
from depressions in prolonged showers in winter.
Local storms, e.g. typhoons and hurricanes, also
occur.
There is a good deal of variation in detail within
the eastern margins and it is essential to examine
them by reference to specific areas, where the local
factors affect the climates. We shall subdivide them
into three main types.
1. The China type: central and north China, includ-
ing southern Japan (temperate monsoonal).
2. The Gulf type: south-eastern United States
(slight-monsoonal).
3. The Natal type: all the warm temperate eastern
margin (non-monsoonal areas) of the southern hem-
isphere including Natal, eastern Australia and
southern Brazil-Paraguay-Uruguay and northern
Argentina.
l. The China type. This is the most typical climate
of the warm temperate eastern margin. The great
land mass of the Asiatic continent with its moun-
tainous interior induces great pressure changes
between summer and winter. Intense heating in 'the
heart of Asia' sets up a region of low pressure in
summer and the tropical Pacific air stream is drawn
North-West Monsoon, bitterly cold and very dry.
There is little rain but considerable snow on the
windward slopes of Shandong (Shantung) as the cold
winds are warmed and moistened. In fact, less than
210 mm (8.4 inches) are recorded in Nanjing (Nan-
king) during the cold season from October to Feb-
ruary. Another characteristic feature of the China-
type of eastern margin climate is the great annual
temperature range. As shown in the temperature
graph of Nanjing (Nanking), there is a difference of
25 "C (45 "F) between JuJy (27 "C/81 "F) and January
(2'Cl36'F). Further north, the range is even
greater, 31 "C (55 'F) in Beijing (Peking), and 30'C
(54'F) in Changan. In the warmer south and along the
coast, the temperature differences are much less, e.g.
'1.6
"C(28'F) in Guangzhou (Canton) 15 'C (27 'F) in
Shantou (Swatow) and only tz'C (22 "F) in Hong
Kong.
Another climatic feature associated with the
China type of climate in southern China is the occur-
rence of typhoons-intense tropical cyclones that
originate in the Pacific Ocean, and move westwards
to the coastlands bordering the South China Sea.
They are most frequent in'late summer, from July
Fi1.21.2(al
Warm Temperature Eastern Margin Climate in the northern
hemisphere (China-type)
Place: Nanjing (Nanking). China (32" N. 119'E)
Altitude: 1 0 metres (34 feet)
Annual precipitationl 1 067 mm (42 inchesl
Annual temperature range: 25 "C (27'-2 "Cy45 "F (81"-36 "F)
32190
27180
21170
16/60
| 10/50
4140
-1l30
1

in as the rain-bearing South-East Monsoon. Heavy 1 .;

precipitation occurs in most parts of China, decreas- 127
Arr
ing inland. As illustrated in Fig. 2I.2(a), the wettest 1 !Eo
6^-
months of Nanjing (Nanking) are in summer with 7613 E
o
more than a third of the annual rainfall falling in 5112
June and July (389 mm out of 1 067 mm/15.3 inches 25t1
out of 42 inches), though the monsoon does not 0/0
MJ J A
'burst, as suddenly, nor does the rain 'pour' as heav-
months
ily as in India. In winter, a steep pressure gradient
is set up between the cold interiors of Mongolia and N.niing : JFMAMJJASON D rangE/total
Temp. "c: 2 4 8 14 2124 21 27 2311 11 4 25'c
Siberia and the warmer Pacific coastlands. The con- 36 39 47 58 69 76 81 81 73 63 5l 40 45"F.
Precip. {mm): 41 51 76 102 82 183 206 117 94 51 4l 3O I 067 mm
tinental polar air stream flows outwards as the (anch€s): t.6 20 3.0 4.O 3'2 72 8'1 46 37 2'0 l6 l 2 42 inches

199
 to September and can be very disastrous. The winds The annual rainfall is heavy with 1 499 mm (59
blow with tremendous strength, the sky is overcast inches) in Miami and New Orleans; | 321 mm (52
and there are torrential downpours. As much as inches) in Montgomery and 1 041 mm (41 inches) in
610 mm (24 inches) in a day have been recorded and Charleston. There is no distinct dry period as in the
flogding is widespread. In the Shantou (Swatow) monsoon lands, and the abundant moisture has stim-
typhoon of August 1922, the huge waves set up by ulated extensive cultivation of cotton and maize in
the violent typhoon drowned as many as 50 000 the Cotton and Corn Belts both of which are the
inhabitants. world's leading areas for these crops. From the rain-
2. The Gulf type. The Gulf-Atlantic regions of the fall pattern in Fig. 21.2(b), it is clear that there is a
United States experience a type of climate similar to tendency towards a summer maximum, brought by
that of central China except that the monsoonal the onshore Trade Winds which swing landwards
characteristics are less well established. There is no from the Atlantic. The amount of rain is increased
complete seasonal wind reversal; for the pressure by the frequent thunderstorms in summer and by
gradient between mainland America and the Atlan- hurricanes in September and October.
tic Ocean is less marked. As can be seen from the Some stations, e.g. Montgomery in Alabama, also
graph in Fig. 2t.2(b) for Miami, Florida, the differ- show a secondary maximum in late winter when
ence in temperature between mid-summer cyclonic activities are greatest. Sometimes, violent
(28"C182"F) and mid-winter (January, 20'Cl68'F) tornadoes occur, due to intense local heating on
is only 8 "C (14 "F). The warm Gulf Stream and the land. Though these whirling storms follow only a
onshore Trade Winds help to bring about this nar- narrow path in the central plain (Mississippi basin),
row range of temperature. Summers are warm and they leave behind a trail of destruction.
pleasant. Miami, being an important holiday resort, 3. The Natal type. There are three distinct areas on
rarely snows in winter. the eastern coasts of the southern continents, lying
just south of the Tropic of Capricorn which experi-
ence this type of climate. The narrowness of the con-
Fis. 21.2(bl
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate in the northern tinents and the dominance of maritime influence
hemisphere (Gulf-type) eliminate the monsoonal elements which character-
Place: Miami, Florida, U.S.A. (26'N,80.W) ize the corresponding climates of the northern hem-
Altitude: 1,5 metres (5 feet)
Annual precipitation: 1 500 mm (5g inches) isphere. The South-East Trade Winds bring about
Annualtemperature range: 8 'C (28 "-20.C1/14.F (82 .- 68 .F) a more even distribution of rainfall throughout the
38/100
year as illustrated by the climatic graph for Sydney,
-o 32190
Australia. It has a mean monthly precipitation of
102 mm (4 inches), which is adequate for tnost
27t80
=.E 21170
agricultural activities. The annual amount of
EE 1 219 mm (48 inches) is fairly representative of this
16/60
10/50
climatic type in the southern hemisphere. The
22919 4tN annual precipitation of Durban in Natal is 1 143 mm
2o,318 (45 inches) and that of Asuncion in Paraguay is
17817 1 320 mm (52 inches). The passage of depressions
.g
1s216
o across the southern edges of the warm temperate
12715
3r'
foo eastern margins results in a slight autumn or winter
10214
FD maximum, typified by Sydney (Fig.2I.2c) which has
E'
7613
o its wettest months in March, April, May, June and
5112 July (the autumn-winter part of the year). The rain
2511 comes in prolonged showers. Much of the water
0/0 seeps into the ground and there is little run-off, so
JFMAMJJASOND the regions are well suited to agriculture and are
months some of the best settled parts of the southern con-
tinents.
Maami: J FMAMJJASON D range/lotal Another feature to note is the small annual tem-
Temp. "C: 20 20 22 23 25 27 2a 2A 27 26 23 21 8"c
"r., 68 6€1174118082A2e17873 69 r4"F. perature range, without any really cold months. The
Precip. (mml: 64 48 58 86 180 188 r35 163 226 229 84 43 1 499 mm
(inchsl: 2.5 r.9 2.3 3.4 1.1 7.4 5'3 6.4 8.9 9.0 3.3 l 7 59 inch6 annual range for Sydney is L0'C (19'F) and the cold-

200
 27180
I 400 mm/35 inches and 55 inches) than either the
21170
western margins or the continental interiors and thus
-o 16/60
have a luxuriant vegetation. The forests are of a
-9
=L
10/50
mixed nature. The lowlands carry both evergreen
4140
EE broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees quite sim-
ilar to those of the tropical monsoon forests. On the
.; highlands are various species of conifers such as
iPor!' pines and cypresses which are important softwoods.
Ld As the perennial plant growth is not checked by
152t6
I -4 v2 E-
o either a dry season as in the Mediterranean, or a
12715
cold season as in the cool temperate regions, con-
10214
ditions are well suited to a rich variety of plant life
7613
including grass, ferns, lianas, bamboos, palms and
5112
forests. The well distributed rainfall all the year
2511
o/o
round makes the regions look green at all times.
JFMAMJJA D
It is interesting to note that the warm temperate
eastern margins are the homes of a number of valu-
months
able timber species. In eastern Australia,the most
Sydney:JFMAMJ JASONDrange/toral important are eucalyptus trees, with scanty foliage
Temp.'c: 22 22 21 1g t5 13 12 13 15 18 l9 21 lo'C
"r.: i2 71 69 65 59 55 53 55 59 64 67 70 19'F. and thick fern undergrowth. Some of the eucalyptus
Precip.(mm): g 1Og 122 142 13O 122 122 76 14 81 71 74 12l9hm
(inches):3.7 43 4.8 5.6 5l 4.8 48 30 2.9 32 28 2'9 43inches are very tall, over 76 metres (250 feet) and they
Fig. 21.2(c)
make hardy timber. The Australian Alps of Victoria
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate in the southern and the Blue Mountains of New South Wales have
hemisphere (Natal-type) great reserves of temperate eucalyptus forests that
Place: Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (34.S, 151"E)
Altitude: 42 metres (138 feet) make up part of the timber exports of Australia.
Annual precipitation: 1 219 m (48 inches) From the forests of south-eastern Brazil, eastern
An nua I tem peratu re ra nge : 1 0'C (22" - 1 2"Cl / 19"F (j 2. - 53" Fl Paraguay, north-eastern Argentina come valuable
warm temperate timbers such as the Parana pine,
est month is 12'C (53 "F). The range is smaller for the quebracho (axe-breaker, an extremely hard
Durban, only 7'C (13 "F), with July, the coldest wood used for tanning) and the wild yerba mat6
month at 17 "C (63 'F). In Asuncion, it is even less, trees, from which the leaves are gathered for making
the range is only 4 "C (8 "F), and the climate is pleas- Paraguay tea. Today, large yerba mat€ plantations
antly warm all the time. have been established to produce Paraguay tea, an
However, the southern continents also have vio- increasingly important export item of Paraguay. In
lent local storms, which though not as severe as the Natal, the warm Mozambique current encourages
typhoon, hurricane or tornado, are nevertheless, heavy precipitation along the coast and many species
quite significant. The Southerly Burster, a violent of palm trees thrive. The highlands yield extensive
cold wind blowing along the coast of New South forests of chestnuts. ironwood and blackwoods. An
Wales, leads to a sudden fall in temperature. It is unusual occupation is the commercial cultivation of
most frequent in spring and summer. The corre- wattle trees in plantations for tanning extracts and
sponding cold wind in Argentina and Uruguay is the for use in Natal's coal mines as pit-props.
Pampero, which is often accompanied by thunder The forests of China and southern Japan dlso have
and lightning besides the rain and dust. In south- considerable economic value and include oak, cam-
eastern Africa, a hot, dry wind called the Berg Wind phor, camelia and magnolia. Unfortunately the tre-
comes down from the interior plateau. It is compa- mendous population pressure in the two countries
rable to the Frihn or Chinook, and brings unpleas- has caused much of the original forest to be cleared
antly high temperatures and oppressive weather. for fuel or crop cultivation. Deforestation has
resulted in many barren hill slopes that are still feel-
ing the impact of soil erosion. The Gulf states of the
Natural Vegetation U.S.A. have lowland deciduous forests. The trees
The eastern margins of warm temperate latitudes grow close together with thick undergrowth and
have a much heavier rainfall (between 890 mm and leafy branches. Walnut, oak, hickory and maple are

201
some of the more common species, while in the
more sandy regions pines are grown. Much of the
forest cover has given way to the cultivation of sub-
tropical crops like cotton, maize and fruits.
Economic Development
The warm temperate eastern margins are the most
productive parts of the middle latitudes. There is
adequate rainfall, no prolonged drought, and the
cold season is warm enough for most crops to sur-
vive. Thus the growing season is almost continuous,
though summer is the busiest part of the farming
year. Monsoon China together with southern Japan
and other parts of the eastern margin climatic zone
accounts for almost a third of the world population.
Food has to be raised to feed the teeming popula-
tion. The hills are terraced, fields are irrigated, and
agriculture is extended to the limits of production.
It is no exaggeration to say that the temperate mon-
soon lands are the most intensively tilled parts of the
earth. Besides the widespread cultivation of maize
and cotton in the Corn and Cotton Belts of the
U.S.A., fruit and tobacco are also grown. Rice, tea
21.4 Multicropping in Japan: rice is grown on the plains
and tea cultivated on hill slopes. Popperloto
202
and mulberries are extensively grown in Monsoon
China. Elsewhere are found other products of eco-
nomic ir.nportance, e.g. cane sugar in Natal, coffee
and maize in South America and dairying in New
South Wales and Victoria. Let us now examine some
of the regions more closely.
l. Farming in Monsoon China. Undoubtedly this is
the world's greatest rice-growing area. A third of
the world's rice is grown in China, though the huge
population of 980 million leaves very little for
export. In fact, in normal years, imports of rice and
other food grains are essential. The Chinese peas-
ants raise 'wet padi' or'swamp rice' in flooded fields
that call for endless hard labour for the greater part
of the year. It is said that nowhere else is there so
much manual labour devoted to raise a food crop
that gives so little economic return. Farming is usu-
ally on a subsistence basis. Despite increasing mech-
anization in padi-cultivation, very few farmers
actually make use of new machines because they are
expensive and may be impractical in some areas.
The only progress that has been made is towards
double or treble cropping, which has increased the
annual total rice production. When compared with
the rapid population growth of the rice-eating
nations, the increased production has in no way
relieved the critical food problem of Monsoon Asia.
Furthermore, milled rice which forms the staple food
of the Orient is a seriously deficient diet; the people
are therefore not only inadequately fed but also
physically undernourished (Plate 2I.A).
Monsoon China has all the ideal conditions for
padi cultivation; a warm climate, moderately wet
throughout the year, and extensive lowlands with
fertile moisture-retentive alluvial soil, which if nec-
essary, can be easily irrigated. The land has been
tilled from generation to generation, and yet there
is little deterioration in soil fertility. The muddy
irrigation water from the river basins is silty and con-
stantly brings new soil to the fields. The soil is
greatly enriched during floods, though these are far
less frequent now, with the improvement made in
flood control by the Communist r6gime. In practice,
the Chinese peasants add all kinds of organic wastes
to enrich their fields. Rice straw, ashes, clippings,
animal dung, refuse, and last but not least, human
manure.
The most intensively farmed areas are the basins
of the Xi Jiang (Si Kiang), Chang Jiang (Yangtze
Kiang) and Huang He (Hwang Ho), which are also
the most densely peopled areas. The eastern coast-
lands are equally important. As the flat lands are
insufficient for rice cultivation, farmers move up the
hill slopes and grow padi on terraced uplands. The
artificial terraces retain the excess water as it flows
down the slope. Besides rice the other important
crops are tea, grown for home consumption and
mulberry leaves gathered for feeding silkworms,
though sericulture is declining. (Also see Chapter
26, page 248 'Intensive subsistence farming'.)
2. Agriculture in the Gulf states. Agriculture in the
Gulf states of America differs from that of Monsoon
China, though they have a similar climate. Lack of
population pressure and the urge to export, make
rice cultivation a relatively unimportant occupation.
It is grown only in a few areas in the southern coast-
lands of the Mississippi delta. Americans are bread-
eaters and one can well imagine how insignificant
rice is in the economy of the Gulf states. The most
important crops are corn, cotton and tobacco.
(a) Corn. The chief food crop raised is, in fact
corn or maize. The humid air, the sunny summer and
the heavy showers suit the crop well. It is grown
right from the Gulf coast to the Mid-west south of
the Great Lakes, with the greatest concentration in
the Corn Belt of Nebraska. Iowa. Indiana and Ohio.
203
The region accounts for more than half the world's
production of corn, but only 3 per cent of the world's
exports. This is because most of the corn is used for
fattening animals, mostly cattle and pigs. Many
farmers do not harvest the corn but instead allow the
cattle or pigs 'to hog the corn down'in the field itself.
The fattened animals are then sold to the meat plants
in Chicago and Cincinnati to be slaughtered and
processed into 'corned beef' or frozen and chilled
beef. Very little corn is consumed as a staple food
in America, though the cereal originated in America
as the food crop of the native Indian people. Apart
from its ease of cultivation, in respect of soil, cli-
matic and labour requirements, corn's most out-
standing feature is its prolific yield. It gives almost
twice as much food (mainly starch) per hectare as
wheat or other cereals. This explains why it is so
widely cultivated in both the warm temperate and
the tropical latitudes.
(b) Couon. Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf
states, none is comparable with cotton (Fig. 21.3).
In the Deep South, the fibre is so vital to the eco-
nomic well-being of the southerners that 'cotton is
king'! It shapes the destiny of the southern states,
being directly responsible for their trade, prosperity
and politics. In the early days of America, millions
of Negroes wOre brought from Africa as slave labour
for the cotton plantations, because the climate was
too hot for the white settlers to harvest the cotton
themselves. Although slavery was abolished in the
nineteenth century, the Negroes are still poor and
under-privileged. This is the cause of the present
problems between the blacks and the whites in
America.
Fig.21.3 Cotton bolls

21.8 U.S.A. is not the only important cotton producer.
India's largest industry is cotton textiles. Here yarn is being
processed at the Birla mills. New Delhi Press lnformation
Bureau, lndia
The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly the best
for cotton growing. Its long, hot growing season with
200 frost-free days and a moderately high tempera-
ture of about 24 "C (75 "F) permits the crop to grow
slowly and mature within six months. Like most
fibres, cotton likes ample rain and an annual precip-
itation of around 1 0L6 mm (40 inches) is essential.
In fact, an adequate moisture supply coming from
frequent light showers with bright sunshine between
Fig. 21.4 The Cotton Belt of
the U.S.A. WHEAT
xlxxx xxXXxfriii#
o,"oo rftI"..-.ff'
them gives the highest yield. Fine quality cotton also
comes from irrigated fields in the drier west provided
sufficient water is supplied during the growing sea-
son. The Cotton Belt is thus limited by the 508 mm
(20 inch) isohyet on the west and the 25 "C (77 "F)
isotherm in the north, within which there are at least
200 days without frost. In the very south, in the
Gulf-lands, the heavy rainfall damages the lint. This
area is therefore less suitable for cotton and is
devoted to citrus fruits, sugar-cane and market-gar-
dening, as in Florida. The commercial cultivation of
cotton is now concentrated only in the most favour-
able areas which are the Mississippi flood plains, the
clayey Atlantic coastlands of Georgia and South
Carolina, the Black Prairies of Texas and the Red
Prairies of Oklahoma. Fig. 21.4 shows the chief cot-
ton areas.
Generally speaking, the best cotton comes from
the maritime districts where the sea breezes and the
warming effect of the ocean are most strongly felt.
The Sea Island Cotton grown in the islands off the
coast of Georgia and South Carolina is long-stapled
(the fibres are between 38 and 58 mrry'1.5 and 2.3
inches in length) and is the best in the world. Further
inland, the staples are shorter (about 25 mm/l inch
long). This is typical of the bulk of the 'American
cotton'. Besides the problem of soil exhaustion and
erosion caused by prolonged cotton cultivation, the
most dreaded enemy of the Cotton Belt is the boll-
weevil. The pest multiplies so rapidly that a pair of
boll-weevils, if left unchecked, will breed over 10
million grubs within a single season! The pest is
BELT CORN BELT
- \ro5,
.p{ x \'"uu
,,r,,
x
BELi-------
Gulf ol Mexico
0tl km 400
0 miles 25O
2M

Fig. 21.5 The boll-weevil
Fig. 21.6 A tobacco plant
responsible for the westward migration of the Cotton
Belt. When it first appeared in 1892 in the eastern
U.S.A., it attacked the Sea Island Cotton. Aerial
spraying with insecticides and the thorough burning
of old cotton stalks, have been found effective in
eliminating the boll-weevil (Fig. 21.5).
(c) Tobacco. Another interesting crop closely
associated with the Gulf type of climate is tobacco,
which incidentally is also a native crop of America
(Fig.21.6). Though it is cultivated in many parts of
the world, and the finished products range from
Turkish tobacco to Havana cigars and Malaysian
cheroots, there is none so universally known as the
Virginia tobacco. It is the raw material from which
most of the world's cigarettes are blended to suit the
smokers' taste. The humid atmosphere, the warmth
and the well-drained soils of the Gulf states, eqable
tobacco to be successfully cultivated in many of the
eastern states of the U.S.A., e.g. Virginia, Mary-
land, Georgia, North and South Carolina, Kentucky
and Tennessee. No less than half the tobacco that
enters international trade comes from these states.
Regardless of the views that doctors may hold, cigar
and cigarette-smoking has long been a universal
habit that cannot be dispensed with by many. It is
the basis of an industry and provides, through duty,
a valuable source of income to the government.
3. Crop cultivation in the eastern margins of the
southern hemisphere. A close look at the economic
map of the southern hemisphere will at once reveal
the agricultural importance of its eastern margins
which experience a Natal type of climate. The warm
205
moist summers and frost-free winters not only sup-
port many crops but also animals. In the coastlands
of Natal, sugar-cane is the dominant crop, followed
by cotton and tobacco in the interior. Recent expan-
sion of these crops has come about with improved
irrigation. Maize is extensively cultivated for use
both as 'mealies', an important food item for Afri-
cans and 'silage', an animal fodder for cattle rearing.
But in comparison with the maize yield of the Corn
Belt of the U.S.A., the African yield is rather low,
often only half. Improvements can be made, if farm-
ers attempt some form of crop rotation to arrest the
rapid rate of soil exhaustion in regions of maize mon-
oculture. Scientific manuring and better methods of
cultivation would raise yields.
In South America where rainfall is less than
1 016 mm (40 inches), there is much grassland on
which many cattle and sheep are kept for meat, wool
and hides. It is actually the continuation of the
Argentinian Pampas. The mild winters mean that
the animals can be kept out-of-doors all the time.
The extensive natural pastures provide valuable for-
age for both cattle and sheep. The products from
these two kinds of domesticated animals account for
over three-quarters of the annual exports of Uru-
guay. The remaining exports come mainly from
wheat and.flax. Further north in southern Brazil, the
rainfall increases to more than L 016 mm (40 inches)
and forest gradually replaces grass. Here the impor-
tant occupations are the cultivation of. yerba mat1
(Paraguay tea) and the lumbering of araucaria or
Parana pine. Cattle and sheep are reared, and maize
and sugar-cane are grown.
In eastern Australia, the moist Trade Winds bring
heavy rainfall to the coastal districts and these are
thickly wooded. Giant eucalyptus trees rise one
above the other right up.the Eastern Highlands. But
with the influx of European immigrants, much of the
forest has been cleared for settlement and dairying.
The eastern margin of New South Wales was, in fact,
the earliest part of the continent to be colonized,
beginning with Port Jackson, the present site of Syd-
ney. The region is now the chief source of Aus-
tralia's milk, butter and cheese, besides cotton,
sugar-cane and maize which are increasingly grown
in the north.
 (b) Padi growing in Monsoon China;
Ouestions and Exercises (c) Dairying in eastern Australia;
1. What do you understand by the China type of (d) Lumbering in Canada.
climate? Locate on a world map the regions 4. Give an explanatory account of any three of the
which experience this type of climate, and following:
describe the broad pattern of their agricultural (a) Local storms e.g. typhoon, hurricane,
activities. pampero are often associated with the
2. Describe the main factors which affect the cli- Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate.
mate and vegetation of any three of the follow- (b) The predominant forest trees of eastern
ing regions: Australia are eucalyptus.
(a) the Gulf states of U.S.A.; (c) U.S.A. accounts for more than 50 per cent
(b) the Iberian peninsula; of world production of corn (i.e. maize) but
(c) Borneo; only 3 per cent of world exports.
(d) Tasmania; (d) Farming in Monsoon China is usually on a
(e) Sri Lanka. subsistence basis, and the peasants are per-
3. Give a reasoned account of any two of the fol- manently'land-hungry'.
lowing: 5. Analyse, in relation to latitude and other geog-
(a) Cotton cultivation in the United States of raphical factors, the following climatic figures:
America;

Mean Mean Annual

Station Location Altitude January luly Temp. Annual
Temp. Temp. Range Rainfall
Singapore l"N, 104"E 10 m (33 feet) 26"C (78.8"F.) 28"C (82'F.) 2'C (3.2"F.) 2 4l6mm
(95.1 in.)
Santiago 33'S, 7l'W 518 m (1,700 feet) 1e'c (67"F.) 8'C (46'F.) l2"c (21"F.) 361 mm (14.2 in.)
Shanghai 31'N, 121"E 7 m (23 feet) 3'C (38'F.) 27'C (81'F.) 24'C (43'F) 1 135 mm(44.7 in.)

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. The warm temperate China type of C spinifex grass China type of climate in Agentina is
climate is confined to D eucalyptus trees A Hurricane
A eastern parts of the continents B Mistral
B the tropics 3. Examine photograph 21.A on page C Sirocco
C mainland China 202 which shows a typical farming D Pampero
D the northern hemisphere scene in Japan. The features which
support the view that farming here is 5. Some of the better known species of
2. The warm, wet eastern margin Chi- intensive arc lhese except trees found in the China type of cli-
na type of climate supports good A irrigated farm plots mate include these except
vegetative growth of both forests B terraced hill slopes A camphor
and grass. Some of the local vegeta- C hand-picked tea leaves B camelia
tive species include these but nol D rugged relief C mahogany
A quebracho D magnolia
B parana pine 4. The local wind which influences the

206
Chapter 22 The Cool Temperate Western Margin
(British Type) Climate

Distribution is confined mainly to the coastlands of British

The cool temperate western margins are under the
permanent influence of the Westerlies all round the
year. They are also regions of much cyclonic activity,
typical of Britain, and are thus said to experience
the British type of climate. From Britain, the cli-
matic belt stretches far inland into the lowlands of
North-West Europe, including such regions as
northern and western France, Belgium, the Neth-
erlands, Denmark, westefn Norway and also north-
western lberia. There is so much oceanic influence
on both the temperature and the precipitation that
the climate is also referred to as the North-West
European Maritime Climate. In North America, the
high Rockies prevent the on-shore Westerlies from
penetrating far inland and the British type of climate
Columbia.
In the southern hemisphere, the climate is expe-
rienced in southern Chile, Tasmania and most parts
of New Z,ealand, particularly in South Island. The
surrounding large expanses of water have increased
the maritime nature of the climate here (Fig. 22.1).
Glimate
Temperature. The mean annual temperatures are
usually between 4 "C (40 "F) and 16 "C (60 "F). The
warmest month in London as illustrated in the tem-
perature graph of London, Fig. 22.2(a) is 1.7'C
(63'F) and the coldest month is just around 4 oC
(40'F), thus giving an annual temperature range of
only 13 'C (24 "F), whith is comparatively small for

Fig.22.1 Regions with Cool Temperate Western Margin Cli-

mate (British Wpe)

ffi__
*tlYf
British type of climate
" f
scale:1:215OO0OOO

207
 21170 21170
16/60 16/60
-a 10/50 -o 10/50
=.E 4140 -9
E.: 4140
PE CF -1l30
-1l30 8E
.g ';
E
f ... ir!
Fo
6o* no
7613 6> 7613 E
E- o
o
5112 5112

2511 2511

0/0 o/0
M MJ J JFMAMJJASOND
months months

London: JFMAMJJASOND range/total Hobart J F M A M J. J A S O N O r.ngc/rorl

Temp. "c: 4 4 16 8 1215 17 17 14 l0 7 4 r3"c T6mp. "c: 17 17 15 13 rt 8 I 9 il 12 .t4 16 9"C
39 40 42 47 53 s9 63 62 57 50 44 40 24" F. "r., 62 62 59 55 51 41 46 48 51 54 57 60 16"F.
Precip. (mml: 48 43 46 3a 46 51 6t 56 46 66 6t 61 6?O mm Pr6ip. lmml: 46 3{t 43 48 46 56 53 48 53 56 64 5t 6tomm
(inchei): 1.9 f .7 1.8 1.5 1.8 20 2.4 2.2 1.8 2.6 2.4 2.4 24 inches t.8 1.5 f.7 l9 1.4 2.2 2.1 19 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.O 2it irch6
Fig.22.2lal Fis.22.2(bl
British type of climate in the northern hemisphere British type of climate in the southern hemisphere
Place: London, British lsles (51" N, 0'Wl Place: Hobart, Tasmania (43'S. 147"81
Altitude: 5.5 metres (18 feet) Aftitude: 54 metres |d'77 feetl
Annual precipitation: 610 mm (24 inches) Annual precipitation: 610 mm (24 inches)
Annual temperature range: 13 "C (17'-4"C1/24'F (63 "-39 "F) Annual temperature range: 9"C (17'- 8'C/16'F (16'- 46'F)

its latitude (51" N). Summers are, in fact, never very
warm. Monthly temperatures of over 18 "C (65 "F)
even in mid-summer are rare. 'Heat waves', as they
are popularly called (that is a short spell of warm
summer days) are a welcome feature in such cool
temperate latitudes, where people do not often see
enough of the sun. The climate is ideal for maximum
comfort and mental alertness. People can work for
long hours without feeling drowsy and lethargic as
they do in the tropics. There appears to be some
direct relationship between climate and Man's out-
put of work. It is no wonder that the cool temperate
regions are some of the most advanced parts of the
world. Winters are abnormally mild, and no stations
actually record mean January temperatures below
freezing-point in north-western Europe. This is
attributable to the warming effect of the warm North
Atlantic Drift and the prevalence of the South-Wes-
terlies. It has been estimated that the coastal stations
of the region are almost L4"C (25 oF) warmer in Jan-
uary than corresponding stations of the same lati-
tude in the interiors. Night frosts do occur and snow
falls in winter too. Sometimes, unusual cool spells,
caused by the invasion of cold polar continental air
from the interiors, may hit the western margins for
a number of weeks. The climate of the maritime
regions as a whole may be described as equable with
moderately warm summers and fairly mild winters.
It is quite apparent from Fig. 22.2(b) of Hobart,
Tasmania that the British type of climate in the
southern hemisphere is even more equable. Lack of
continental land masses in Tasmania, New Zealand
and southern Chile means that extremes of temper-
ature are not likely at all. Hobart has mid-summer
temperatures of not more than 17'C (62 'F) while its
coldest month in July (winter in the southern hem-
isphere) is barely below 8 "C (46 "F). The annual
temperature range is reduced to only 9'C (16 "F),
which is unusual for the middle latitudes. This is in
fact, the average figure for all the maritime stations
in the southern continents where insularity overrides
all other factors. The annual ranges of other south-
erly stations are Dunedin 8'C (15 'F), Christchurch
10 'C (18 'F), Valdivia 8 "C (14 'F) and Punta Arenas
9 "C (L7 "F) (the last two stations are in southern
Chile). The oceanic influences not only keep the
winters very mild but also keep the summers cool.
Some geographers have described these southerly
islands as 'the favoured isles' which has much truth
in it.
Precipitation. The British type of climate has ade-
quate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency

208
towards a slight winter or autumn maximum from
cyclonic sources. Since the rain-bearing winds come
from the west, the western margins have the heaviest
rainfall. The amount decreases eastwards with
increasing distance from the sea. Though both the
quoted stations London and Hobart have 610 mm
(24 inches) of precipitation a year, the actual amount
varies quite considerably from place to place. Relief
can make great differences in the annual amount.
For example the western slopes of the Southern Alps
of South Island, New Zealand have as much as
5 080 mm (200 inches) of rainfall (mainly orographic
rain) while the Canterbury Plain, in the rain-shadow
area has as little as 635 mm (25 inches). Similarly,
the Lake District of Britain has well over 2 540 mm
(100 inches) in contrast to only 610 mm (24 inches)
in East Anglia. It is therefore difficult to say how
much annual rainfall is typical of the British type of
climate. Perhaps, a useful guide would be to confine
ourselves to lowland regions which normally have
508 to 1016 mm (20 to 40 inches) ayear, e.g.584
mm (23 inches) in Paris, 711 mm (28 inches) in
Dublin, 838 mm (33 inches) in Seattle and 940 mm
(37 inches) in Dunedin. Generally, western coastal
stations are wetter. Vancouver has | 524 mm (60 in-
ches) of rain, Bergen, 2134 mm (84 inches) and
Valdivia, 2 667 mm (105 inches). They are ex-
ceeded in the annual amount only by the highland
stations as mentioned earlier.
The seasons. As in other temperate regions there
are four distinct seasons in the British climate type.
Light snowfalls can be expected in the winter months
normally only of short duration because of the com-
paratively mild weather. But over the highlands such
as the Scandinavian Mountains and the American
Rockies, snowfall is heavy and feeds the mountain
glaciers that move down the valleys. Winter is the
season of cloudy skies, foggy and misty mornings,
and many rainy days from the passing depressions.
Fi1.22.3 Some deciduous trees
Weeping Willow Ash
209
Out at sea, gales are frequent and can be dangerous
to shipping. Spring is the driest and the most refresh-
ing season when people emerge from the depressing
winter to see everything becoming green again. This
is followed by the long, sunny summer. Sun-bathers,
picnickers and sightseers are out in the open to enjoy
themselves. With the roar of gusty winds and the fall
of 'golden' leaves, autumn is ushered in, and the
cycle repeats itself. This type of climate with its four
distinct seasons is something that is conspicuously
absent in the tropics.
Natural Vegetation
The cool temperate western margin type of climate
with its well distributed moderately heavy rainfall
(760 to 1 140 mm/30 to 45 inches) supports deci-
duous forest. The trees shed their leaves in the cold
season. This is an adaptation for protecting them-
selves against the winter snow and frost. Shedding
begins in autumn, the 'fall' season, during which the
leaves fall and are scattered bv the winds. Leaves of
deciduoui trees are thin and delicate, requiring no
protective devices against drought as in the Medi-
terranean or desert regions since they remain on the
trees only in the warmer parts of the year. The
golden-brown leaves and the bare branches present
a very interesting scene. When they are in leaf the
deciduous trees have typical rounded outlines with
thick trunks and out-spreading branches that yield
valuable temperate hardwood (Fig.22.3). Some of
the more common species include oak, elm, ash,
birch, beech, poplar, and hornbeam. In the wetter
areas grow willow, alder and aspen. Elsewhere are
found other species, e.g. chestnut, sycamore, maple,
and lime.
Unlike the equatorial forests, the deciduous trees
are less luxuriant. They occur in pure stands and
have greater lumbering value from the commercial
Horse Chestnut Silver Maple
point of view. The open nature of the forests with
sparse undergrowth is useful in logging operations.
Easy penetration means much cost can be saved in
the movement of the logs. The deciduous hardwoods
arq excellent for both fuel and industrial purposes.
In Tasmania, the temperate eucalyptus are also
extensively felled for the lumbering industry. Higher
up the mountains in the Scandinavian highlands, the
Rockies, southern Andes and the Southern Alps of
New Zealand, the deciduous trees are generally
replaced by the conifers which can survive a higher
altitude, a lower temperature and poorer soils.
Economic Development
A very large part of the deciduous woodlands have
been cleared for fuel, timber or agriculture. The
dense population necessitates the removal of the
lowland forests, particularly for the plough. In Brit-
ain, there is only 4 per cent of the original forest left.
A large range of cereals, fruits and root crops are
raised, mainly for home consumption rather than for
export. North-West Europe, which includes some of
the most crowded parts of the globe, has little sur-
plus for export. [t is, in fact, a net importer of food
crops, especially wheat from almost all parts of the
wheat lands for bread-making and other food items.
The region differs from many others in its unprec-
edented industrial advancement. The countries are
concerned in the production of machinery, chemi-
cals, textiles and other manufactured articles rather
than agriculture, fishing or lumbering, though these
activities are well represented in some of the coun-
tries. Fishing is particularly important in Britain,
Norway and British Columbia. Since the manufac-
turing aspect of industrial geography will be dealt
with in much greater detail in Chapter 28, we shall
Fil.22.4 Some temperate
vegetables
210
deal here with the agricultural development of the
region.
l. Market gardening. Though market gardening
is practised throughout the world wherever there is
a large urban population, nowhere else is it so highly
specialized as in North-West Europe. Several factors
account for this. All the north-western European
countries (Britain, France, West Germany, Benelux
and Denmark) are highly industrialized and have
high population densities. There are more towns and
cities than in other continents despite its small size.
It is understandable that the demand for fresh veg-
etables, green salads, €BgS, meat, milk and fruits will
be tremendous. The city dwellers, the factory work-
ers and the civil servants who make up the bulk of
the urban population consume large quantities of
fresh provisions daily and these must be provided by
local farmers if freshness of the produce is to be
ensured.
In north-western Europe intensive market garden-
ing is carried out in many specialized areas, e.g. the
Vales of York and Evesham in the United Kingdom
where climate. soil and other factors best suit this
form of agriculture. Farms are normally small,
located near large cities or industrial areas. Soils,
whether silty, loamy or podzolic, are carefully main-
tained at a high degree of fertility. Very selective
fertilizers are applied depending on the type of crops
in cultivation. Farming is carried out intensively,
aiming at high yield and maximum cash returns. As
the crops are perishable, a good network of trans-
port is indispensable. The produce such as lettuce,
cabbages, cauliflowers, tomatoes, onions, peas and
fruits (Fig. 22.4). are seldom shipped but conveyed
by high-speed conveyances such as trucks or vans.
Perhaps a more appropriate term to use is truck
farming, which is commonly used in the U.S.A.
 In a few instances, warmer weather or better soils
as in south-west England (Devon and Cornwall), can
also induce farmers to take to market gardening
despite their remoteness from the more populated
districts. Early vegetables, early potatoes and to-
matoes reach London from the Canary Islands,
the Channel Islands, and from Brittany, in north-
west France. Similarly, bulbs and flowers from
the Netherlands and eggs, bacon and other
dairy products from Denmark are sent to most
of the major industrial centres of Europe in almost
perfect condition for household consumption. The
horticultural industry in the Netherlands is so highly
specialized that Dutch tulips and bulbs are flown by
the K.L.M. (Dutch Airlines) to Rome, paris,
22.4 An English farm. Notice the well-wooded countryside.
Trees remain in hedges and field_boundaries though the for-
est has been cleared. Central Office of information, London
2rl
Zurich, and London. In Australia, high-speed boats
ply across the Bass Strait daily from Tasmania to
rush vegetables, tomatoes, apples and beans to most
of the large cities in mainland Australia. It is no
wonder the Australians nicknamed Tasmania the
'garden state'.
2. Mixed farming. Throughout Britain and north-
western Europe, farmers practise both arable farm-
ing (cultivation of crops on ploughed land) and pas-
toral farming (keeping animals on grass meadows).
Crops may be raised for cash sales or as fodder for
cattle or sheep. The proportion of crops and animals
in the farm at any time depends to a great extent on
the type of soil, the price of the cereals and the
demand for animals and animal products. The
farmers also plant a few fruit trees (apples, pears,
plums), rear pigs, keep poultry, mainly for eggs, and
even have bees for honey. There is such a great
variety in the farms that the term mixed farming is
most aptly applied.
Amongst the cereals, wheat, is the most exten-
sively grown, almost entirely for home consumption
because of the very dense population in north-west-
ern Europe. At one time, some of the European
countries (France, Denmark and the Netherlands)
used to be wheat exporters, but the keen competi-
tion from the new wheat lands of the New World
forced most of the farmers to divert their interest to
other more profitable uses of their land such as mar-
ket gardening, dairying or an intensive form of mix-
ed farming. With the rise of industry, more arable
farms are being devoured by factories and wheat is
now a net import item in Europe.
The next most important cereal raised in the
mixed farm is barley. The better quality barley is
sold to the breweries for beer-making or whisky dis-
tilling and is raised preferably in the drier areas.
Malting barley is thus grown in south-eastern Britain
near the hop-growing area (hops are also used for
beer) where rainfall is less than 760 mm (30 inches).
On heavy soils or wetter regions, barley is grown
mainly as an animal fodder, sometimes mixed with
oats as'dredge corn'. Both are raised in crop rota-
tions with a leguminous crop (beans or clover) and
a root crop (turnips or sugar-beet).
The most important animals kept in the mixed
farm are cattle. North-western Europe was originally
the home of many world renowned cattle breeds,
e.g. Guernsey, Ayrshire and Friesian, which are first
class dairy cattle for milk production. The countries
bordering the North Sea (Britain, Denmark, the
Netherlands) are some of the most advanced dairy-
ing countries where cattle are kept on a scientific and
intensive basis. Europeans drink more milk than
anybody else except the New Zealanders. In the
United Kingdom, a person drinks almost a pint of
milk a day! From milk, other important dairy prod-
ucts are derived. These ate butter, cheese, creem,
and skimmed milk or casein, a raw material for mak-
ing plastics, paper and drugs. The temperate western
margin type of climate is almost ideal for intensive
dairying. Cheese is a specialized product of the
Netherlands, from Edam and Gouda. From Den-
mark comes high-quality butter, of which she ranks
with New Zealand as one of the world's greatest
exporter. In Devon and Cornwall clotted cream is
made, which is less perishable than fresh milk. It can
212
be sent over longer journeys without being contam-
inated. The Swiss have also made excellent use of
their alpine pastures for keeping dairy cattle. Fresh
milk is converted into various forms of condensed
or evaporated milk, and exported around the world
for baby-feeding, confectionery, ice-cream and choc-
olate making.
Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef-
cattle, e.g. the Hereford and Aberdeen Augus, but
their numbers are very small in comparison with
those of Argentina or Australia, where meat pro-
duction is the primary concern. The high rate of beef
consumption in Europe (about 18 kg/40 lb. a year
per head of population in the United Kingdom)
necessitates large imports of frozen and chilled beef.
In the mixed farms in Europe, farmers keep cattle
also with a view of enriching their fields with the
animal dung. The pigs and poultry act as scavengers
that feed on the leftovers from root crops and dairy
processes. In this way, Denmark is able to export
large quantities of bacon from pigs that are fed on
the skimmed milk, a by-product of butter-making.
Fresh chickens' eggs from the farms and more
recently, from large poultry yards also form part of
the export products of Denmark. Sheep are kept
both for wool and mutton. In British Columbia.
mixed farming is restricted only to the most favoured
parts of the Western lowlands, the region being so
mountainous and thickly forested.
3. Sheep rearing. This is well developed in some
parts of the British type of climate. Britain is the
home of some of the best known sheep breedS, €.9.
Leicester, Lincolns and Southdowns which are dual-
purpose, noted for mutton as well as wool. With the
greater pressure exerted on land by increased urban-
ization, industrialization and agriculture, sheep rear-
ing is being pushed further and further into the less
favoured areas. The principal sheep areas are on
foothills, well-drained uplands, chalk and limestone
scarplands, and the light, sandy coasts. In Britain,
the major sheep areas are the Pennines, (Swaledale
breeds) Scottish Highlands (the Blackface), the
Southern Uplands (Cheviot), the Welsh Mountains
(Black Welsh) and the scarplands of south-eastern
England (Romney Marsh). Britain was once an
exporter of wool and her woollen textiles industry
began with local Pennine wool, but today with a
greater population and a more intensive use of her
better agricultural land, she has neither surplus wool
nor mutton for export. She has become instead an
important exporter of British pedigree animals to the
newer sheep lands of the world. This is equally true

'.'--
+',..
.,:
.':2't,,: :*l
-$.
*
r$ fi:eI t,
22.8 A sheep station near Hawkes Bay, New Zealand New
Zealand High Commission Malaysia
of other north-western European sheep areas, in
which industrialization has effectively altered the
pattern of land use.
In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing is the
chief occupation of New Zealand, with its greatest
concentration in the Canterbury Plain. It has been
estimated that for every New Zealander, there are 20
sheep. Many factors have led to this unprecedented
growth during the past century including extensive
meadows, a mild temperate climate, well-drained
level ground, scientific animal breeding, and last.
but most vital, the development of refrigeration,
which enables frozen or chilled Canterbury lamb and
Corriedale mutton to reach every corner of
globe. Though New Zealand has only 6 per cent of
the world's sheep population, it accounts for two-
thirds of the world's mutton exports, and one-sixth
of the world's wool exports. In Tasmania and south-
. ):'- '1\ :a.l; ':
4
. ,$;:
,,:?n
-.
)-:""-
- --;
.r,_!1,--
a ,
(ri
-tld' 'r-{.
N! j]=
ern Chile, sheep rearing has always been a predom-
inant occupation with surplus sheep products for the
international trade (Plate 22.8).
4. Other agricultural activities. Apart from market
gardening and mixed farming which have been
described in greater detail, the British type of climate
also supporfs a number of other important crops.
Amongst the food crops, potatoes feature prominent-
ly in the domestic economy of the cool temperate
regions. It is the staple food in supplementing wheat
or bread for millions of people. In terms of starch,
it yields far more food than any cereals and_ can be
cultivated over a wide range of climatic and soil
the types. But normally a cooler and more northerly lat-
itude is preferred because the crop will be less prone
to the attack of 'blight', a virus disease that is par-
ticularly infectious in warm and humid countries.
Since the introduction of the crop by the Spanish
213
conquerors ffom the Andean states of Peru and
Bolivia in the sixteenth century, potato-growing has
spread far and wide in Europe. Today almost two-
thirds of the world's annual production of potatoes
comes from Europe, of which Poland, Germany,
France and the United Kingdom are the major pro-
ducers. Besides its principal use as a substitute for
bread, large quantities of potatoes are also con-
sumed as animal fodder and as a source of industrial
alcohol.
Another interesting crop that is found almost
exclusively in north-western Europe (including
European U.S.S.R.) and part of the U.S.A. is
sugar-beet. The need for such a crop was greatly felt
during the Napoleonic Wars around 1800 when mil-
itary blockades caused a scarcity of sugar. High
prices of imported tropical sugar (from sugar-cane)
drove many governments of the temperate lands to
think seriously about the vital importance of secur-
Ouestions and Exercises
1. The following statements attempt to describe
a type of climate:
'. . .. .. Westerlies come all the year round
there is a tendency towards an autumn
or winter maximum of rainfall . . .. . . light
snow falls in winter ports are never fro-
zen . . .. . . but frosts do occur on cold nights
the seasons are very distinct
and the climate is very favourable for maxi-
mum human output . . .. . .'.
(a) Name the type of climate that it describes.
(b) Locate with the aid of a sketch map a
region where such a type of climate is best
represented.
(c) Explain why such a type of climate is ideal
for human habitation.
2. Describe and explain with the aid of sketch
maps the essential differences between the var-
ious climate types found within the cool tem-
perate zone.
3. (a) What are the characteristic features of
temperate deciduous forests?
(b) Name the various species of deciduous for-
ests and account for some of their indus-
trial uses.
(c) Explain why there is comparatively little of
the original forest left.
2t4
ing a certain amount of self-sufficiency in their sugar
requirements. The first beet-sugar factory in Europe
was established in 1801. Farmers were given subsi-
dies (aids or allowances) to induce them to devote
at least part of their farm to the crop. Since then
sugar-beet has become an integral part of many
European farms. It is grown either on special beet
farms for cash sales or in conjunction with cereals
in crop rotation. The beet is crushed for sugar and
the green tops are used as animal fodder. The crop
thrives best in the warmer and drier east of Britain
and in mainland Europe. The highest sugar yield is
obtained when the autumn is both dry and sunny.
Attempts to grow the crop in the colder north or the
wetter west have so far been rather unsuccessful,
except in some sheltered localities. In Britain, most
of the beet-sugar factories are located in the Fens
and East Anglia.
4. Write a geographical account of any three of
the following economic activities:
(a) mixed farming;
(b) sugar-beet cultivation;
(c) cool temperate orchard farming;
(d) sheep rearing;
(e) woollen textile industry.
5. Give an explanatory account of any nryo of. the
following:
(a) The Netherlands is a major exporter of
butter and cheese.
(b) Sheep outnumber the population of New
Zealandby 2O: l.
(c) No country produces and exports more
wool than Australia.
(d) Market-gardening is a product of urbani-
zation.
6. (a) The cool temperate British type of climate
is best represented by countries bordering
the North Sea in Western Europe. Name
five of these countries.
(b) Give a brief description of the climate over
the four distinct seasons.
(c) Why is the British type of climate relatively
'small in extent' in the southern hemi-
sphere?
7 . Make a comparative study of the deciduous
forest and the coniferous forest under these
headings:
(a) location;
(b) vegetational features
(c) their commercial importance.
8. Countries with the cool temperate British type
of climate are some of the most advanced in
the world. In what ways does the climate 10. (a)
development?
favour their rapid
9. Explain any three of the following:
(a) The only part of North America that
riences the British type of climate is British
Columbia.
(b) There are very few natural deciduous
forests left in Europe.
(c) The British type of climate has very dis-
tinct seasons.
(d) The British type of climate supports both
crops and animals.
What types of farming are best developed
in regions with the British type of climate?
(b) Describe the farming calendar for any one
expe- type of farming familiar to you.

Sample Objective Ouestions

l. The most wetcome feature of the C people prefer to work in factories A south-east Australia
British type of climate is its D the deciduous trees have low B north-east U.S.A.
A heavy precipitation commercial value C north-western Europe
B low temperature D eastern coastland of the U.S.S.R.
C frost-free nights 3. Market gardening is characterized
D distinct four seasons by these f.eaturesexcept 5. Much of the deciduous forest in
A farms are rather small Europe has been cleared to make
2. Large-scale lumbering is restricted B the land is very intensively
tilled way'for the following e:cepr
to certain parts of the British Isles needed
C little personal attention is A farming
because managed
D it is scientifically B fishing
A there is very little natural vegeta- C mining
tion left 4. The cool temperate British type of D industries
B lumbering is not in private hands climate is best represented in

215
Chapter 23 The Cool Temperate Continental
(Siberian) Climate
Distribution
The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate
is experienced only in the northern hemisphere
where the continents within the high latitudes have
a broad east-west spread (Fig. 23.1). On its poleward
side, it merges into the Arctic tundra of Canada and
Eurasia at around the Arctic Circle. Southwards, the
climate becomes less severe and fades into the tem-
perate Steppe climate dealt with in Chapter 20.
The predominant vegetation of this Siberian or
'sub-Arctic' type of ilimate is evergreen coniferous
forest. It stretches in a great, continuous belt across
North America, Europe and Asia. The greatest sin-
gle band of the coniferous forest is the taiga (a Rus-
sian word for coniferous forest) in Siberia. In
Europe the countries that have a similar type of cli-
mate and forest are mainly in northern Europe, Swe-
den and Finland. There are short stretches of
Fig. 23,1 The cool temperate coniferous forests
216
natural coniferous forest, due to high altitude, in
Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria and other
parts of Europe. In North America, this sub-Arctic
belt stretches from Alaska across Canada into
Labrador, and is found on the high Rocky Moun-
tains farther south.
The Siberian Climate is conspicuously absent in
the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness
of the southern continents in the high latitudes. The
strong oceanic influence reduces the severity of the
winter and coniferous forests are found only on the
mountainous uplands of southern Chile, New Zea-
land, Tasmania and south-east Australia.
Glimate
Temperature. The climate of the Siberian type is
characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long dura-
tion, and a cool brief summer. Spring and autumn
 21t70 16/60
16/60 10/50
10/50 4t40
-o -o
.=<
4t40
=P
o,= =9
G.=
-1l30
CF -1l30 -7t20
!Etr PE
-7 t20 -12t10
-12110 -171O
-18/0 -231-10
-291-20
76t3 76t3
.9
o .E
o
5112 ir!
Oo
5112
3r.r.
TD Fo
25t1 E Ld
0) 2511 E'
o

0/o 0/o
JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASON D
months months
Moscow:JFMAMJJA
oc: soN D range/total Churchill JFMAMJJASO N D range/total
-9 4 3 '12 t 7 t9 11 4 -2 --8 30"C -28 -27 -21 -10 -t 6 12
.|l 6
-F.: -l't
Temp. t7 Temp.'C: _3
12 15 24 38 53 62 66 52 40 2A 17 54'F. -14 -24 4o'c
63 t.: -f9 -17 -6 14 30 43 U 52 42 27 6 -t | 73'F.
Precip. (mm): 28 23 30 38 4 51 jl 14 56 36 4t 41 533 mm Precip. (mml: f3 t5 23 23 23 48 56 69 58 36 25 18 406 mm
(ihchesl: 1.1 0.9 t.2 1.5 1.9 Z.O 2.a ?.9 2.2 1-4 1.6 l 6 21 inches (inch6l 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.9 0.9't.9
2.2 2.7 2.3 1.4 '1 0 0.7 16 inch6
FiS.23.2lal Siberian Climate in Eurasia Fig. 23.2(b) Siberian Climate in
Canada
Place: Moscow, U.S.S.R. (56" N,37'E) Place: Churchill, Manitoba, Canada (58' N. 94' W)
Altitude: 146 metres 480 feet) Altitude: 13 metres (tl4 feet)
Annual precipitation: 533 mm (21 inches) Annual precipitation: 406 mm (16 inches)
Annual temperature range: 30'C (19"*(-1l "CyS4"F (66o- Annual temperature range: 40 "C
|'12"-l-28 "Clt3'F
12"F| (54"-(- l9'Fl
are merely brief transitional periods. The isotherm With such low temperatures in the cold season,
of 10 "C (50 "F) for the warmest month forms the heavy snowfall can be expected. Frosts occur as ear-
poleward boundary of the Siberian climate and the ly as August and by September lakes and ponds are
winter months are always below freezing point. The already ice-bound. All over the U.S.S.R., nearly all
stations chosen to illustrate this type of climate are the rivers are frozen. The number of days in which
Moscow, in continental Europe and Churchill, in the rivers are frozen increases from south to north.
northern Canada, bordering the Hudson Bay. The In normal years, the Volga is ice-covered for about
coldest month in Moscow is January with -1L'C 150 days, while those further north (e.g. the lower
(12'F). The warmest month (July) is as high as 1.9'C courses of the Ob, Lena and Yenisey) are ice-cov-
(66 "F); thus there is an annual range of 30'C ered for more than 210 days or 7 months! Occasion-
(54 'F), which is common in the Siberian type of cli- ally cold, northerly polar winds such as the blizzards
mate. In comparison, the annual temperature range of Canada and buran of Eurasia blow violently at
for Churchill is even higher, reaching 40 "C (73'F) 80 km.p.h (50 m.p.h.) or more and at a temperature
(-28 "Cl-19 oF
in January and 12 'C/54 "F in July). of 28 'C (50'F) below freezing-point. The powdery
This is due to the more northerly position of Church- snow-flakes are blown around in the lower atmos-
ill. The extremes of temperature are so great in Sib- phere and visibility is greatly reduced. Conditions
eria that it is often referred to as the 'cold pole of are so unbearable that Siberia is very sparsely pop-
the earth'. Some of the lowest temperatures in the ulated but it is gradually being developed.
world are recorded in Verkhoyansk (68'N 113'E and Precipitation. The interiors of the Eurasian conti-
only 100 metres/330 feef in altitude).where -68 'C nent are so remote from maritime influence that
(-90 "F) was once recordeed. This is, in fact, 94'C annual precipitation cannot be high. Generally
(170'F) colder than Kuala Lumpur! In North Amer- speaking, a total of 380 to 635 mm (15 to 25 inches)
ica, the extremes are less severe, because of the con- is typical of the annual precipitation of this sub-
tinent's lesser east-west stretch. The lowest mid- Arctic type of climate. It is quite well distributed
winter means in the cold Mackenzie Valley are not throughout the year, with a summer maximum from
lower than -57 "C (-70'F). convectional rain when the continental interiors are

2t7
greatly heated (mid-summer temPeratures of 16o to
24"C (60 " to 75 "F) are quite usual and the maximum
recorded in Siberia is a real surprise
- 39 "C
(102 "F)! In winter the precipitation is in the form of
snow as mean temperature are well below freezing
all the time.
The precipitation rhythm can best be grasped
from the two representative stations chosen, in
Figs. 23.2(a) and 23.2(b). Moscow with an annual
precipitation of 533 mm (21 inches) has most of the
rainfall concentrated in the warmer months (June-
September). There is no month without some form
of moisture. In a region where overall temperature
is low, evaporation is not rapid and the relative
humidity is high, this small amount of precipitation
is adequate for tree growth. The conifers, which re-
quire little moisture, and transpire an equally small
amount, are best suited to this type of sub-Arctic
climate.
In Churchill, Fig. 23.2(b), the annual precipita-
tion is just 406 mm (16 inches) with a distinct sum-
mer maximum.
The total precipitation of the Siberian climate is
determined by such factors as altitude, latitude,
proximity to the poles, amount of exposure to influ-
ences by Westerlies, (on western parts of conti-
nents),temperate monsoons (on the eastern parts of
continents) and the penetration of the cyclones.
European U.S.S.R. usually has more than 508 mm
(20 inches) of annual precipitation because of some
on-coming Westerlies and the periodic penetration
of cyclones. Eastern Siberia also has over 508 mm
(20 inches), being moistened by the S.E. Monsoon
from the Pacific Ocean. Central Siberia and Canada
have about 380 mm (15 inches), due to their conti'
nentality and lack of sea influence. Polewards and
southwards, the amount again decreases to only
305 mm (12 inches) or less. The cold, dry air of the
Fig 23.3 Some coniferous trees
Birch
W
Poplar Spruce
218
north is incapable of holding moisture, and in the
south are the semi-arid steppes.
Snow falls nearly everywhere in the U.S.S.R. in
the long, cold winter. The amount varies from place
to place. It is heaviest in the northern tundra and in
the Siberian taiga, where a thickness of several
metres is common. Permanent snowfields like those
of the Alps or the Himalayas are absent, because
any accumulation of snow is melted with the return
of spring and the warm summer. Frozen rivers are
thawed, causing a rise in the water-level and exten-
sive floods occur. The lower courses of the Ob, Lena
and Yenisey are marshy and ill-drained. On the
other hand, the presence of a thick mantle of snow
is not without its blessings. Snow is a poor conductor
of heat and protects the ground from the severe cold
above, which may be as much as 17o to 28'C (30" to
50 'F) colder! It is also provides moisture for the veg-
etation when the snow melts in spring. When the
ground is ploughed and the leached, acidic podzolic
soil is improved, the continental interiors of the con-
iferous forest belt are capable of supporting some
agriculture.
Natural Vegetation
No other trees are so well adapted as the conifers to
withstand such an inhospitable environment as the
Siberian type of climate. The coniferous forest belts
of Eurasia and North America are the richest
sources of softwood for use in building construction,
furniture, matches, paper and pulp, rayon and other
branches of the chemicals industry. The world's
greatest softwood producers are the U.S.S.R., the
U.S.A., Canada and the Fenoscandian countries
(Finland, Norway and Sweden). In the production
of wood pulp (by both chemical and mechanical
methods). the U.S.A. is the leader. But in the field
Douglas fir Cedar
23.A Coniferous forests on the eastern Rockies, Alberta,
Canada National Film Board of Canada
of newsprint, Canada has outstripped all other pro-
ducers, accounting for 36 per cent of the world's
total annual production. The more accessible coni-
ferous forests have reached the limit of production
but the relatively inaccessible taiga of Siberia will
remain the richest reserye of temperate softwood.
There are four major species in the coniferous for-
ests (Plate 23.A and Fig.23.3).
L Pine, e.g. white pine, red pine, Scots pine, Jack
pine, lodgepole pine, Jeffrey pine.
2. Fir, e.g. Douglas fir, balsam fir, silver fir.
3. Spruce, e.g.Norway spruce, Sitka spruce.
4. Larch, (a very hardy deciduous tree found with
conifers).
Their presence in pure stands and the existence of
only a few species are a great advantage in com-
mercial forest exploitation.
Relationship between Glimate and
Natural Vegetation
l.Coniferous forests are of moderate density. Unlike
the equatorial rain forests which are luxuriant and
2t9
contain trees of various heights, the coniferous for-
ests are more uniform and grow straight and tall, up
to a height of about 30 metres (100 feet). Where the
poleward limit of tree growth is approached the trees
are widely spaced, and give way to tundra vegetation
(Fig. n.q.
2. Almost all conifers are evergreen. The low
annual temperature with more than half the year
below the growing-point temperature of 6 "C (43'F),
means that evergreens are at an advantage. Growth
can begin as soon as growing-point is reached in
spring. The conifer has a two-year fructification
cycle. The seeds are pollinated in one year and dis-
persed in the following year. There is no annual
replacement of new leaves as in deciduous trees. The
same leaf remains on the tree for as long as five
years. Food is stored in the trunks, and the bark is
thick to protect the trunk from excessive cold.
3. Conifers are conical in shape. This is another
adaptation to survive the sub-Arctic climate. The
sloping branches prevent snow accumulation which
may snap the branches. It also offers little grip to the
strong winds (Plate 23.8).
 TAIGA
Deree coniferous forcst
Trees.more scattered and smalle,,
dwarl willows, birches appear
Fig.23.4 Diagram to show changes in vegetation in a jour-
ney Polewards from the Taiga Zone
4. Leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-
shaped. This is to check excessive transpiration. The
leaf surface is reduced to the minimum, as transpir-
ation can be quite rapid in the warm summer due to
intense continental heating.
5. There is little undergrowth. The podzolized soils
of the coniferous forests are poor. They are exces-
sively leached and very acidic. The evergreen leaves
provide little leaf-fall for humus formation, and the
rate of decomposition of the leathery 'needles' in
a region of such low temperature is slow. All these
factors are deterrents to the growth of much under-
growth. Absence of direct sunlight and the short
duration of summer are other contributory factors
to a sparse undergrowth, but where trees are widely
spaced near the tree-line heath and tundra plants
cover the intervening ground.
23.B Winter in a coniferous forest. The sloping branches
prevent the accumulation of snow. Servizio Editoriale Foto-
grafico
220
MaEh plants and sedges ftlm
0/0
611'82
1213.65
1a/5.4A
7.31
Besides the continental interiors of the higher lat-
itudes, coniferous forests are also found in other cli-
matic regions wherever altitude reduces the
temperature. The conifers are, in fact, the dominant
trees of the mountainous districts in both the tem-
perate and tropical countries. But on very steep
slopes where soils are immature or non-existent,
even the conifer cannot survive.
Economic Development
The coniferous forest regions of the northern
hemisphere are comparatively little developed. In
Canada, eastern Europe and Asiatic Russia, large
tracts of coniferous forests are still untouched. Only
in the more accessible areas are the forests cleared
for lumbering. The various species of pine, fir, larch
and spruce are felled and transported to the saw-
mills for the extraction of temperate softwoods.
There is little agriculture, as few crops can survive
in the sub-Arctic climate of these northerly lands.
The long, cold winter, the frozen soils and the low
mean annual temperature throughout the year'ex-
clude all but the frardiest crops. Only in the more
sheltered valleys and the lands bordering the step-
pes are some cereals (barley, oats, rye) and root
crops (potatoes) raised for local needs. Many of the
Samoyeds and Yakuts of Siberia, and some Cana-
dians are engaged in hunting, trapping and fishing.
We shall deal with two of the major activities in
greater detail.
1. Trapping. Many fur-bearing animals inhabit the
northerly lands of Canada and Eurasia. Wherever
the cold is keenest, the quality and thickness of the
fur also increases. Consequently, the most severe
winters produce the finest furs which fetch the high-
est prices. In Canada, trappers and hunters, armed
with modern automatic rifles, reside in log cabins in
the midst of the coniferous forests to track down
these animals. Their lives are hard and precarious
at times, but the rewards are great if the 'harvests'
are good. Mink, beaver, muskrat, ermine, and silver
fox are the most important fur-bearing animals
sought-after in Canada. The Hudson Bay Company
has many stations scattered in the northern regions
to trade in furs with the Canadian trappers and hunt-
ers. To ensure a more regular supply of furs, many
fur farms have been established in Canada. Animals
such as the silver fox and ermine are kept in captiv-
ity, and skinned when the furs reach a marketable
stage. They fetch high prices in sophisticated cities
like New York, London, Paris, Rome and Zurich,
where the pelts are processed as attractive fur coats
and women's handbags. [n Siberia, other fur-bearing
animals are trapped. These are squirrels, otters,
bears, sables, lynxes, martens, and foxes. As in Can-
ada, fur-farming has now replaced hunting of wild
animals in many parts of Siberia as the main source
of furs.
2. Lumbering. This is probably the most important
occupation of the Siberian type of climate. The vast
reserves of coniferous forests provide the basis for
the lumbering industry. The trees are felled for
many purposes (Plate 23.C and D.).
(a) Sawmilling. This processes the logs into 23.C A lumberjackuses a power-saw to cut up a fallen tree,
sawn timber, plywood, planks, hardboard and other Ouebec, Canada National Film Board of Canada
constructional woods.

23.D Logs are poled into a factory from the Ottawa river,
Ouebec, Canada National Film Board of Canada

221
 (b) Paper and pulp industry. Timber is pulped
by both chemical and mechanical means to make
wood pulp, the raw material for paper-making and
newsprint.The development of the printing industry
has made paper and pulp indispensable. Canada and
the U.S.A. are leading producers of the world's sup-
plies of newsprint and wood pulp respectively.
(c) ,4s a fuel. Less than a quarter of the world's
softwood is burnt as fuel because its industrial uses
are far more significant. In contrast, almost three-
quarters of the world's hardwoods are burnt as fuel,
particularly tropical hardwoods where the trees
occur in mixed stands.
(d) As an industrial raw materrcl. Timber has
a wide range of uses. In Sweden, matches form a
major export ite.m. From other temperate countries,
timber is used for making furniture, wood-carvings,
toys, crates and packing cases. From the by-products
of the timber, many chemically processed articles
are derived such as rayon, turpentine, varnishes,
paints, dyes, liquid resins, wood-alcohols, disinfec-
tants and cosmetics.
Commercial exploitation of the coniferous forests
is characterized by the following features:
i. The conifers are limited in species. Pine, spruce
and fir are the most important in the northern for-
ests, while larch is more predominant in the warmer
south. They occur in homogeneous groups and not
Ouestions and Exercises
1. Compare and contrast deciduous forests and
coniferous forests in respect of the following:
(a) distribution;
(b) vegetational characteristics;
(c) climatic influence;
(d) economic development.
2. Distinguish between hardwoods and soft-
woods. What industrial uses are made of them?
Account for their large-scale production for
export in any one country.
3. Give a reasoned account of any three of. the
following:
(a) The annual temperature range of Moscow
is 30 "C (54 "F).
(b) The annual precipitation of Leningrad is
not more than 508 mm (20 inches).
(c) The lower courses of the Siberian rivers
are frozen for as long as seven months.
(d) One of the coldest spots on the globe is
'r11
mixed as in the tropical forests. This not only saves
time and costs, but also enhances the commercial
value of the felled timber.
ii. In these northerly latitudes, agriculture is almost
impossible and lumbering replaces farming in the
continental interiors. Even where crops are culti-
vated, farmers are idle in the winter months and can
supplement their income by doing part-time lum-
bering in the forests, as they do in most parts of
Europe.
iii. Lumbering is normally carried out in the winter
when the sap ceases to flow. This makes felling much
simpler. The snow-covered ground also makes log-
ging and haulage a relatively easy job. The logs are
dragged to the rivers and float to the sawmills down-
stream when the rivers thaw in spring. This has
greatly assisted the development of the lumbering
industry in eastern Canada and Sweden. Unfortu-
nately, over the greater part of Siberia, all the rivers
drain polewards into the Arctic Ocean which is fro-
zen for three-quarters of the year, and there are few
sawmills there. With the use of the Northern Sea
Route, which links Murmansk and Vladivostok via
the Arctic Ocean, development is increasing. Cheap
hydro-electricity for driving the sawmills is har-
nessed in the mountainous uplands of North Amer-
ica and Europe and has greatly assisted the
lumbering industry.
Verkhoyansk with a record lowest temper-
ature of -68 "C (-90'F).
4. What is meant by:
(a) the taiga;
(b) the veld;
(c) the selvas.
Account for the distribution and characteristics
of any rwo of them.
5. Describe the role played by forest products in
the economy of either Canada or Sweden.
6. (a) Describe the types of vegetation found in
the cool temperate zone.
(b) To what extent does the climate, soil and
other factors affect their distribution?
7. (a) With reference to examples taken from
one large continent, distinguish the cli-
mates found within the cool temperate
belt.
(b) In what ways are they different from the
 climates found north and south of the belt? northern hemisphere. Explain geographi-
8. (a) State the climate found in the following cally why this is so.
areas: (b) In what ways is this type of climate com-
i. The Low Countries of Europe; parable to that of the warm temperate con-
ii. The Caribbean islands; tinental (Steppe) type of climate?
iii. Central Chile; 10. The cool temperate continental regions are
iv. Japan. important for lumbering and fur trapping.
(b) For any two of them relate the climatic (a) Give reasons why these occupations are
influence on the local vegetation. suitable here.
9. (a) The cool temperate continental (Siberian (b) Why are other types of agriculture com-
type) of climate is confined entirely to the paratively undeveloPed?

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. The cool temperate continental 3. The cool temperate continental re- D temperature changes are very ex-
climate is experienced in gions are sparsely populated owing lreme
A Japan to
-B southern Chile A their interior location 5. The coniferous forests are characte.
C New Zealand B the absence of minerals rized by the following features er-
D Finland C the lack of vegetation cept
D the damp environment A evergreen throughout the year
2. Lumbering in the coniferous fore.sts B the leaves are small and needle-
is much easier than in the troPical 4. The cool temperate continental shaped
rain forests for these reasons except Siberian climate does not attract C the undergrowth is very dense
A Haulage operations are done on many people because D the trunks are tall, slender and
snow-covered ground A the rivers flood extensively in the straight
B The existence of a homogenous winter
species of trees B heat waves in summer are un-
C The conifers occur onlY on low- bearable
lands C blizzatds blow all year round
D The cool climate is invigorating

223
Chapter 24 The Cool Temperate Eastern
Margin (Laurentian) Climate
Distribution
The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian)
Climate is an intermediate type of climate between
the British and the Siberian type of climate. It has
features of both the maritime and the continental
climates. It is apparent from Fig. 24.1, that the Lau-
rentian type of climate is found only in two regions.
One is north-eastern North America, including east-
ern Canada, north-east U.S.A. (i.e. Maritime
Provinces and the New England states), and
Newfoundland. This may be referred to as the North
American region. The other region is the eastern
coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia, North
China, Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan. It
may be referred to as the Asiatic region.
In the southern hemisphere, this climatic type is
absent because only a small section of the southern
Fi1.24.1 Regions with a Cool Temperate Eastern Margin
Climate (Laurentian-type)
t o
JLaurentian type ol
- Scale 1:215000000
224
continents extends south of the latitude of 40" S. The
only possible location is in eastern Patagonia, south
of Bahia Blanca (lat. 39'S) to Tierra del Fuego
(lat. 54" S). But the climatic barrier of the southern
Andes is so complete, that the Westerlies hardly
ever reach Patagonia. The region is subjected to
aridity rather than continentality. Its annual precip-
itation is not more than 254 mm (10 inches), so that
it is a rain-shadow desert. Elsewhere in the southern
hemisphere, the climate is so equable and the
oceanic influence is so profound that neither the con-
tinental nor the eastern margin type of climate
exists.
Climate
The Laurentian type of climate has cold, dry winters
and warm, wet summers. Winter temperatures may
vls
i--- -\- +- --
t*t\r-/
Climate
s-
 27180 27t80
21170 -q, 21170
16/60 -9
t.: 16/60
10/50 10/50
-9 gE
=L 4t40 4t40
CF
i:E -1l30 2Vt10 -1l30
-7120 229t9 -7t20
20318
.; 17817
.9
5 ..' 15216 o
127t5
!Eo
6^- 127t5 i'r
!Eo
102t4 E
o 10214 FD
76t3 7613 o
5112 5112
2511 2511
o/o 0/0
JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND
months months

New York J F M A I\4 J J A 'S O N D range/total Peking:JFMAM JJASOND montns

Temp.:C: -l -1491621232219137 1 24"C Temp."C: 5 '14 20 24262520t343 30"c
F.: 3t 31 39 49 60 69 74 72 67 56 44 oF., -4 -2
34 43'F. 24 29 41 57 68 76 79 17 68 55 39 37 5C r.
Precip. (mml: 84 86 9t 86 79 91 107 107 94 89 64 84 1041 mm Precip.(mm): 3 5 5 15 36 76 ._239 160 66 15 I 3 635 mm
ilnches): J J 3.4 3.6 3.4 3 I 3.6 4 2 4.2 3.7 3.5 25 33 41 inches (inchesl:01 0'2 02 0-6 14 3.0 9.4 63 2.6 06 0.3 0.1 25 inches

Fis.24.2(al Fig.24.2(bl
Laurentian-type of Climate in North America Laurentian-type of climate in Asia
Place: New York, U.S.A. (41"N, 74'W) Place: Beijing (Peking), North China (40'N. 116'E)
Altitude: 96 metres (314 feet) Altitude: 40 metres (131 feet)
Annual precipitation: 1 041 mm (41 inches) Annual precipitation: 635 mm (25 inches)
Annuaf temperature range: 24oC (23"
31"F)
- (-l')Cll43"F (74i- Annual temperature range: 30"C (26" - (-4fCy55"F. (79" -
2CF.l

be well below freezing-point and snow falls to quite
a depth. Summers are as warm as the tropics
(21"-27 "C/70"-80'F) and if it were not for the cool-
ing effects of the off-shore cold currents from the
Arctic, the summer might be even hotter. Though
rain falls throughout the year, there is a distinct sum-
mer maximum from the easterly winds from the
oceans. Of the annual precipitation of. 762 to
I524 mm (30 to 60 inches), two-thirds come in the
summer. Winter is dry and cold, because the winds
are dry Westerlies that blow out from the continen-
tal interiors. We shall now examine in greater detail
the variations of the Laurentian type of climate
between the North American region and the Asiatic
region.
The North American region. The most remarkable
characteristic of the Laurentian climate of the North
American region is its uniformity in precipitation
(about 75 to 100 mm/3 to 4 inches monthly) with a
late summer maximum. New York in Fig.24.2(a)
has an annual precipitation of 1 041 mm (41 inches)
with the wettest months in July and August
(1.07 mml4.2 inches eaCtr). No month is really dry,
and the driest month, November, has 64 mm (2.5
inches) of rain. This uniformity of precipitation is
largely due to the Atlantic influence and that of the
Great Lakes. The warm Gulf Stream increases the
moisture content of easterly winds from the open
Atlantic. The prevailing Westerlies which penetrate
across the Rockies carry depressions over the Great
Lakes to the New England states. These winds thus
promote wet conditions especially in winter, which
are vital for the agricultural activities of north-east-
ern North America. The meeting of the warm Gulf
Stream and the cold Labrador Current in coastal
waters off Newfoundland produces dense mist and
fog and gives rise to much precipitation. St. John's,
its capital, has as much as l372mm (54 inches) of
annual precipitation. It is said that Newfoundland
experierices more drizzles than any other part of the
world.
In summer, the Westerlies bring fewer depressions
and extend their continental influence to the coast.
Temperatures are normally high in summer for the
latitude. New York has a mean July temperature of
23 "C (74 'F) and sometimes even as high as 32'C
(90'F). Once, on 7 August 1918, the absolute max-
imum of 34 "C (104 'F) was reached. Such high tem-
peratures in a cool temperate maritime region,
where the relative humidity is high, can be very

225
trying. Prolonged heat waves cause discomfort and
frustration in crowded cities. In winter, the temper-
ature drops and snow falls. New York has two
months below freezing-point, and an annual tem-
perature range of 24'C (43 'F). Away from the mar-
itime influence, the cold increases. The mean
January temperatires for Quebec, rJttawa and Mon-
treal are -12"C, -1l"C and -10"C (10"F., 12'F. and
14"F.) respectively. The temperature ranges widen
accordingly.
The Asiatic region. In contrast, the rainfall distri-
bution of the Asiatic region is far less uniform. Win-
ters are cold and very dry while summers are very
warm and exceptionally wet. Beijing (Peking), a typ-
ical station of the Laurentian Climate in northern
China will bring out these facts very clearly
Fig.2a.2b). It has seven dry months from October
to April with a total rainfall of less than 50 mm (2.1
inches) which is only one-twelfth of the annual total
of 635 mm (25 inches). The remaining five months
receive more than 25 mm (1 inch) a month, with
239 mm (9.4 inches) in July alone. The rainfall
rdgime, is, in fact, similar to that of the tropical mon-
soon type in India, where the whole year's rainfall
is concentrated in the three summer months. The
mountainous interior of China has such pronounced
continental effects that the intense heating in sum-
mer creates a region of extreme low pressure, and
moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean and the
Sea of Japan blow in as the South-East Monsoon.
The Laurentian type of climate here is often des-
cribed as the Cool Temperate Monsoon Climate.
It has a very long, cold winter and a big annual range
of temperature. The July mean for Beijing (Peking)
is 26 "C (79 "F) while that of January is only -4 "C
(24"F). The temperature range is therefore more
than 30 "C (55'F). The dry, cold wind that blows out
from the heart of Asia in winter carries fine, yellow-
ish dust and deposits it as a thick mantle of loess in
Shanxi (Shansi), Shaanxi (Shensi), and other neigh-
bouring provinces at the bend of the Huang He
(Hwang Ho). Much of the winter precipitation in
northern China, Korea and Hokkaido (Japan) is in
the form of snow. In the mountainous cllstncts, the
snow piles to a depth of 1.5 to 3 metres (5 to 10
feet).
The climate of Japan is modified by its insularity,
and also by the meeting of warm and cold ocean cur-
rents.It receives adequate rainfall from both the
South-East Monsoon in summer and the North-West
Monsoon in winter. The latter is the dry, cold wind
from mainland Asia, but after crossing the Sea of
226
Japan it has gathered sufficient moisture to give
heavy relief rain or snow on the western coasts of
Japan. The rainfall is more evenly distributed, as in
Tokyo, with two maxima, one in June, the Plum
Rain (165 mm/6.5 inches), and the other in Sep-
tember, the Typhoon Rain (229 mm/9 inches). On
the windward slopes of the Japanese Alps on the
west, some stations, e.g. Kanazawa, have more than
2 590 mm (102 inches) of rain, much of it falling as
snow. The maritime influence also effectively mod-
erates the temperature range. Tokyo has a range of
22'C (40 "F) (26'C179 "F in August and 4 'Cl39 'F
in January) with none of the months below freezing-
point. The warm Kuroshio has played an important
part in making the climate of Japan less extreme. In
meeting the cold Oyashio from the north, it also pro-
duces fog and mist, making north Japan a 'second
Newfoundland'. Fishing replaces agriculture as the
main occupation in many of the indented coastlands.
Natural Vegetation
The predominant vegetation of the Laurentian type
of climate is cool temperate forest. The moderately
heavy precipitation (889 to | 143 mn,/35 to 45
inches) throughout the year, warm summers and the
damp air from fogs, all favour the growth of trees.
Forests are of a mixed nature: evergreen conifers
predominate north of 50" N latitude and deciduous
forests south of 50' N latitude. The increase in the
length and severity of the winter excludes forests
that are not adaptable to cold conditions. In the
Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and Korea), the con-
iferous forests are, in fact, a continuation of the great
coniferous belt of the taiga. Winters are less severe
than in the taiga due to the maritime position and
the conifers are less exposed to the rigours of the
weather. Lumbering has always been a major occu-
pation of this sparsely populated part of eastern Asia
and timber is a leading export item. Much of the
original coniferous forests of fir, spruce and larch
have been cleared as a result of lumbering rather
than agriculture. Eastern Canada, along the banks
of the St. Lawrence River is the heart of the Cana-
dian timber and wood pulp industry.
South of latitude 50o N, the coniferous forests give
way to deciduous forests. Oak, beech, maple and
birch are the principal trees. Like their counterparts
on the western margins, the deciduous forests are
fairly open. A long growing season of over six
months and an adequate supply of moisture from
maritime sources encourage rapid growth of ferns
and other temperate undergrowth. The occurrence
of trees in almost pure stands and the predominance
of only a handful of species, greatly enhance the
commercial value of these forests. As a result, they
have been extensively felled for the extraction of
temperate hardwood. In many parts of Manchuria,
Korea and Japan, the forests have made way for the
plough. Both food and cash crops are raised. In Can-
ada, due to the greater reserves of coniferous soft-
woods and their overriding importance in industrial
uses, the annual production of deciduous hardwood
is much less significant.
Economic Development
Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and pulp
industries are the most important economic under-
takings. (Details of lumbering have already been
dealt with in Chapter 23.)
Agriculture is less important in view of the sever-
Fig.24.3 Fishing: the North American region
MARITIME
PROVINCES
BRUNSWICK
' )2',o'1"".."t;
,ru
227
ity of the winter and its long duration. Fortunately
the maritime influence and the heavy rainfall enable
some hardy crops to be raised for local needs. Pota-
toes thrive over large areas of the podzolized soils,
while hardy cereals like oats and barley can be sown
and successfully harvested before the onset of the
cold winter. A number of other interesting crops are
produced in the Asiatic region such as soya beans
(northern China, Manchuria and Korea are amongst
the world's leading producers), groundnuts, ses-
ame, rapeseeds, tung oil and mulberry. In the North
American region, arable farming is not carried out
on a sizeable scale, except in the more favoured
localities. Farmers are engaged in dairy farming, hay
cultivation and, in mild maritime areas, fruit grow-
ing. The fertile Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia is
the world's most renowned region for apples. Fish-
ing is, however, the most outstanding economic
activity of the Laurentian climatic regions.
ATLANTIC
o mites
continental Shelves
fiffi
Fishing
FISHING OFF NEWFOUNDLAND, THE MARITIME PROVINCES
AND NEW ENGLAND
This is one of the world's largest fishing grounds par-
ticularly on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland
Gig. zaQ. The reasons for its importance are geo-
graphical. Fish feed on minute marine organisms,
collectively called plankton, which is present in
abundance only in shallow waters adjacent to land
masses where sunlight can penetrate. The gently
sloping continental shelves (less than 180 metres/600
feet deep) which stretch for over 320 km (200 miles)
south-east of Newfoundland, and off the coasts of
the Maritime Provinces and New England contain
a rich collection of microscopic plankton. Fish of all
types and sizes feed and breed here and support a
thriving fishing industry not only in Canada and the
U.S.A., but also in countries like Norway, France,
Britain, Portugal, Denmark, Russia and Japan,
which send fishing fleets to the Grand Banks.
As less than 1 per cent of Newfoundland is culti-
vated, fishing provides employment for almost the
entire population. It is not only the chief source of
wealth to Newfoundland, but also a major export
item to all the Maritime Provinces. Both pelagic fish
which live near the surface and demersal fish which
live near the bottom of shallow seas are causht. The
24.A A fishing settlement in Newfoundland. Much of the
fish is dried for export. National Film Board of Canada
-.",
..'
gnr*r
228
chief fish caught is cod which is consumed fresh or
dried, salted, smoked, canned or packed in ice for
export to mainland America, Central and South
America and southern Europe. Cod liver oil is
exported too. Other fishes caught are haddock, hal-
ibut, hake, herring, plaice, and mackerel. Various
kinds of fishing craft and techniques are employed
to obtain maximum harvests from the sea. Modern
trawlers, dragging large conical-shaped nets and
drifters, carrying curtainlike rectangular nets, oper-
ate extensively off the Atlantic coasts. They are
equipped with radio and radar devices to navigate
through the dense fog, avoid collision with icebergs
and also maintain contact with their headquarters on
land. Off-shore fishermen also use traps, lines and
nets to catch crabs, lobsters and shrimps for home
consumption and increasingly for export. Further
inland, in lakes and rivers, such as the St. Lawrence
and the Great Lakes, freshwater fish, e.g. salmon,
trout, eels and sturgeons are caught . Fig. 24.4 shows
some common species of fish found in temperate
waters.
In Newfoundland and along the Atlantic coasts
are many fishing ports. St. John's, chief port of New-
foundland with a population of nearly 125 000, is the
headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing industries.
It also had interests in sealing and whaling but these
have declined. [n the fishing ports of Halifax and
 *17;ir'

Fi1.24.4 Some common species of fish in temperate

waters

229
Yarmouth in Nova Scotia and in the New England
ports are processing plants that cut, clean, salt, pack
or preserve fish for disposal by refrigerated boats,
trains or trucks to all parts of the continent. They
are bases for large fleets of trawlers. A modern traw-
ler may well cost anything around a million dollars.
The men stay on board in floating factories far out
at sea for days and even weeks. Fishing in this
part of the world is highly specialized and very effi-
cient. In fact over-fishing is a growing problem. The
United States government and international fishing
bodies are now contemplating strict measures in fish
conservation if this major source of protein food is
to be sustained for regular supply in the years to
come.
FISHING OFF JAPAN
In the north-west Pacific, surrounding the islands of
Japan, is another major fishing area of the world.
Nowhere else in the world are there so many people
engaged in fishing as in this part of the north-west
Pacific. The mountainous nature of Japan and parts
of mainland eastern Asia have driven many to seek
a livelihood from the sea. The scarcity of meat (there
is little pasture in Japan for livestock farming of any
kind) and religiow reasons have popularized fish as
the principal item of diet and the chief protein food
of the Japanese and the Chinese as well. Large quan-
tities of fish and fish products are either canned or
preserved for export to neighbouring countries. The
Japanese also make use of fish wastes, fish meal and
seaweeds as fertilizers in their farms. Japan is one
of the few countries that has taken to seaweed cul-
tivation. Coastal farms that are submerged in water
grow weeds for sale as fertilizers, chemical ingredi-
ents and even as food.
Another interesting aspect of Japanese fishing is
pearl culture. The divers of Southern Japan dive
down into the coastal waters and bring to the sur-
face shell-fish called pearl oysters and extract the
highly prized pearls for sale as ornaments. The lin-
ing of the oyster shells, called mother-of-pearl, is
used for the manufacture of pearl buttons, and
other decorative articles. As natural pearls in oy-
sters are difficult to obtain in large numbers, the
Japanese have begun to breed the young oysters.
By injecting tiny 'seeds' into them, the oysters are
made to secrete the pearl material, which accumu-
lates to form 'cultured pearls'. These are collected
and exported (Plate 24.8).
The Japanese interest in fishing is not confined to
their own territorial waters. They venture far and
230
24.8 A cultured pearl farm in Japan
wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlantic
waters. Large whaling fleets complete with process-
ing plants and experienced crews stay out in the
open seas and return only occasionally for refuelling
or replenishment of fresh provisions. As a nation,
Japan accounts for a sixth of the world's total annual
catch. She is the world's greatest fishing nation
today. Her active participation in international fish-
ing enterprises and her advanced fishing techniques
speak well of her relentless drive to make good from
the seas what she lacks on land.
Let us find out why this is possible.
l. Japan is not well endowed with natural re-
sources, for as much as 80 per cent of her land is
'non-agricultural'. She has to take to the sea if she
wants to survive. This has compelled the people to
develop the seas, and fishing has for centuries been
the traditional occupation of many Japanese living
along the coast.
2. The continental shelves around the islands of
Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting of the
warm Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio currents and
provide excellent breeding grounds for all kinds of
fish including herring, cod, mackerel, bonito,
salmon, sardine and tuna, as well as crabs and lobs-
ters.
3. The indented coastline of Japan provides shel-
tered fishing ports, calm waters and safe landing
places, ideal for the fishing industry. In Hokkaido,
where the Laurentian type of climate is too cold for
much agriculture, fishing takes first place. Hakodate
and Kushiro are large fishing ports, complete with
refrigeration facilities.
4. Lack of lowlands and pastures means that only
a few animals can be kept to supply meat and other
protein food. Fish in all its varied forms, fresh,
canned, dried, frozen, and in the form of fish pastes,
fish sauce and spiced condiments takes the place of
meat as Japan's primary source of protein food.
There is a great demand for it locally, and for export
to other east Asiatic neighbours which lack the tech-
niques of large-scale commercial fishing.
5. The Japanese fishermen began with small fishing
boats, using nets, traps and lines. With the progress
made in industries, fishing has also become more
scientific, aiming at heavy hauls, high returns and
economy of. time, effort and money. Though three-
quarters of the fishermen practise off-shore pelagic
fishing either full-time or part-time, in small boats,
most of the commercial deep-sea demersal fishing is
now highly mechanized. Powered trawlers and mod-
ern refrigeration plants backed by sound financial
organizations have greatly increased the annual fish
yield. Japan is now not only a major producer and
exporter of fish and marine products, but also a
centre for marine and fishing research.

O,uestions and Exercises

1. (a) Locate on a world map the extent of
Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Lauren-
tian) Climate.
(b) Explain why this type of climate is
fined to the northern hemisphere.
(c) Describe its climate.
2. Compare and contrast the climate of any two
of the following pairs of areas:
(a) Laurentian Climate in the North American
region and the Asiatic region.
(b) Tropical Monsoon Climate of India and
the Warm Temperate Eastern Margin
(China type) Climate in South China.
(c) The Steppe type of climate in Eurasia and
the Siberian type of climate in northern
Canada.
(d) The Tundra Climate of Greenland and
Trade Wind Desert Climate of central
Australia.
3. (a) Name the major fishing areas of the world.
(b) What types of fishing can normally be dis-
the tinguished in such major fishing grounds?
(c) Name a few methods used to catch the fish.
(d) For any one major fishing area you have
con- selected, explain the geographical factors
which have contributed to its importance.
4. Write brief notes on any three of the following:
(a) The economy of thl forests of the Lauren-
tian regions.
(b) Fishing in Japan.
(c) Soya bean cultivation in Manchuria.
(d) Fruit growing in the Maritime Provinces of
Canada.
5. The following statistics are a guide to four dif-
ferent types of climate in the northern hemi-
sphere.
(a) Name the type of climate that each of them
represents.
(b) Locate a probable station for each.
(c) For any two of them describe their climatic
characteristics.

Stations July January Annual Annual Month of max.

temp. temp. temp. range Rainfall rainfall

A 27 "C (81 "F) 26 "C (79'F) 1.7'C (3'F) 2 438 mm April and
(96") October

B 13 "C (55 'F) -11 'C (12 "F) 23.9'C (43 'F) 203 mm June, July,
(8") August

C 33'C (91 "F) 13 "C (55 'F) r9.4"C (35 "F) 76 mm irregular
(3")
D 23'C (74 "F) -1 'C (30 "F) 24.4 "C (44 .F) 1041 mm July, August,
(41") September

231
6. (a) The cool temperate eastern margin (Lau-
rentian) climate is confined to the eastern
seaboard regions of only two continents.
Name these two continents.
(b) Outline the special features of this type of
climate.
(c) Name the cold currents that bathe their
eastern shores.
a
(a) What type of natural vegetation is found
in the Laurentian region?
(b) Name a few of the more important vege-
tational species.
(c) What economic uses have men made of the
local vegetation?
8. Both Newfoundland and Japan are major fish-
ing grounds of the world. Make a comparative
study of these two fishing regions under these
headings:
(a) species of fish caught;
(b) major fishing ports;
(c) factors that have contributed to their
development as world major fishing
grounds.
9. (a) What are ocean currents?
(b) With reference to regions with an eastern
margin Laurentian type of climate, show
how ocean currents influence the climate
and the livelihood of the people.
(c) Name two other parts of the world where
ocean currents have a pronounced influ-
ence on the adjoining land mass.
10. Write an explanatory account of the main fea-
tures of either continental climates or mari-
time climates.

Sample Objective Ouestions

The Laurentian type of climate
usually associated with
A a small annual temperature range
B westerlies in summer
C frequent blizzards
D much fog and mist off the coast
Fishing is important in Newfound-
land for these reasons excepl
A It has a wide continental shelf
B The irregular coastline provides
shelter for fishing ports
C The dense fog provides food for
the fishes
D The cool climate helps to
serve the fish
is 3. Inrecent years there has been much
decline in the world's fishing hauls.
Effective conservation methods have
to be employed to check the decline.
Which of the following conservation
methods is not likely to be prac-
tised?
A a ban on indiscriminate fishing
B artificial fertilization of eggs
C protection from any kind of water
pollution
D the giving up of fishing.
4. The cool temperate eastern margin
pre-
(Laurentian) climate is best repre-
sented by
A Newfoundland and the Maritime
Provinces
B the Scandinavian Peninsula
C southern Africa
D Australasia
5. The predominant vegetation of the
Laurentian region of Canada is
A sub-tropical forest
B cool temperate forest
C Mediterranean forest
D monsoon forest

232
Chapter 25 The Arctic or Polar Climate

month in June seldom rises to more than 10'C

Distribution
The polar type of climate and vegetation is found
mainly north of the Arctic Circle in the northern
hemisphere. The ice-caps are confined to Greenland
and to the highlands of these high-latitude regions,
where the ground is permanently snow-covered. The
lowlands, with a few months ice-free, have tundra
vegetation. They include the coastal strip of Green-
land, the barren grounds of northern Canada and
Alaska and the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia
(Fig. 25.1). In the southern hemisphere, the vir-
tually uninhabited continent of Antarctica is the
greatest single stretch of ice-cap where the layers
of permanent ice are as thick as 3 000 metres (10,000
feet).
Climate
Temperature . The polar climate is characterized by
a very low mean annual temperature and its warmest
(50 "F). In mid-winter (January) temperatures are
as low as -37'C (-35'F) and much colder in the
interior. Normally not more than four months have
temperatures above freezing-point! Winters are long
and very severe; surnmers are cool and brief. Within
the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there are weeks of
continuous darkness. At the North Pole, there are six
months without light in winter. Despite the long
duration of sunshine in summer, when the sun.does
not set (Plate 25.A), temperatures remain low
because the sun is low in the sky and much of the
warmth of its faint rays is either reflected by the
ground snow, or used up in melting the ice. It has
'little power left to raise the air temperature. Water
in the soil is frozen to great depths and the summer
heat can only thaw the upper 150 mm (6 inches) of
the soil. The ground remains, solidly frozen for all
but four months, inaccessible to plants. Frost occurs
at any time and blizzards, reaching a velocity of
210 km (130 miles) an hour are not infrequent. They

Fig.25.1 The Cap and Tundra

"s

T
T

ss. lce caP

I Tunora scare : r : 2r5 ooo fi)o
I

233
 16/60
10/50
-8 4140
=P
G.=
-1l30
ptr -7t20
-12110
t -18/0
-231-10
-29t-20
-34l-30
40140
8112 .E
o

2511
i'.d
Fo
E-D
E-
o
o/o
JFMAMJJ.ASOND
months
Upernavik: JFMAMJJASON D range/total
Temp. "C: -22-22-21-4 2 5 5 1 1 --4 -10 -17 27"C
-8 -8 -6 25 35 41 41' g 34 25 14 1 49"F.
Precip. (mfi): l0 t3 18 18 15 13 13 28 2A 28 28 13 231 mm
(inchesl: 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.9 r.r l1 l l 1 'l 05 91inches

25.A The midnight sun in Norway remains in the horizon
through summer. Poppertoto
can be very hazardous for the polar inhabitants. In
coastal districts, where warmer water meets cold
land, thick fogs may develop. They last for days, and
in many instances, it is not possible to see for more
than a few metres.
Precipitation. Precipitation is mainly in the form of
snow, falling in winter and being drifted about dur-
ing blizzards. Snowfall varies with locality; it may
fall either as ice crystals or large, amalgamated snow
flakes. As it takes 250-300 mm (10-12 inches) of
snow to make 25 mm (1 inch) of rain, precipitation
in polar regions can be expected to be light, not
more than 300 mm (12 inches) in a year. Convec-
tional rainfall is generally absent because of the low
rate of evaporation and the lack of moisture in the
cold polar air. There is normally a summer maxi-
mum, and the precipitation is then in the form of
rain or sleet.
In regions where winds blowing out from the large
anticyclones developed over the ice-caps are preva-
lent, rain comes in summer, when more evaporation
is possible. But in coastal areas, where cyclones a.re
more strongly felt, the tendency is towards a winter
maximum, for that is when cyclonic activity is great-
est. In such regions the annual rainfall of 250 to
Fi1.25.2
Tundra Climate
Place: Upernavik. Greenland {72 "N, 56 "W)
Altitude: 20 metres (65 feet)
Total annual precipitation: 231 mm (9.1 inches)
Annual temparature range:27 "C (-22" -5"C) 49"F. (-8'-
41 .F.)
300 mm (10 to 12 inches) for the tundra may be
exceeded. Much heavier rainfall has been recorded,
especially in areas where the cyclones are most fre-
quent, e.g. Jan Mayen (71 'N, 8'W) has 381 mm (15
inches), Vardo (70" N, 31" E) has 660 mm (26 inches)
and Angmagssalik (60" N, 38" W) has over 940 mm
(37 inches)!
Fig. 25.2 shows the rhythm of temperature and
precipitation of a tundra region taken at Upernavik,
Greenland (72" N, 56" W). Its winter temperature is
-22'C (-8'F) while its warmest month in July is
only 5 'C (41 "F), giving an annual range of 27 "C
(49 "F). Precipitation is low, only 231 mm (9'1 inches),
falling mainly in the second half of the year, both as
rain and snow.
Natural Vegetation
In such an adverse environment as the tundra, few
plants survive. The greatest inhibiting factor is the
region's deficiency in heat. With a growing season of
less than three months. the warmest month not

234

25.8 Tundra vegetation consists of short mosses, lichens
and sedges. There are few trees. Servizio Editoriale Fotog-
rafico
exceeding 10'C (50 "F) (the tree-survival line), and
an annual precipitation of only 254 mm (10 inches),
there are no trees in the tundra. Such an environ-
ment can support only the lowest form of vegetation,
mosses, lichens and sedges. Drainage in the tundra
is usually poor as the sub-soil is permanently frozen.
Ponds and marshes and waterlogged areas are found
in hollows (Plate 25.B).
In the more sheltered spots, stunted birches, dwarf
willows and undersized alders struggle for a meagre
existence. Climatic conditions along the coastal low-
lands are a little more favourable. Here are found
some hardy grasses and the reindeernoss which pro-
vide the only pasturage for the herbivorous animals
like reindeer (Plate 25.C). In the brief summer,
when the snow melts and the days are warmer
and longer, berry-bearing bushes and Arctic flowers
bloom. Though short-lived, they brighten the mono-
tonous tundra landscape into 'Arctic prairies'. In
the summer, the tundra is full of activities. Birds
migrate north to prey on the numerous insects which
emerge when the snow thaws. Mammals like the
wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic hare and lemmings
also live in tundra regions.
Human Activities
Human activities of the tundra are largely confined
to the coast. Where plateaux and mountains increase
the altitude, it is uninhabitable, for these are per-
manently snow-covered. The few people who live in

25.C The borderlands between the taiga and the tundra

Elizabeth Mever

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235
the tundra live a semi-nomadic life and have to adapt
themselves to the harsh environment.
In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live
the Eskimos, numbering less than 28 000 today.
They used to live as hunters, fishers and food-gath-
erers but in recent years more and more of them are
settling in permanent huts. The Polar Eskimos, liv-
ing around Thule in north-west Greenland still lead
an uncertain life, not very much different from their
forefathers. The seasonal changes in climate neces-
sitate a nomadic way of life. During winter they live
in compact igloos and in summer when they move
out to hunt they pitch portable tents of skins by the
side of streams. Their food is derived from fish,
seals, walruses and polar bears. Other Eskimos hunt
caribou (the name given to reindeer in America) and
other animals to secure a steady supply of their daily
meat, milk, fat, skins and bones.
In the last fifty years through their contact with
the Europeans, the way of life of the Eskimos has
undergone tremendous changes. Coastal villages
have permanent wooden houses complete with mod-
ern facilities; speed-boats are replacing frail kayaks.
Deadly rifles instead of traditional harpoons are
used to track down animals and seals. Fur-bearing
animals are being reared on a commercial scale and
fishing, too, is being commercialized. In some more
accessible parts of Canada and Alaska, schools have
been established and the Eskimo children are being
taught the skills which will allow them to fit into the
modern way of life.
In the Eurasian tundra are other nomadic tribes
such as the Lapps of northern Finland and Scandi-
navia, the Samoyeds of Siberia (from the Ural
Mountains and the Yenisey basin), the Yakuts from
the Lena basin, and the Koryaks and Chuckchi of
north-eastern Asia. They wander with their herds of
reindeer across the Eurasian tundra where there are
pastures. Many of them have taken to a more settled
life. In the U.S.S.R. large farms have been estab-
lished for raising reindeer and for breeding fur-bear-
ing animals.
Ouestions and Exercises
1. Draw separate sketch maps to show the area
covered by each of the following:
(a) tundra in Eurasia;
(b) savanna in South America;
(c) hot desert in Australia;
236
The lmportance and Recent
Development of the Arctic Region
The Arctic region, once regarded as completely use-
less, is now of some economic importance. Apart
from the efforts of the various governments in assist-
ing the advancement of the Arctic inhabitants, the
Eskimos, Lapps, Samoyeds, etc., new settlements
have sprung up because of the discovery of min-
erals.Gold is mined in Alaska, nickel near Petsamo,
U.S.S.R., petroleum in the Kenal Peninsula,
Alaska; and copper at the Rankin Inlet, Canada.
Coal has been mined in Spitsbergen for a long time
and also in Alaska. With the declining reserves of
iron ore around Lake Superior, the Great Lakes
industrial concerns are using more and more iron
from large iron ore deposits in Labrador. New rail-
way lines have been constructed to bring the ores to
the St. Lawrence River for subsequent shipment to
the major industrial districts. Rich deposits of iron
ores at Kiruna and Gallivare in Sweden have made
it possible for Sweden to enjoy a prosperous export
trade in iron and steel and other metallurgical prod-
ucts.
With the establishment of ports on the Arctic sea-
board of Eurasia, it is now possible to ship timber
and fur from Siberia. Though the ports, such as
Igarka at the mouth of the Yenisey, are not ice-free,
modern ice-breakers keep the passage open most of
the time. On the Arctic lowlands where the growing
season is lengthened by warm currents or higher
temperatures, experiments have been carried out to
devise varieties of hardy cereals for local needs. It
may not be long before the tundra is brought under
greater agricultural, especially pastoral, use. The
healthy air and its preservative qualities (it is practi-
cally germ-free) are factors worth consideration for
future colonization. Scientists, meteorologists and
explorers have lived in the Arctic and Antarctica,
making studies of their geology, weather conditions,
plant and animal life, that will be of great signifi-
cance in years to come.
(d) equatorial forest in Africa.
For any three of them, describe their character-
istic features of natural vegetation and for any
one of them, explain how the features are re-
lated to the climate of the area.
 Town A Altitude: 63 m (207 feet) Range/Total
JF MAM JJ AS OND
Temp.'C 89 11 t4 18 22 24 24 2l 17t28 l7
Temp. "F 47 49 51 57 64 7t 76 76 70 62 53 46 30
Rainfall (mm) 81 69 74 65 56 4t 18 25 64 r27 r12 99 830
Rainfall (inches) 3.2 2-7 2.9 2-6 2.2 1.6 0.7 1.0 2.5 5.0 4.4 3.9 32'7

JFMAMJ A O N D Ranee/Total
Town B Altitude: 20 m (65 feet)
Temp.'C -22 -23 -21 -4 2 5 511 -4 -lo -r2 27
Temp. "F -8 -9 -6 25 35 4l 4t 34 34 25 r.4 10 49
Rainfall (mm) 10 13 18 15 15 13 23328 28 28 13 206
Rainfall (inches) 0.4 0.5 0'7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.5 8.1

Town C Altitude: 2 849 m (9,350 feet)

Temp. oC 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 1.0
Temp. oF 55 55 55 55 55 55 ss 55 55 55 55 54 1.0
Rainfall (mm) 80 99 122 178 II7 38 28 56 66 99 101 9l t'074
Rainfall (inches) 3'2 3'9 4'8 7'0 4'6 l'5 1.1 2.2 2-6 3.9 4'0 3.6 42.3

2. Statistics of rainfall and temperature for three
towns are given above. For any two of them:
(a) State their season of maximum rainfall.
(b) Name the type of climate.
(c) Suggest a possible location of the town.
(d) Describe their climatic rhythm.
3. The following are representative of plants found
in different climatic zones:
spruce, olive, teak, reindeer moss, date,
eucalyptus and bamboo.
For any slx of them:
(a) Name the type of climate in which each of
them thrives best.
(b) State the sort of natural vegetation with
which they are associated.
(c) Describe very briefly the role each of them
plays in the economy of a named country in
which they are found in abundance.
4. Explain briefly any four of the following terms
connected with the Arctic climate and the tun-
dra vegetation:
blizzards, permafrost, midnight sun, ice-cap,
snow-blindness, kayaks, international deep-
freeze.
oak, 5. Make a comparative study of the Polar Eskimos
of Greenland and the Orang Asli (e.g. Senois) of
Malaysia under the following headings:
(a) how they obtain their food;
(b) how they shelter themselves;
(c) what significant changes have taken place
in their environment and their way of life.

Sample Objective Ouestions

l. Conditions north of the Arctic Circle C is visible above the horizon all A rain
do not favour much vegetative the time B sleet
growth for these reasons except D is overhead in midsummer C snow
A long severe winters D hails'Lones
B strong winds 3. Permafrost is a term used to de-
C low annual precipitation scribe the Tundra lands'
There are few trees in the tundra re-
D poor drainage A frosty nights gion. The shallow roots of the
stunted trees grow laterally near the
B ice-capped peaks ground because
C stormy blizzards
2. Photograph 25.A on page 234 shows
D permanently frozen sub-oil A the sub-soil is always frozen
the midnight sun in Norway which B the ground is too hard
means that the sun C snow provides no ground mois-
A rises at midnight 4. The winter precipitation in the Artic I ture
B does not set till midnisht lands is mainly in the form of D drainage is absent

237
 PART 3
Human Geography

238
Chapter 26 Agriculture
The Basic lmportance of Agriculture
Agriculture is by far the most widespread form of
human activity and it is more basic than any indus-
try. Even in this 'machine age', agriculture of one
kind or another provides a livelihood for more than
three-quarters of the human race. It yields fibres and
raw materials for the factories on which a large por-
tion of the remaining people depend. From the crops
the farmer grows, he gets his food and also that of
his family. The surplus is sold for cash, with which
he buys the other necessities of life, be it canned sar-
dines from the United State, linen sheets from Bel-
gium or an electric cooker from Japan. The peasants
around the world produce a wide range of agricul-
tural commodities for the world market, to be
traded, processed and even returned to them in a
different form, Without agriculture, many factories
would close, and, despite all the wonders that sci-
ence has brought, a world without food would be a
dead world.
Another vital feature of agriculture is its perma-
nency. Minerals, continuously mined, are sure to be
exhausted one day but this is not the case with
agriculture. Crops have been raised since the earliest
times and they are still being grown. The soil, care-
fully maintained, is a flow resource that is renewable,
and can even be improved. Crop yields have been
increased many times to meet the demands of the
swelling population. Though man cannot overcome
all the limitations his environment imposes upon
him, he can always attempt to modify it to suit his
convenience. In this manner of gradual adaptation,
man has brought about many changes. The types of
crops grown and the methods of farming employed
have been significantly modified.
Factors Influencing Agriculture
Several factors affect the types of crop cultivated
and the methods of cultivating them.
l. Climate. This is by far the greatest deciding fac-
tor. It is entirely a question of climate when apples
fail to mature in Malaysia or cotton cannot be grown
in Lancashire. The climatic requirements are so
exacting for some crops that they are found naturally
239
only in certain climatic zones. Human interference
in modifying the environment by such means as
irrigation, the use of greenhouses or scientific plant
breeding may extend their area of cultivation, but
this may increase cost or it may only be successful
to a certain limit beyond which the climatic barrier
may be so great that there is no alternative to
importing the crop.
Amongst the climatic requirements, moisture in
the form of rainfall is most vital. But for different
crops the amount, intensity, distribution and inci-
dence of the rainfall required varies. For example,
rice requires at least 1 520 mm (60 inches) of annual
rainfall, well distributed throughout the year, with
the heaviest rainfall during the growing season and
comparatively little rain during the harvesting
period,
Besides moisture, the heat or temperature factor
must also be considered. The mean annual temper.
ature, the temperature during the growth season, the
frost-free period and the rate ofevaporation, all con-
tribute to the final yield of the crop. For instance,
cotton's optimal climatic requirements are: a mod-
erately high temperature (about 24'C175 "F) during
the six months growing period, ample sunlight in
between showers and 200 frost-free days. Other fac-
tors such as wind, fog, mists and ocean currents are
much less significant, but nevertheless operate in
their own local context. The occurrence of floods or
droughts can be disastrous to the farmer.
2. Relief. The lowlands are the most suited to a
wide range of crops such as wheat, coconuts, rubber,
sugar-cane and padi and an increase in altitude will
exclude most of them. Rubber's latex yield dimin-
ishes appreciably above the 760-metre (2,500-foot)
contour. Other crops like tea and coffee thrive best
on elevated ground. The well-drained hill slopes of
the Assam Hills and the Brazilian Highlands are the
homes of the world's largest tea gardens and coffee
plantations respectively. Jute likes swampy deltas
and coconuts grow best where they are near sea
breezes. Dates can only be successfully grown in a
lowland arid environment. Terrace-farming is, in
fact, one way of providing lowland-flooded-field
conditions on tropical hill slopes.
3. Soil. Soil which forms the physical support of
plants is fundamental to any form of agriculture.
Soils in different parts of the globe vary tremen-
dously in their structure, composition and fertility.
Weathering processes produce soils of varying min-
eral composition so that soils contain varied amounts
of iron, aluminium, calcium, potash and silica which
affect their fertility. Soil fertility is further influenced
by the presence or absence of organic matter or
humus, which is derived from the decay of leaves,
plants, roots and living organisms. Soils rich in
humus give heavy yields of crops, but need to be
replenished when they become exhausted. The use
of manure and fertilizers replaces the mineral and
organic matter that is used by growing crops and
maintains soil fertility.
A close examination of soils will show that they
have quite different structures, much depending on
the size of the soil particles and the presence of 'col-
loids'which bind the soil together and determine the
size of the pore spaces between lumps of soil,
through which air and water circulate. Sandy soils,
which have coarse particles and are relatively lacking
in colloids, allow water and air to run through
quickly and are suitable for crops like groundnuts
which require much aeration. On the other hand,
clayey soils comprise very fine particles and are very
tightly bound together by colloids, becoming sticky
and highly moisture-retentive. They are thus well-
suited to rice cultivation. Loamy soils possess inter-
mediate properties between those of sand and clay
and are most useful for agricultural purposes.
Ploughing, manuring, drainage and irrigation are the
various methods that farmers employ to improve the
structure, porosity, aeration and fertility of the soil.
4. Biotic factors. Despite all the natural conditions
of climate, relief and soil that may favour crop cul-
tivation, the presence of biotic agents such as weeds,
parasitic plants, diseases and insect-pests will dam-
age crops and hamper farming in many parts of the
world. Weeds like lalang in the tropics and creeping
thistle, which propagate rapidly and are difficult to
eliminate, invade farm clearings and destroy crops
or compete with the sown plants for food. Farmers
resort to various means of eliminating or reducing
them, such as hand-weeding, hoeing, ploughing,
crop rotation, improved drainage or the application
of chemical weed-killers.
Many fungus diseases and insect pests do great
damage to crops. The boll-weevil is a dreaded pest
in the Cotton Belt of the U.S.A. and has completely
annihilated the Sea Island species of cotton in south-
eastern U.S.A. since the 1890s. The Coffee Blishts
240
of Sri Lanka destroyed practically all the coffee trees
in the Central Highlands in 1878 and farmers had to
turn to tea growing instead. Even greater havoc was
created by the fungus parasite Phytophthora infes-
tans in lreland between 1845 and 1848. It attacked
the potatoes and caused the Potato Famine which
drove many Irish farmers to leave their homes and
migrate to England and the United States of Amer-
ica. Millions of hectares of vineyards in the U.S.A.
(California) and Mediterranean Europe (especially
France) were destroyed in the 1870s by an insect pest
Phylloxera which bored through the roots of the vine
plants and destroyed them. The Monilia disease and
the Witches' broom disease plagued the cocoa
(cacao) industry of Ecuador in the early twentieth
century. The temperate wheat lands often suffer
from attacks by Smut and Bunt fungi and rust dis-
ease. In Monsoon Asia, the padi fields are not
immune to attack. Insect pests like the pianggiang
/y as well as birds and animals such as rats, help to
reduce the padi yield. In Africa, the locust swarms
which eat up every leaf and blade of grass are
dreaded by all, while in many areas cattle rearing is
almost impossible because of the prevalence of the
tsetse fly which spreads disease to the animals.
Preventive measures against fungus diseases and
insect pests include hand-picking, destruction of dis-
eased stock and the spraying of selected insecticides
and fungicides, e.g. D.D.T. Regular inspection and
care are very necessary if farm crops are to be kept
healthy and free from pests and diseases.
5. Economic factors. Apart from the physical and
biotic factors that affect farming, one must not for-
get that economic factors are also extremely impor-
tant in modern agriculture which has become very
competitive. The cost of running a farm involves
much expenses which have to be met by the sale of
the crops either locally or by export overseas. Land
values are becoming very high especially where
agricultural land use is in competition with industrial
and urban use in the developed countries. The cost
of purchase or rental of the farm land can be con-
siderable. There are also maintenance costs all round
the year besides other recurring expenses such as the
purchase of seeds, fertilizers, insecticides and feed-
stuffs for the animals. In order to keep the farm
highly productive the farmer may have to buy or hire
machinery to run his farm and meet the costs of serv-
icing, repairing and replacing equipment. There are
also many other expenses that a farmer may have to
meet, including marketing expenses (freight chargds
including insurance for export crops), storage costs,
government taxes, the provision of farm vehicles,
building of greenhouses, installation of drainage and
irrigation facilities, charges for meteorological or
veterinary services, etc. If the farmer is to make any
substantial profit from his farm, he has to run his
farm in the most economic and efficient terms.
6. Other factors. Farming practices are everywhere
determined by local conditions such as the type of
farm ownership and land inheritance, social and
religious influences, the availability of farm hands,
the efficiency of transport network and fluctuating
demand for various crops. Some of these factors can
perhaps be best shown in an example. In India crop
yields are low because most farms are small as they
have been subdivided for generations into tiny plots
and are unable to take advantage of the economies
of large-scale farming as practised in Canada, the
U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. Agricultural indebted.ness,
due to exploitation by landlords and inherited pov-
erty, makes the lives of farmers a real misery. Unless
the government can offer effective assistance, most
farmers are too poor to maintain or improve the fer-
tility of their over-used soils. Lack of fertilizers, farm
machinery, high quality seeds and effective insecti-
cides, result in low yields and meagre profits for the
farmers. The Hindus' traditional veneration of cattle
and the non-consumption of beef hinder the com-
merical development of the cattle industry. Though
India has 15 per cent. of the world's cattle popula-
tion, she has no beef or milk or dairy products for
export. On the other hand, countries like Argentina,
Australia, New Zealand, Denmark and the Neth-
erlands, which have only a fraction of India's cattle
population, capitalize on the animals as a major
export item in many forms: frozen, chilled and
corned beef; evaporated and condensed milk; but-
ter, cheese and cream. Social prejudices and wide-
spread illiteracy makes technological changes
difficult. India's agricultural economy is ruled by
the monsoons and beset with frequent climatic haz-
ards like droughts and floods which make farming
a very insecure means of livelihood. Agricultural
practices around the world are very varied and one
must always take into consideration local factors that
may hinder or assist agricultural development.
Soil Erosion and lmpoverishment
Soil is fundamental to all agricultural practices and
great care has to be taken to ensure that it is not
misused or destroyed. Under natural conditions, soil
fertility is replenished by such processes as leaf-fall,
241
organic decomposition and animal decay. But with
the interference of Man in ploughing up earth and
removing the crops that are harvested, this natural
balance is upset. Any form of farming is bound to
affect the soil in some way. Apart from the normal
erosion of the earth's surface by such sculpturing
agents as running water, wind, rain, ice, frost and
waves (as described in Chapters 2-11), human igno-
rance and mismanagement in soil use greatly acceler-
ate this erosional process. Unsound farming practices
around the world have already led to very acute
problems of soil erosion in many countries. In some
cases the soil (especially the fertile top layer) has
been completely eroded away and is beyond replace-
ment. In other instances, cultivation has resulted in
the deterioration of the mineral and organic content
of the soil. This process is known as soil impoverish-
ment. Though the soil is still physically present, it is
highly deficient in plant nutrients and gives very low
yields. Many unsound farming practices lead to the
twin evils of soil erosion and soil impoverishment.
Some of these are described below:
1. Overcropping. If too many crops are grown on
the same land year after year without adequate
replacement of the plant nutrients, the soil is bound
to suffer. Yields will deteriorate until it is no longer
economic to use the land. Monoculture, i.e. the
practice of growing the same crop year after year,
such as rice in Monsoon Asia or cotton in the Cotton
Belt of southern U.S.A. exhausts those minerals
which are vital to the plants and these have to be
replaced by suitable manures or fertilizers. Multi-
cropping, as practised in many parts of Japan and
China, where far too many crops are planted in a
year in the same farm without giving the land a
chance to rest, will also lead to soil impoverishment.
2. Overgrazing. In many parts of the world, espe-
cially in Africa, India and Mediterranean Europe,
farmers keep too many domestic animals such as cat-
tle, sheep or goats, on their pasture lands. If the car-
rying capacity of the land is exceeded, the grass
cannot re-establish itself so that the land is denuded
of vegetation and exposed to rain and wind. Under
these conditions acute soil erosion can take place.
3. Slopewise cultivation. It is easier to plough up
and down a slope than to follow the contours and
thus many farmers grow their crops slopewise. After
rain, water runs off down the furrows which form
ready-made channels. Loose soil is carried down the
hill and erosion is accelerated by the force of gravity,
so that the channels are deepened and widened to
form gullies (Fig. 26.1). Many early settlers in the

Fig. 26.1 Slopewise cultivation deepens channels and leads
to gully erosion.
U.S.A. practised slopewise cultivation and as
result large tracts of sloping farmland have been dev-
astated by gully-erosion.
4. Deforestation. When natural forests are cleared
for lumbering or farming, without immediate
replanting of new trees, the bare soil is exposed to
rain and wind erosion. In conditions of heavy rain
the water is no longer intercepted by the leaves and
branches, nor absorbed by the tree-roots but flows
off the slopes as a sheet of water causing sheet-ero-
sion. The fertile top-soil is removed but is usually
deposited at the bottom of the slope, often in stream
or river beds. When this happens the rivers are made
shallower by the material on their beds and conse-
quently flood more easily since they cannot cope
with heavy run-offs. These problems are being
experienced in many developing countries where
forest removal is not matched by timely replanting.
5. Shifting cultivation. The aboriginal tribes of
many tropical countries practise 'slash-and-burn' or
shifting cultivation. They clear small plots by fire
which destroy the original forest, leaving the barren
surfaces to be acted on by the erosional forces of
nature. Heavy tropical downpours carry off much of
the top soil causing widespread sheet erosion.
Though the initial harvests from the cleared
'ladangs' are satisfactory, since the virgin land con-
tains much humus and ashes, yields soon dwindle
and after a few years the 'ladangs' are abandoned.
If left untilled for many years a secondary forest
cover grows up and soil fertility is gradually re-estab-
lished, but if the fallow period is only for a few years,
the land cannot regain minerals and humus and is
permanently impoverished. The degraded soil may
also be more readily eroded if it lacks humus, which
helps to bind the soil particles together.
Soil Gonservation and Sound Farming
Techniques
Sound farming techniques must be employed to pre-
vent soil erosion and impoverishment, and to ensure
that agriculture is more profitable to the farmer and
provides better crops for the consumers. The follow-
ing are some of the more important practices:
l. Crop rotation. Both monoculture and over-
intensive multicropping are unsatisfactory because
they exhaust the soil. Crop rotation however allows
a wide range of crops to be grown without allowing
the field to lie fallow but without depleting the soil.
By growing different crops in successive years in the
same field, plant nutrients used by one crop can be
replaced by another. For example, potatoes require
a much potash but do not exhaust nitrates. Thus they
are rotated with wheat which uses the nitrates in the
soil. In the third year nitrates are replenished by
growing a legume such as beans or clover, since leg-
uminous crops form nitrogenous nodules on their
roots which remain in the soil when the crop is har-
vested. In the fourth year a cereal can again be grown
to take advantage of the replenished nitrates. These
crops are typical of the Norfolk System (Fig. 26.2)
of crop rotation practised widely in temperate
regions. In warmer regions, cereals or cotton, for
example, may be rotated with groundnuts or soya
beans and root crops.
2. Controlled grazing. To prevent overgrazing, the
number of animals to be fed in a certain area must
be kept within the carrying capacity of the grassland.
In order to prevent animals overgrazing some areas,
they may be confined to certain parts of the field. In
Fi1.26.2 The Norfolk system of crop rotation
242

Grazing
,,,,u, Graling
,r/\{ ff, Fallow
f$#' l off by intercepting the rain and thus help to conserve
Fig. 26.3 Controlled grazing where part of the field
allowed to lie fallow at any one time
Denmark for example cattle are tethered in partic-
ular areas each day to ensure even grazing of the
field. In the large sheep stations of Australia sheep
are kept in fenced paddocks; when one paddock has
been grazed the sheep are moved to a new area to
prevent overgrazing (Fig. 26.3).
3. Contour ploughing. In contrast to slopewise farm-
ing, contour ploughing is done at right angles to the
hill slope, following the contours of the hillside.
This impedes the downward flow of the water and
26.4 Contour ploughing in lowa. U.S.A., to
creep Poppertoto
checks soil creep so that gullying does not develop.
Much water is also retained by the furrows and is
absorbed by the plants which are grown in a contour
pattern, improving the crop (Plate 26..4')
4. Afforestation. In many countries legislation has
been passed to prevent wanton cutting of forests and
also to ensure the immediate replanting of trees
cleared for lumbering purposes. This not only helps
to consbrve forests, a vital national resource, but
also prevents unnecessary floods that come about
with forest clearance. Forests slow the rate of run-
water. In Sri Lanka as in many other areas no trees
may be felled above the 1 500-metre (4,920-foot)
is
contour to preserve the water catchment area.
5. Cover-cropping. In many estates of the tropics
where the gestation period before a crop can be har-
vested is long, e.g. rubber, oil palm, tea or coffee,
cover crops like sweet potatoes, leguminous plants
and creepers are planted in between the young tiees
to give some protection to the top soil. When the
trees are fully grown they provide a cover but in
their early stages the ground between them may be
bare. Cover crops protect the soil and also in many
cases, provide a cash income during the period when
the trees yield no crops. Care has to be taken, how-
prevent soil
243

26.8 Rice growing on terraced hill slopes
ever, that the cover crops do not compete with the
young trees for plant nutrients.
6. Terracing. This involves the cutting of flat ter-
races on steep hill slopes to create lowland condi-
tions so that crops like wet padi or rubber can be
cultivated. For padi farming the edge of the terraces
are flanked by mud-banks or stone walls to retain
the silty water that flows down, so that the fields can
be flooded and is common in most parts of Monsoon
Asia (Plate 26.8). Terracing estates for rubber and
other tree crops acts like large-scale contour plough-
ing and helps to reduce run-off and prevents gully
formation (Fig.26.a)
Fig. 26.4 Two ways of terracing hill slopes to prevent soil
erosion
244
7. Strip-cropping. This is the planting of crops and
trees in alternate strips parallel to one another. Dif-
ferent types of crop are planted in each strip and
they ripen at different times of the year and are har-
vested at varying intervals. This prevents the entire
field from being left bare at any one time, which
could lead to sheet erosion or wind erosion. The
taller tree crops also act as wind-breaks and provide
some shade for the ground crops.
8. Fallowing. Farmers sometimes allow part of their
fields to lie fallow after a few years of intensive use.
This is to give the field a chance to rest so that the
natural processes of vegetative decay and organic
decomposition can help to restore the essential plant
nutrients. This is much practised in the semi-arid
lands under the system of dry farming both to con-
serve ground moisture and to replenish soil
nutrients. However, in the more intensive farms of
developed countries, the scarcity and high cost of
farm land makes fallowing a rather expensive prac-
tice and farmers prefer to resort to the use of soil
additives and crop rotation instead.
9. Soil additives. Farmers are all aware that by add-
ing manures or fertilizers to the soil, its fertility can
be maintained. Organic manures, like cow-dung,
bird droppings, green manure, farm wastes, compost
and other decayed vegetation, are readily available
in the farm and when applied in suitable quantities
always increase crop yields. Modern farmers, how-
ever, prefer to use chemical fertilizers (which are
actually manufactured plant nutrients) as they are
easy to use, can be applied in specific quantities and
are readily available. The more commonly used fer-
tilizers include phosphates, potash, nitrates and cal-
cium. Phosphates, which come mainly from rock
phosphates, (organic phosphates come from guano
or bird droppings) help to form strong roots and
stems and accelerate crop maturity. Potash, usually
applied as an oxide of potassium, assists in starch
formation especially in root crops'like sugar-beet.
The best known of the nitrate fertilizers is sodium
nitrate, from the Atacama Desert of Chile, which
helps to increase. the leaf-green of cereals and leafy
vegetables. As nitrogenous organic manures are eas-
ily leached out by rain, most of the nitrate fertilizers
are employed as top-dressings to meet the immedi-
ate demand of plants. Calcium, which is a carbonate
of lime, is used to reduce the excess acidity of clayey
and other heavy soils and helps to improve the gen-
eral texture of the soils, rendering other mineral
salts more easily accessible to the plants.
10. Irrigation. Irrigation is one of the oldest farm-
ing techniques used by men, not only in supplying
additional water in moisture deficient farm lands but
also in improving the aeration in the soil. In desert
areas likes Egypt, water in the irrigation canals also
helps to reduce the salinity of the soil making it pos-
sible for many plants to survive the highly alkaline
soil. In monsoon lands, the silt present in the irri-
gation water especially after floods is in itself a
source of plant nutrient. No wonder many Asian
farmers in irrigated farms are able to sustain their
crop yields after thousands of years' intensive use of
the land without using much fertilizer. Modern irri-
gation works are usually part of multi-purpose
schemes involving dams which supply water for irri-
gation purposes, generate hydro-electric power,
improve the navigability of the rivers and help flood
control. For example under T.V.A. (Tennessee Val-
ley Authority) in the U.S.A. over 30 multi-
purpose dams have been constructed on the Tennes-
see River and its tributaries since 1933 to rehabititate
a badly devastated farming region of some 104 000
square km (40,000 square miles) in area, using most
of the sound agricultural techniques described ear-
lier. Today the region is a thriving and prosperous
area, with well-managed farms, re-afforested hills,
industrial sites, commercial centres and tourist-fre-
quented parks. (For more details see Goh's Certif-
icate Regional Geography: North America, second
edition, Chapter 8 page 60.)
Irrigation may take many forms, depending on the
geographical location of the area, the natural drain-
age pattern, the type of climate and the crops to be
raised. The following are some of the more common
types of irrigation:
(a) Basin irrigation. This is the traditional form
of irrigation in the Nile valley and has been practised
since the time of the Pharaohs. The Nile floods
annually in summer and the flood water is retained
in basin-like rectangular fields for use in the rest of
the year, especially for cotton and padi cultivation.
Sluices are used to control the numerous irrigation
ditches that distribute the silty flood water to farms
located well away from the banks of the Nile
(Fig. 26.s).
(b) Canal irrigation. By constructing a concrete
dam across a river, a large reservoir of water can be
held back and later released in any part of the year
to feed the numerous irrigation canals that bring
water to the adjacent farms. Such perennial canals
can irrigate vast areas throughout the year, e.g. the
Sacramento and San Joaquim irrigation schemes of
245
Tropic of Cancer
ffi lrrigated [:l r l-1 Land over
Lll Lands l_l rams lE I g 014 m/3,ooo
Fig. 26.5 Perennial and basin irrigation in the Nileland
California, the Murray-Snowy Rivers scheme of
Australia, the Aswan Dam project in Egypt and the
various irrigation schemes on the River Indus in
Pakistan. An older and less popular kind of canal
irrigation, namely inundation canals, is used in the
Ganges and Indus basins in India. These are merely
ditches dug out on both sides of a river. They fill up
with flood water and retain the water during the
rainy season for summer crop cultivation, but they
dry up in winter when the need is greatest. Since
their use is limited, they have been gradually
replaced by the more versatile perennial irrigation
(Fig. 26.s).
(c) Tank irrigation. This involves the construction
of mud-bunds across small streams to make small
reservoirs, commonly referred to as 'tanks', to col-
lect the excess water during the rainy period. The
water is used mainly at the end of the rainy season
in India and Sri Lanka, but does not last till the dry
season. Tank irrigation, because of its temporary
nature is just as unsatisfactory as inundation ca-
nals. Some of the mud tanks on the Deccan Plateau
are many hundreds of years old and are heavily
silted.
(d) Well irrigation. In many parts of the world,
especially India and Australia, wells are sunk to
depths ranging from tens to hundreds of metres
below the ground to reach the water-table and pro-
vide water for irrigation purposes. The modern
farms in India use tube wells which have electrically
operated pumps. These can raise water from depths
26.C An overhead sprinkler system irrigates a potato field
in Oregon, U.S.A. Poppertoto
of 92 metres (300 feet) or more to irrigate farms of
more than a thousand hectares (2,500 acres). (See
Goh's Certificate Regional Geography: Monsoon
Asia Third Edition Chapter 1, pages 2l-3.)
In Australia, the acute shortage of rain-water
makes it necessary to bore deep wells in the artesian
basins to obtain water for animals. Artesian basins
are described in detail in Chapter 4 and illustrated
in Fig. 4.10. The greatest artesian basin is the Great
Artesian Basin of north-east Australia (Fig. a.11
page 46).
(e) Other irrigation devices. In the more remote
parts of the world, some ancient methods of irriga-
tion are still being used. In many parts of Asia,
water-wheels placed along a river or stream are used
to lift the water and throw it into the adjacent fields.
The ancient'shaduf and the Archimedean Screw for
lifting water to irrigate fields are still being used in
many villages. In modern farms of Europe, America
and Australia, automatic sprays and sprinklers are
centrally placed in the fields connected to public
water supply pipes to water the plants. This is a
rather expensive way of watering crops, but where
the return is great as in market-gardening and
orchard farming, it is economically employed. Plate
26.C shows a modern water spray, sprinkling water
in the centre of a field.
246
Types of Agriculture
From the earlier analysis of the various factors that
influence agriculture, it is clear that, based on such
factors as climate, relief and soil alone, different
parts of the world are suited to different types of
agriculture. We can divide them broadly into two
climatic zone types within which are other sub-types
according to the kind of agriculture practised. The
characteristic agriculture practices of the various cli-
matic regions have been described in Chapters
15-25. We shall now group them under individual
agricultural types with specific references made to
their respective chapters where more details have
been given (Fig. 26.6).
1. Tropical agriculture. The following types of
farming are best developed in tropical latitudes.
(a) Primitive subsistence agriculture. On tropical
lowlands and hill slopes local people clear small
patches of the rain forests and cultivate, with only
primitive implements, a few crops, just sufficient for
their own needs. There is no surplus for sale or
export. The soil is leached rapidly under tropical
conditions and its fertility is soon exhausted. The
people have no knowledge of soil maintenance and
there are no domesticated animals to enrich the
fields with manure. It is necessarv to clear a new
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247
patch again after a few years, and the families keep
on shifting to their new fields. This sort of primitive
agriculture is best described as shifting cultivation,
e.g. the ladangs of the forested hill slopes of the
Cameron Highlands in Malaysia, cleared by the
Orang Asli (aboriginal Senois). (For details of shift-
ing cultivation see Chapter 16, page 165 on 'Shifting
Cultivation'.) If the individual farm families decide
to remain permanently in the areas they have
cleared, it is termed sedentary criltivation. This is
practised in the tropical Andean highlands of South
America.
(b) Intensive subsistence agriculture. This is also
peasant farming but very intensively done, and nor-
mally with wet padi as the chief crop. The dense pop-
ulation necessitates an ever-increasing intensity in
the use of the land. The plains are intensively tilled,
the fields irrigated and the hills terraced. Vegeta-
bles, tubers, and fruit trees are grown on raised beds
between the fields. Close personal attention is
devoted to the farm and the soil is kept at a high
fertility level with consequent high yields. But one 26.D Rubber, chief plantation crop of Malaysia needs well-
outstanding feature is that there is little or no excess drained soils
produce for export. This is typical of such large, civ- 26.E Coffee drying in Brazil. The sun-dried coffee beans are
ilized nations as China, India and Japan. Some geog- being raked up and will then be sent to the factory, Popper-
foto
raphers refer to this as Oriental agriculture, because
it is so widely practised in Monsoon Asia. (See
Chapter 21, page 202'.F armins in Monsoon China'. )
(c) Plantation agriculture. This is the cultivation
of tropical raw materials in large estates or planta-
tions solely for export. It is a commercialized form
of tropical farming initiated by the European colo-
nists, and has greatly assisted the economic devel-
opment of the many newly independent countries.
Rubber is the chief plantation crop of Malaysia and
Indonesia, cultivated in both large estates and small-
holdings (Plate 26.D). Cotton is more important in
the East African states and cocoa and oil palm in
West Africa (especially Ghana and Nigeria). In the
Philippines the plantation crops are coconuts, sugar-
cane and Manila hemp. In India and Sri Lanka, cof-
fee was the chief commercially cultivated beverage
till it was destroyed by insect pests. It was then
replaced by tea of which large quantities were and
still are shipped direct to London. Brazil took up the
place left by India and Sri Lanka and has succeed-
ed in becoming the world's largest producer of
'fazenda-grown' coffee (Plate 26.E). In Jamaica and
other West Indian islands sugar-cane and bananas
have become major plantation crops. Most of these
plantations are financed by foreign capital but worked
by local labour. Their future is very much in the

248

26.F Mechanization has allowed huge areas to be cultivated
with cereaf crops. National Film Board of Canada
hands of the industrial West whose demand and con-
trol of such primary products affect the fluctuation
of prices. (Also see Chapter 16, page 163 on .High-
land plantation farming'.)
2. Temperate agriculture
(a) Extensive mechanized cereal cultivation. This
is typical of the new lands of the New World with
a continental type of climate; e.g. Canada, the
U.S.A., Argentina, Australia as well as parts of the
U.S.S.R. Farms are so large (anything from 240 to
16 200 hectares 1,600 to 40,000 acres) that all stages
of cultivation from ploughing and sowing to har-
vesting are done by machines. Agriculture is entirely
mechanized (Plate 26.F). The yields are lower than
those on more intensive farms but are steadily
improving and total production is great. The tem-
perate grasslands form the 'granaries of the world',
from which densely-populated Europe obtains its
supplies of wheat. (For further details see Chapter
20, page 193 on 'Extensive Mechanized Wheat Cul-
tivation'.)
(b)Pastoral farming. The commercial domestica-
tion of animals is particularly important in the tem-
perate grasslands. Sheep are ke_pt in millions for
either wool or meat or both. Refrigeration, devel-
oped in the nineteenth century, accelerated the
249
development of large-scale pastoral farming and the
grasslands have become the leading suppliers of
mutton and beef to meat consumers in all corners
of the globe. Near industrial centres as in the eastern
U.S.A., Britain, the Low Countries, south-east Aus-
tralia and Auckland, New Zealand, dairy farming
is practised. The cattle are kept for milk and other
products. Large quantities of butter, cheese, cream
and condensed or evaporated milk are exported.
In less favourable climatic conditions. as in sub-
tropical Queensland and the dry Great Plains of the
U.S.A. cattle ranching purely for beef is more
important. (For more details see Chapter 20, page
196 on 'Pastoral farming', Chapter 22, page 2Ll on
'Mixed farming' (including dairy farming), also
Chapter 22, page 000 on 'Sheep rearing'.)
Another form of cattle farming called transhum-
ance should be mentioned. This involves the driving
of cattle from the valleys to the alpine pastures on
the mountains in summer. With the return of snow
in winter, the cattle are driven back to the valleys
to be stall-fed or grazed on lowland meadows. It is
very important in Norway, Switzerland, Austria and
in the Rocky Mountains. If the animal migration
takes place in semi-arid steppes, it is called nomadic
herding.
(c) Mixed farming. This is a widely practised form
of farming in Britain and many parts of Europe. It
is a combination of arable farming and animal hus-
bandry. Cereals, root crops, vegetables, even fruits
are raised side by side with cattle, sheep, pigs and
poultry. It is a thoroughly mixed sort of land use that
keeps the farmer fully occupied throughout the year.
In winter, some farmers who live close to the forests
take to lumbering. (See Chapter 23, page 221 on
'Lumbering'.)
A greater intensification of any of the various
aspects of the mixed farm, can lead to the devel-
opment of quite different forms of agricultural spe-
cialization in the same area. Farms that concentrate
on food crops grown on ploughed land, such as
wheat, barley, oats or rye are engaged in arable
farming. Those whose interests are concentrated on
fruits (deciduous or Mediterranean fruits) practise
orchard farming (see Chapter 19 page 186 on
'Orchard farming'). If the concentration is on small
fruits or horticultural crops (vegetables, salads) the
more correct term for this practice is market-gar-
dening, or truck-farming as it is called in the United
States. (See Chapter 22, page 210 on 'Market gar-
dening' and page 2ll on 'Mixed farming'.)
 barley
Fig.26.7 The heads of the main cereals
Agricultural Crops of the World
There is such a variety of crops cultivated in the
world, that we need some sort of classification
before they can be effectively dealt with. They fall
under these groups.
l. Cereals: Rice, wheat,maize or corn, barley, rye,
oats, millets (Fig. 26.7).
2. Beverages: Tea, coffee, cocoa, wine.
3. Fibres: Cotton, wool, flax, silk, and the rest of
250
the hard fibres, jute, abaca (Manila hemp), sisal
hemp, sunn hemp.
4. Raw materials and others: Rubber, sugar-cane
and sugar-beet, fruits, vegetable oils (oil palm,
coconuts, groundnuts, soya beans, olives, etc.)
As it is not possible to deal with all of them in
detail within the short space available in this book
the basic facts on some of these major crops are pre-
sented in concised form, and illustrated in corre-
sponding world economic maps and charts.
 A TABLE SUMMARY OF THE
MAJOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS OF THE WORLD
TABLE I CEREALS

" f.ffi rice-growing regions Scale 1:215000000

Fig. 26.8(a) World distribution of rice

General
1. RICE (Figs. 26.8 a & b)
(a) Rice (Oriza sativa), the staple food of the
Oriental countri-es, probably feeds more people
than any other grain. It grows with great rap-
idity in tropical conditions and yields more food
per hectare than any other cereal. Annual out-
put varies.
(b) It is mainly raised on the basis of intensive
subsistence farming in Monsoon Asia as wet or
swamp padi. It is cultivated on flood plains,
river deltas, coastal districts, well-watered low-
lands, irrigated fields and terraced uplands.
(c) There are several hundred varieties of padi,
each is sown to suit local climatic and topo-
graphical conditions. They are raised in single,
double or treble croppings. Their yields vary
from about I 000 kg/hectare (890 lb per acre)
in Laos to 3 050 kg/hectare (2,720lb per acre)
in Peninsular Malaysia,5 900kg/hectare (5,250 lb
per acre) in Spain and over 6 100 kg/hectare
(5,500 lb per acre) in Japan and S. Korea Wet
padi normally doubles the yield of dry padi.
(d) Milled or polished rice is a seriously defi-
cient diet and needs to be supplemented by
other foodstuffs. Rice cultivation is usually
associated with poverty and over-population.
(e) Rice is raised for local consumption and
only between 3Vo and 5Vo enters international
deographical Requirements
(a) Rice is a tropical or sub-tropical crop, and
can be successfully grown in Monsoonal, Warm
Temperate Maritime and Mediterranean Cli-
mates, if necessary with irrigation. Uplands can
be terraced for rice.
(b) Heavy annual rainfall of at least | 270 mm
(50 inches), but over 2 000 mm (80 inches) is
ideal. Irrigation bridges the rainfall deficiency
gap in the drier lands. It requires plenty of rain
during the 4 to 6 months growing period, and
a sunny harvesting time.
(c) High mean temperature of 18'to 27'C(65"
to 80'F) with no cold season. A warm, dry
period for harvesting.
(d) Level ground because flat fields can be
more easily flooded or irrigated by canals.
(e) Soil should be loamy or clayey. An imper-
vious sub-soil is essential as it is retentive of
moisture.
(f) Requires cheap and abundant labour for
sowing, transplanting, harvesting, threshing,
winnowing, milling and field preparation.
World Production and Distribution
(a) The output of world rice amounts to
around 367 million tonnes of which 957o is
grown and consumed in Asia. (1977 figures)
(b) China, the greatest producer and consumer
of rice accounts for 367o of world's rice, mainly
in the three river basins.
(c) India, grows 20Vo of world's rice and
imports annually, though half of India's popu-
lation consumes wheat too. Chief areas: Indo-
Gangetic Plain and coastal India.
(d) Japan, Indonesia and Bangladesh; each
contributes around 57o of the world production
and imports to supplement production.
(e) The rice exporters are Burma, Thailand
(3Vo and 4Vo of world production respectively).
(f) Others: the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,
Philippines, Brazil, S. Korea, the U.S.A. and
Pakistan.
M aj or rice -p ro ducin g countries
(by 7o of world total)
China 36 Burma J

trade. The bulk is produced and consumed in

India m Brazil z
Asia itself. Yields and output must be raised to
Indonesia 6 S.Korea 2
meet the rapid population increase.
Bangladesh 5 Philippines 2
Japan 5 U.S.A. I
Thailand 4 Pakistan I
26.G Rice planting in Japan. In many farm- Vietnam 3
ing operations machines are now replacing Source: FAO Year Book of Agricultural Statb-
manual labour. tics. 1978.

2sl
 :!4

South Africa

I wheat-growing regaons Scale 1:215000000

Fig. 26.9(a) World distribution of wheat

General
2. WHEAT (Figs. 26.9 a & b). Geographical Requirements World Production and Distribution
(a) Wheat (Triticum), the bread-grain, is (a) Wheat cultivation extends over great lati- (a) There are rvell over 232 million hectares
grown in every continent, particularly in the tudinal zones from sub-tropical monsoon lands (573 million acres) of land under wheat with an
temperate zone. to the northerly ool temperate areas, output of 386 million tonnes in temperate
(b) About 80Vo ot the world's wheat is (b) Moderate rainfall of 304 mm (12 inches) in lands. About 15 to 2OVo enters world trade
autumn-sown winter wheat, hard and palatable the cooler arid zones and not more than (te77).
with a high gluten content. It is a balanced food I 000 mm (40 inches) in the warmer humid (b) U.S.S.R. is the greatest producer account-
and is more nutritious than any other food regions. A little rain just before the harvest ing for 24Vo of world output.
grain. 20Va of the world's wheat is spring swells the grains and ensures a better yield. (c) U.S.A. accounts for l4Va and is an
wheat. It is soft, coarser, with more moisture, (c) Moderate temperature of about 16.C exporter. China is next (l0%o) mainly from
more suitable for making biscuits, cakes, (60'F.) for the summer months, and without North China Plain.
pastes, alcohol, etc. prolonged cold in winter. (d) Canada (57o), Australia (3Vo) and Argen-
(c) Wheat has been cultivated for over 6 000 (d) Needs 90 days growing period (i.e. over tina (l.SVo) are major exporters to W. Europe.
years and there are couritless varieties, devel- 6"C142"F)) cool, moist weather; 100 days frost (e) Others: India, France, Turkey, Pakistan,
oped to meet local requirements. Wheat cultiva- Iree. West Germany, Rumania and Italy but no
tion is extending polewards (cold-resistant (e) Moderately stiff loam or clayey soils but export.
varieties) and equatorwards (drought-resistant never stagnant water as in padi-lands. Most
species). More Asians are changing to wheaF widely cultivated on chernozems, grey-brown
eating because of its higher food value and also earth. M aj or w he at-pro ducing co u nt r ies
because it is cheaper. (f) Flat or undulatingground to facilitate the (by 7o of world total 1977)
(d) Wheat yields are lower in extensive mech- use of machinery. Land must be well drained. U.S.S.R. 24 Australia 3
anized farms as in the New World (1 644 kg per U.S.A. 14 Pakistan z
hectaref24 bushels per acre) than intensive China l0 W. Germany 2
farms in Europe (4 035 kg per hectare/60 bush- India 7.5 Rumania 2
els per acre). Canada 5 Italy 2
(e) Rye, barley and oats replace wheat in tem- France 4.5 Argentina 1.5
Derate lands where conditions are harsher. Turkey 4

252
 23%oN t
Central Am

i
N

I
I
' I-"ir"-srowiru resions scale : 1 : 215 OOO OOO
I

Fig. 26.10 World distribution of maize

26.H The United States supplies half the maize require-

ments of the world. Popperfoto

General Geogtaphical Requirements World Production and Distribution

3. MAIZE/CORN (Fig. 26.10)
(a) Maize originated in America as Indian
corn. The corn is ground to make maize mcal
(Mealie) but is not good for bread-making.
(b) Has many varieties. Dent is soft maize, and
flint is hard maize. Also eaten as sweet corn.
pop corn. Many new hybrids give better yields.
(c) Many uses: food-crop, animal fattening,
cornflakes, alcohol distilling, etc.
(a) Grows best in sub-tropical regions between
50'N and 40" S where there are 140 frost-free
davs.
(b) A mean temPerature of 21'C (7ffF) and
long warm summers.
(c) Moderate to heavy summer rain 890 rnm
(35 inches).
(d) Deep, nitrate-rich, well-watered soil, low-
lands preferred.
(a) About 230 million tonnes of maize are pro-
duced a year.
(b\ 46Eo of world's output is from the U.S.A.
mainly from the Corn Belt.
(c) Others: China (10%), Brazil (5.5Vo), the
U.S.S.R., Rumania, Yugoslavia and S' A.frica
(3Vo each\, Mexico, France and Argentina
(2.5Vo each), India, Italy and Hungary (2/o
each).
Source: FAO Production Year Book 1978

Barley, Rye, Oats, Millet. These are the more increased altitude or latitude. They are used as France, China, Sweden, the United Kingdom,
hardy cereals of secondary importance. Toler- food erains, animal feedstuffs, for industrial the U.S.S.R. and other temperate countnes.
ant of inferior soil. less favourable climate. or"r, J.g. distilling and malting. Major produc- Millet is also grown in tropical countries.
more interior and continental reqions, even of ers: U.S.A., Canada, W Germany, Poland,

253
 A TABLE SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS OF THE WORLD
TABLE II BEVERAGES

Fig. 26,1 1(a) World distribution of tea

General
1. TEA(Figs.26.11a&b)
(a) Tea (Thea camellia) is a universal bever-
age, the cheapest and the most widely drunk.
(Four times as much coffee as tea is required
to flavour lhe same quantity of water).
(b) Tea probably originated in China and was
drunk as plain China (Green) tea. But today
the greatest tea-drinkers are the British, mainly
imported-lndian Black tea, which is fermented
and has 507o tannin removed. Asians also drink
semi-f€rmented Oolong tea from Taiwan. Tea
is also prepared from Yerba mate as Paraguay
Tea, widely drunk in South America. Tea pro-
ducers need not be the greatest tea consumers.
(c) Tea has many varieties. Indian tea has
more weight: Chinese tea high flavour and Tai-
wanese tea good scent.
(d) Tea gardens are small in China and Japan.
Large tea plantations in India and Sri Lanka
are mainly owned by Europeans (210 to 2 400
hectares/l00 to 6,000 acres).
Geographical Requirements
work. Indian tea is picked every lG-15 days. dried again before it is sifted, graded and
Chinese tea three times a ycar (April to July). packed in lead-lined chests.
(h) Likes shade provided by large trees. Cool
air and humid weather stimulates leaf growth.
World Production and Distribution
Cultivation/Processing
(a) The world's output of tea amounts to
nearly 1.8 million tonnes in 1977.
(a) Cultivation. Tea is grown from seeds in (b) India is the largest producer, 32Vo, mainly
nurseries or from cuttings. Transplanted six from Assam Hills, Darjeeling and Himalayan
months later. into Dlantations: bushes 1.5 m foothills.
(5 ft) apart. Pruning at regular intervals to (c) Sri Lanka is the third greatest Producer
stimulate growth of shoots. Shrubs are pruned (12%)but the second greatest exporter. China,
to 1.5 m (5 ft) and can be picked at end of sec- though the second greatest producer (197c).
ond ycar. up till fifticth yeaI exports much less than Sri Lanka.
(b) Prme*sing. Picked tea leaves first weighed (d) Others: the U.S.S.R., Kenya and Japan
(pickers are paid by piece-rate), and then with- (6Vo each), Indonesia and Bangladesh (2%
ered or dried. Tea rollers crush the leaves and each). Taiwan, Paraquay, Peninsular Malaysia
is then fermented to make black tea. It is then and East Africa.
Fig.26.11(b) The major tea producers of the world FAO
Production Year Book, 1978
Tea
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 7o
lrrlll

(a) An evergreen perennial shrub that grows

in tropical and subtropical latitudes. o
(b) High temperature of over 2l"C (70e$ dur- o
6 E, o
ing the growing season. Growth is continuous o U'
o
and picking can be done throughout the year.
lndia China
o
vo
G U)
(c) Heavy rainfall benveen 1270 and 5 1([ mm
(50 and 200 inches), without any prolonged o
drought or cold.
(d) No killing frost though the shrub can wirh-
stand occasional cold spells.
Other East Africa{
(e) Likes slightly acidic soil without calcium.
Makes heavy demand on nitrates. Or hers
Tu rkeY
(f) Grows best on highlands and well-drained
slopes. This gives a better flavour, but less Bangladesh
yield.
(g) Demands cheap, abundant (female) labour
-Argentina
* East Africa includes Malawi, Uganda,
for picking 'flush' (a bud and two leaves). Tanzania and Mozambiou€.
Drying and packing tea is tedious and patient

254
 asrAfric?-
N

t )v
f /'/
I
! coffee-Srowing regions Scale 1: 215 000 000

Fig. 26.12(a) World distriburion of coffee

General
2. COFFEE (Figs. 26.12 a & b)
(a) Coffee, originated in the
trict of Kaffa in Ethiopia and
drunk firsl by the Arabs as Coffee
Arabica. It was introduced into
Europe by the invasion of the
Turks, and by the Dutch to the
East Indies, and later to Brazil,
Latin America, West Indies.
(b) It is the second most exten-
sively drunk beverage (after tea),
but is spreading fast in America
and Australasia. The U.S.A. is the
greatest coffee importers.
(c) There are 3 major varieties.
Coffee Arabica-finest flavour;
Coffee Robusta-W. African hardY
coffee; Coffee Liberica-lowland
coffee.
(d) Coffee supremacy changed
hands from Arabia to W. Indies,
Sri Lanka, Java now Brazil (Sao
Paulo).
(e) Like tea, grows sueessfullY on
elevated uplands, well-drained hill
slopes with much air and moisture.
dis- (f)Coffee shuns direct sunlight'
was
iome shade is preferrgd'
(g) Demands cheaP, abundant
labour for picking.
(h) A coastal Position is an advan-
tage. Marine haze and sea mists
have a cooling effect
Cultlvatlon/Processing
(a) Cultlvation Seedlings are
raised in seed-beds and trans-
Fig. 26.12(b) Malor coffee producers of the world FAO Pro-
duction Year Book,1978
planted after six months, with a 3-
m (l0-foot) spacing. The trees are
annually pruned to ensure heavy
bearing and to ease picking. Har-
vesting begins in the third,year
when the shrub is 2-4 m (6-12
feet) high. Peak production in the
eighth year, and yields berries for
over 30 years.
(b) hocesslng. Coffee berries are
hand-picked, cured and washed.
Beans are separated frorn pulp,
thoroughly dried, mechanically
sorted and graded. Packed in
sacks, for export.
World Production and Dls-
tribution
(a) About 22Vo otthe world's cof-
fee comes fuom Brczil (1977
figures). Excess coffee is burnr,
production regulated to stabilize
prices. Crop diversification recom-
mended.
(b) Columbia (72Vo) is the next
greatest producer, followed by the
Ivory Coast and Mexico.
(c) Others: Uganda, El Salvador,
Java (Indonesia), Ethiopia, Guate-
mala and India.
90 100 "/.

Geographical Requirements
(a) A hot crop, thrives in the troP
ics, even in areas with little mois-
ture.
(b) Likes high temperature, can
survive even in day temperatures lvory Coast Cameroun
of over 32 "C (90 "F) in Arabia.
(c) Annual rainfall ranging from
I 100 to I 780 mm (zl0 to 70 inches). El Salvador Zake
A relatively dry season for pick- Indonesia Malagasy
ing.
(d) Thrives in soil of high fertility, Ethiopia Kenya
e.g. the.terra roxa, the rich volca-
nic earth of Brazil, 18 m (60 feet) Guatemala
deep, with much potash.

?(<
 6 a

{F
F

23;.N

0"

23i"S )/)
-o
N

I
t- LJ

tiiii:l cocoa-growing regions

I Scale 1: 215 000 000

Fig. 26.13(a) World distribution of cocoa

General Geographical Requirements Gultivation/Processi ng World Production and Dis-

3. COCOA (Figs. 26.13a & b)
(a) The cacao tree (Theobroma
cacao) is a native of equatorial
Africa which produces cocoa
beans or seeds for making cocoa
powder and chocolate.
(b) There are two varieties of
cocoa: Criolio from tropical Amer-
ica (superior grade, low yield, dis-
ease prone) and forastero from
Africa (inferior quality, high
yield).
(c) Grown mainly by natives in
smallholdings solely for export to
Western countries.
(a) Likes a hot, moist, equable cli-
mate with temperature over 24"C
(75'F) and rainfall of 2 000-3 500
mm (80-1,10 inches) without long
droughts.
(b) Well-drained porous soil, with
potassium.
(c) Likes some shelter from direct
sun and wind.
(d) Thrives best near coasts within
tropics.
(e) Hurricanes and tornadoes
damage crops.
(a) Cultivstlon. The cacao tree has
its fruits after five years in pods
growing from its trunk.
(b) Processlng. The pods are har-
vested with knives and spilt open.
Beans are separated from the pulp,
fermented for a week, dried for
another week, then packed and ex-
ported.
tribution
(a\ 60Vo of the world's cocoa com-
es from West Africa; (1978
figures). Ghana (22Vo), the lvory
Coast (llVo) and Nigeria (157o).
(b) Others: Brazil (16%o\, Came-
roun (57o), Ecuador (4Vo),Mexico
and Columbia.

Fig.26.13(b) A cocoa plant

26.1 Cocoa obtained from the pods is used for making

cocoa powder and chocolate. Jabatan Penerangan MalaYsia

256
 A TABLE SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS OF THE WORLD
Fig. 26.14(a) World distribution of cotton
General
1. COTTON (Figs. 26.14a & b)
(a) Cotton (Gossypium), 'King of
fibres' is the most widely used tex-
tile fibre, for making clothes, fur-
nishingfabrics, bedlinen, industrial
cloth and a host of other materials.
It competes with wool, silk, rayon,
nylon, other hard fibres and synth-
etic fibres in the market.
(b) Cotton has many varieties,
e.g. Sea-Island cotton (the best,
longstapled-over 45 mrn/1* inches
in length of staple). The Egyptian
and Peruvian varieties are also
highly priced with a staple length
of over 29 mm (11 inches). The
American upland cotton and those
of Brazil and the U.S.S.R. are
medium-stapled (22 mm to 29 mml
t inch to l[ inches). The coarsest
and shortest-stapled (less than 22
mm/$ inch) are the Asiatic var-
ieties, e.g. Indian Deccan and those
of the Far East.
(c) Many inventors are associated
with the cotton textile industry.
Hargreaves invented'spinning jen-
ny'; Cartwright, the power loom,
etc.
(d) The mechanical cotton picker
can replace 100 manual pickers
(each picking 68 k9150 lb a day),
gave rise to unemployment and
other social problems in the Deep
South, U.S.A.
Fig.26.14(b) Major world producers of raw cotton.
Production Year Book, 1977
TABLE III FIBRES
,-\t Gelra
--{
Scale 1: 215 000 000
cotton-growing regions
Geographical Requiremants (15 inches) apart. They grow to a World Productlon and Dis-
height of 1l m (5 feet) before they
(a) Cotton is an annual, cultivated are picked, and resown. The har- trlbution
extensively from 35'N to 25'S vested cotton has to be ginned by a (a) More than 14 million tonnes of
within the tropics, best suited to special saw-gin (invented by Eli cotton was produced (1977 figures)
the China type of climate. Whitney) to separate the seeds and has great significance in inter-
(b) A summer growing tempera- from the lint. national trade.
ture of 21 "C (70'F)) is best with (b) Manufacture. The cotton lint (b) The U.S.A. (22Vo\, is the
bright, sunny days for harvesting. is carded into fibre-ropes, spun largest producer and mainly from
Rain at picking spoils the boll, into yarn (thread), then woven the cotton Belt.
from which the lint is extracted into cloth in looms; dyed, printed (c) The U.S.S.R. (l9Vo) nainly
and exported. and finished. from the Ukraine and Turkestan.
(c) Ample rain is preferred, about (c) Cotton yrrn pmducerc. (d) China (16Vo) tuon the North
I 000 mm (tl0 inches). coming in U.S.S. R. (l1Vo), China (74Vo), the China Plain.
frequent showers, with sunny U.S.A. (l2Vo) and India (107o). (e) India (8Vo), low grade, short-
periods in between. When mois- (d) Others: Japan, Pakistan, stapled from the Deccan.
ture is less than 500 mm (20 in- France, Poland, Italy, W. Ger- (f) Othen: Egypt, Brazil, Mex-
ches), irrigation is necessary. many, Hong Kong and Egypt. ico, Pakistan, Turkey and the
(d) Cotton is very sensitive to Sudan.
frost; a least 200 days frost-free are
necessary.
(e) Medium loam is best. Exhaus-
tive of nitrates but manuring and
crop rotation help.
(f) Level ground facilitates use of
machinery, e.g. automatic cotton-
picking machines.
(g) Cheap and patient labour, if
hand-picked.
(h) Prone to attack by insect pests,
e.g. boll-weevil, counteracted by
aerial spraying.
Gultivation/Procossing
I U € g;f$i;
(a) Cultlvation. Seeds are sown in
fields and thinned out to 380 mm
E
FAO
257
 N
I
--f-
I
I
Fig. 26.15(a) World distribution of sheep rearing
Generrl
(a) Wool is the most important
animal fibre of the temperate
lands. Used for the woollen and
worsted industry. It comes from
many animals, chiefly sheep, the
most numerous of all domesticated
animals. Some wool is also derived
from Cashmere goats, Angora
goats, (mohair), Ilamas, alpacas,
vicunas, camels and other hairy
creatures.
(b) Wool has insulating prop
erties, keeps warm, abrcrbs mois-
ture, resisb wrinkling, of great
durability and strength. It is highly
desired in colder climates or up
land regions.
(c) Wool diffen in thickness, lus-
tre and durability. Best in Menno
wool which originated in Spain and
N. Africa and is now reared in the
southern continents, accounting
for one-third of all wool (12-22
kgU-45 lb per Merino sheep per
year). Original English breeds are
less important now, mainly Cross-
bred for dual purposes - wool and
meat and account for half of all
wool. The rest is coars€, carpel
wool.
(d) Selected breeding has devised
new and better breeds.
Geographlcal Requlrcmentr
(a) Wool-bearing mammals are
most widely found in the tempera-
ture and sub-tropical lands which
are not t(X) hot for the hair to get
coarse and short; more in cool
lands.
(b) Damp environmenl like humid
tropics is less suited, may lead to
liver-fluke an foot-rot diseases.
(c) A cool, dry climate, 21 "C
(70'F), with light to moderate rain-
fall (380-890 mr/15-35 inches).
(d) Well-drained ground for open
grazing, no damp pastures.
(e) Man-sown alfalfa or luccrne
grass is best.
(f) Sheep are now driven to poor-
er lands, foo rrills, uplands.
(g) Extensive meadows reduce
overgrazing.
Cuhlvatlon/Processlng
nocecsltrg
(a) Sheerlng. The fluffy wool
from sheep is machine-clipped by
elpert shearers and transported 'in
the grease': A sheep yields be-
tween 4 kg and 10 kg (8 lb and
z) lb).
(b) Scourlng. Removal of grea*,
to be fitrelv flrled.
(c) Cnrafrig. Combing of the
fibres.
(d) Splnnlng. Spun into yam.
(e) Wevlng. Woven into superior
woollens
I"Tj:f:,?1".:::qualitv
(Q Dyed and finished.
World Productlon and Dir-
trlbutlon
(a) The world's output of wool is
around 3 million tonnes, mainly
from temperate grasslands (1977
figures)
(b) Australia is the leading pro-
ducer and exprtet (!0Vo).
(c) The U.S.S.R. is next in wool
production (187o).
(d) New Znaland (12Vo), Argenti-
na(6.5Vo), and S. Africa (4Vo\ arc
other major wool producers.
258
3. RESTOFTHE HARD FIBRES
(r) Jutc. Tall annual, grows best in
wet. alluvial soil: hot moist cli-
mate. Used for cheap sacking,
(gunny), burlap. Produced in
dia, (29/o), Bangladesh, (247o).
China (!4Vo) and Thailand (5.57o)
(1977 figures).
(b) Abrcs or Menllo hemp. Bana-
na-like leaf stalks. Demands warm,
humid conditions. Highly resistant
to sea-water, so used for ropes.
Philippines'monopoly'-957o and
Sabah (Malaysia) 4%.
(c) Flgx. A slender flax plant,
lelds fibre and linseed. Temperate
conditions, cool and moist climate.
Used for quality linen (fibre),
ropes (tow). U.S.S.R., 75Vo Po-
land, Belgium, France are other
produces.
(d) Sll. Most expensive fibre,
obtained from cocoons of silk-
worms, in sub-tropical lands, feed
on mulberry or oak leaves. Needs
utmost care, patient female labour
Fig. 26.18(b) Major wortd producers of woot FAo produc-
tion Year Book' 1977
g 4
,-.i
9urz
6@
:j
to supervise breeding, hatching,
and reeling of filaments. Makes
quality silk, satin, velvet, plush.
Rayon (man-made silk) overrides
In- scriculture (processes of making
natural silk).
World's silk production: Japan
(34%), C}tina (337o). S. Korea,
the U.S.S.R., India. N. Korea and
Brazil are other produccrs.
(c) Sls.l hcmp or henequcn. A
perennial grown in Central Amer-
ica and East Africa. Fleshy leaves
for making baler and binder twine.
Sisal: Brazil (48Vo), Tanzania
(23Vo), lknya (1Vo), tvlalagtsy,
Angola, Haiti and China.
(D IImp ffbrc or sunl hemp. A
humid warm temperate fibre of
solthcm Europe. Hand-hawest,
hardy fibre. lndia (XVo), the
U.S.S.R. (23Vo), Runania (llVol
and China (10%). Other produers
are Turkey, Poland, Yugoslavia,
Bulgaria and Pakistan.
Wool
€s g g g
gE J; rs
o
CD 3to D
 A TABLE SUMMARY OF THE
MAJOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS OF THE WORLD
TABLE IV RAW MATERIALS & OTHERS

lL)

t''1

0 miles 600

Fig. 26.16 World distribution of rubber

t Scale 1:215000000

General Geographical Requarements World Production and Distribution

1. RUBBER (Fig. 26.16)
(a) Hevea Brasiliensis is commercially the most
important. lts original home was Brazil from
which the wild Para rubber was first brought by
Sir Henry Wickham in the form of a few thou-
sand seeds to Kew Gardens. London. It was
then introduced into Peninsular Malaysia the
following year in 1877, which became one of
the world's greatest natural rubber producers.
Much also comes from neighbouring South-
East Asian countries.
(b) There are other non-commercial species,
e.g. Kok saghyz of the U.S.S.R., Guayule of
Mexico, Belata of S. America and Funumia-
e/ast cd of West Africa. The commercially prized
Hevea Brasiliensa is now improved through
bud-grafting and the use of other clonal seed-
lings. Its yield has been raised from 390 kg of
latex per hectare (350 lb per acre) to I 680 to
2 350 kg/hectare (1,500 to 2,100 lb per acre)
per year. Researches conducted in the Rubber
Research Institute, Kuala Lumpur are expected
to double or treble the present yield.
(c) The meteoric rise of rubber was due to the
discovery of vulcanization of rubber by Charles
Goodyear which led to the manufacture of
pneumatic rubber tyres in connection with the
automobile industry, later electric wiring.
Numerous other industrial uses: hoses, foot-
wear upholstery, etc.
(d; Greatest threat is from synthetic rubber
which supplies ffiVo of world rubber today.
(a) Rubber is entirely confined to the tropics
as a lowland plantation crop, and can even be
successfully grown on foothills, up to 610 m
(2,000 feet).
(b) A high uniform temperature of 27'C
(80 "F) throughout the year. It is least tolerant
of cold, and yield diminishes with increasing
latitude and altitude.
(c) Annual rainfall of 2 030 mm (80 inches)
and above, well distributed throughout the
year. Hot and moist climate is best.
(d) For optimal growth, the soil should be
deep, slightly acidic, well drained and fertil
ized.
(e) It survives best on forest-cleared lowlands,
and beyond 610 m (2,000 feet), it is liable to
fungus attack.
(f) Cover crops planted will help to reduce the
rate of top-soil erosion in a region of heavy tor-
rential downpours. Cover crops are useful in
providing some cash sales, as rubber cannot be
tapped till the sixth year, takes long maturing
period.
(g) High maintenance cost, regular weeding
necessary.
(h) Cheap, patient labour for tapping, Pro-
cesslng.
(i) Good transport network, a purely export
crop.
(a) The world's annual output of 3.5 million
tonnes natural rubber comes mainly from
South-East Asia (857o). Brazil, the briginal
home of rubber now accounts for less than 1 7o.
(b) The two leading single producers are
Malaysia (AVo) and Indonesia (23.5Vo, 1977
estimates). Rubber is found in larse estates or
smallholdings in Peninsular Maiaysia. It is
grown in eastern Sumatra and Java.
(c) Sri Lanka which started growing rubber
earfier than Malaysia, produces about 4Vo
mainly in the south-west.
(d) Thailand, with quite similar conditions
accounts for l2Vo, mainly in Kra Isthmus.
(e) India and Liberia account for 4Vo and 2Vo
respectively of world rubber production.
(f) Vietnam, Kampuchea, Burma and other
Asian counlries have very little rubber.

259
 tet t
,''
SugarBeet
| ,
loroor"insareas I /
Sugar Cane
lproducing
\{
ar"as
I 5
\A v
Fig.26.17 World distribution of sugar-cane and sugar-beet
General
2. SUGAR (CANE & BEET) (Fig. 26.17)
(a) Commercially used raw sugar comes from
two sources: 60Vc Irom tropical cane sugar and
4OVo from temperate beet sugar. The former is
mainly an export crop, 5070 enters world trade,
whereas the latter is purely for home consump-
tion. Cane sugar is freely traded and has high
yield, beet sugar is tariffed and has low yield.
(b) The refining of sugar is mainly confined to
industrial countries, a complex process, yields
crystal-sugar and molasses from which rum
alcohol is obtained. Beet tops and pulps are
used for animal feeding, cattle or pig food.
3. FRUITS
(a) Commercial fruits are either tropical
(bananas, pineapples), Mediterranean (grapes
and cltrus trurts: oranges, lemons) or deciduous
fruits (apples, pears, plums, peaches, apricots,
cherries).
(b) Fruit cultivation: Has to meet problems of
perishability: long gestation period; need for
restocking periodically; price fluctuation (trade
recession hits fruits first); susceptibility to frost,
drought, insect pests, diseases; need for
detailed meteorological sewice.
(a) Tropical fruits, Heavy annual rainfall,
4. VEGETABLES OILS (Figs. 26,18-26.20)
(a) Includes: Oil palm, copra, groundnuts,
soya beans, cotton seeds, olives, linseed,
sesame, hemp seed, tung oil, rapeseed, castor
seed. They form the edible cooking oils or the
industrial oils. Vegetable oils make 3 of the
total cooking oil, to supplement the lack in
animal fat. Much is used in industrial fields such
)/|
-v-
Y \
t N
scare 1 : 215 000 000 t
Geographical Requirements
(a) Sugar-cane needs high temperature (21 "C/
70'F), ample rainfall (1 520 mm/60 inches),
not excessive during ripening period, may
dilute the sugar content. Likes deep nitrate
soil, retentive of moisture; irrigation neces-
sary for better yields. Cultivated mainly
lowlands.
(b) Sugar-beet, an annual of the temperate
lands. Cultivated for'partial self-sufficiency
policy in sugar' in Europe, highly subsidized.
Needs 16'C (60'F) temperature, 760 mm (30
inches) rainfall; deep, friable soil; grown in
crop rotatlon.
high uniform temperature, cool sea breezes,
rich soil. Dates in deserts like arid climate.
porous soil.
(b) Mediterranean fruits. Warm humid cli-
mate with a distinct dry season. Temperature
2l'C (70 "F). Rainfall 760 mm (30 inches).
(c) Deciduous fruits. Cool, humid climate
withoul extremes. Warm summer for harvest-
lng.
(a) Tropical frru,its. Bananas: lTVo fromBazil,
l0.5Va fron lndia.8.5Vo from Indonesia. Oth-
ers: Ecuador. Thailand. Columbia and Hon-
as paints, varnishes, lubricants, hair cream,
margarine, candles, soap, insecticides, fertil-
izers and animal-feed. Their uses as oils and
fats have to some extent been replaced by many
synthetic and nitrogenous substitutes through
various chemical processes.
(b) Palm ojl: is most important for making
margarine, soap and cooking-fat. Coconut oil
260
World Production and Distribution
Distribution
(a) Raw sugar amounts to 50 million tonnes in
1977 comes mainly from sugar-cane of which
lndia -(20Vo), Brazll (16Vo), Cuba (87o) and
China (6Vo) are the leading producers. Others:
on Mexico, Pakistan, the U.S.A., Thailand, Aus-
tralia, Philippines and Columbia.
(b) Beet sugar has practically no international
trade. Producers are the U.S.S.R. (327o),
France (8.57o), the U.S.A. (87o), East and
West Germany, Italy, Poland, United King-
dom and Czechoslovakia.
duras. (IAO Year Book, 1978) Pineapples:
China including Taiwan (14Vo), Hawaii, rhe
U.S.A. (lOVo), Brazil (9Vo), Thailand
(87o), Mexico and the Philippines (7Vo each),
Zdire (6Vo), the Ivory Coast and Malaysia (5Zo
each).
(b) Mediterranean fruits: Citrus fruits from
Mediterranean lands, the U.S.A., Spain, Italy,
Brazil: grapes too.
(c) Deciduou fruits, France, the U.S.A, Ger-
many, Italy, the United Kingdom, China and
Japan.
from copra: the dried kernels of coconuts, is for
soap-making, hair oil, cooking oil and its multi-
uses in its husk (mattresses), shell (fuel), kernel
(curry-making, confectionery). Groundnutsi
edible, cooking oil, protein-rich foodmeals,
cattle-cakes. Soya beans: vegetable oil, mar-
garine, cattle meals. O#ves: Mediterranean
cooking oil, fruit.
 .F
\-
^

r4=*

23;'S (lA

a
N

-f I
ffiffi1
tiiiiiitffi
soya beans
Parm
I
" l!,1!l!lll{oir
l :: :'l linseed
scale 1: 215 000 000

Fig.26.18 World distribution of ve!etable oils: linseed,

soya beans and palm oil

Fi9.26.19 World distribution of vegetable oils: copra,

groundnuts

6:

23+'N

23''S
prt
1.2
N

+
I
 PALM OIL

:i
GROUNDNUTS ':

5.
cnvA orAilo

10 20 35 million tons

Fig.26.20 Bar graph showing world production of selected

vegetable oils (in millions of tonnes)

Ouestions and Exercises

1. What factors influence the agricultural practices
of the world? Select any continent, country or
island and say how the crops cultivated are
affected by the factors that you mention.
2. Outline the major differences in agricultural
types between the tropical and the temperate
regions. Illustrate your answer by giving rel-
evant examples from different parts of the
world.
3. The following crops are representative of some
of the types of crops cultivated. Select one crop
from each type:
(a) cereals: wheat, rice, maize;
(b) beverages: tea, coffee, wine;
(c) fibres: cotton, wool, silk;
(d) raw materials: rubber, timber, oil palm.
i. State what geographical factors influ-
ence their large-scale cultivation.
ii. State briefly some of their
istic features of production, distribution,
uses, problems and prospects.
4. Explain any three of the following:
(a) Only 3 per cent of world rice production
enters international trade.
(b) Cotton is the king of fibres.
(c) Tea is a universal drink.
(d) The supremacy of coffee cultivation has
changed hands several times.
(e) The world's trade in sugar comes from cane
not sugar-beet.
5. Write a geographical account of any three of. the
following:
(a) Soil erosion and soil conservation.
(b) The role of crop rotation in soil fertility
maintenance.
(c) Intensive subsistence agriculture of the
Orient.
(d) The southern continents are the greatest
wool exporters.
character- (e) Problems facing fruit cultivation.

Sample Objective Ouestions

l. Wheat can be cultivated in France 2. To avoid monoculture and improve which do you consider to be the /east
but not in Malaysia; rice is a major soil fertility, the most likely farming applicable?
export of some South-East Asian technique that farmers resort to is A Crops raised in plantations are
countries but not of Western A terracing mainly for export
Europe. The most important factor B the growing of cover crops B The plantations are entirely own-
that accounts for this is C contour ploughing ed by foreigners
A soil D crop rotation C Plantations are much larger in
B relief acreage
C climate 3. Plantation agriculture differs from D Average yields from plantations
D politics subsistence farming in many re- are hisher
spects. Of the following differences,

262
4. The number of people involved in
farming is much lower in industrial
countries as compared to developing
countries for all but one of the fol-
lowing reasons.
A Industrial nations make greater
use of machines in farms
B Industrial countries have more
alternate occupations
C Industrial lands cannot be spared
for agriculture
D Industrial nations relv on food
imports only
5. To accelerate crop maturity as well
as strengthen root formation in
plants, farmers apply
A calcium
B phosphate
C nitrate
D potash
6. Rice farming differs greatly from
wheat farming with respect to
A water requirements
B soil type
C relief features
D farm attention
7. Which type of farming tends to re-
sult in low yield per hectare but high
yield per man?
A intensive subsistence farmins
B plantation farming
C shifting cultivation
D extensive mechanized farming
8. The Corn Belt of the U.S.A. is, in
fact, a mixed farming region because
I other crops are grown with
matze
II both Europeans and negroes
work in the farms
III animals are kept side by side
with crops
IV subsistence crops are raised on
commercial basis
A IandII
B II and IV
C I and III
D II and III
9. Farms in Canada, the U.S.A., Au-
stralia and New Zealand are resort-
ing more and more to mechanization
in order to
A overcome rapid soil erosion
B cut down the labour force
C increase the crop yield per hec-
tare
D eliminate insect pests
10. The world's greatest rice producer is
A Thailand
B Indonesia
C India
D China
11. Successful cotton cultivation de-
pends on the following ercept
A 200 frost-free days
B ample rain coming in frequent
showers
C constantly high temperature of
over 27'C (80"F.)
D sunny weather during picking
12. 'Truck farming' refers to
A the cultivation of citrus fruits in
Mediterranean Europe
B the growing of vegetables in
Atlantic U.S.A.
C Commercial livestock farming in
the Pampas
D Greenhouse farming in
polderland of Holland.
13. Rice is a much more inferior food
crop when compared to wheat be-
cause
A rice is grown in flooded fields
B rice is milled before consumption
C wheat is mechanically harvested
D wheat is cultivated in conducive
temperate conditions
14. The highest paid sugar-cane planta-
tion workers in the world are found
in Queensland, Australia because
the
A workers live in a developed eco-
nomy
B cost of living in Queensland is the
highest in Australia
C workers have to work for very
long hours
D risk of sunstroke in the planta-
tions is very great
a the Deccan Plateau
15. The problem of inadequate rainfall
for farming in India can be partly
overcome by irrigation which has the
following adv antages except
A Farming can be done all
round
B The water supply is more reliable
than rainfall
C It can support all crops
D It helps to enrich soil fertility
16. The following is a description of a
type of farming practised in a par-
ticular region:
'The farmer and his family wake
up early in the morning and work in
263
small plots of land around. He grows
many different types of crops, uses
very little fertilizer and much of the
work is done by hand. There is very
little surplus for disposal to other
places. When rain is excessive, his
fields are flooded; when drought is
prolonged, famine is ensured.'
The above description is most ap-
plicable to
A a commune in the Chang Jiang
(Yangtze Kiang) Basin
B a mixed farm in coastal Peru
C an arable farm in Central Otago,
New Zealand
D an intensive subsistence farm in
the Ganges Basin, India
17. I Mean summer temperature:
75'Ft24 "C
II Mean annual rainfall: 30 inches/
1125 mm
the
III Frost-free period: 200 days
IV Well drained, level ground.
The above conditions are necessary
for the cultivation of an important crop in
the Central Lowlands of North America.
Name this crop
A wheat
B tobacco
C cotton
D maize/corn
18. Which of the following major veget-
able oils of the world is leading in
annual production (in tonnes)?
A soya bean oil
B cotton seed oil
C palm oil
D coconut oil
19. A general drop in the prices of farm
commodities on the world market
would have the greatest effect on
A Arokiasamy, a peasant farmer in
B Fu Zhongming, a rubber estate
owner in Malaysia
C Anthony Webster, a factory
worker in the Midlands, England
year D Nelekosky, a nomadic herdsman
in the Asiatic Steppes
2O. Dairy farming is usually practiced
near large urban areas because
A rural folk do not consume dairy
products
B only urban areas can meet the
food requirements of dairy herds
C dairy products are easily perish-
able
D the grass is greener in the towns
Chapter 27 Fuel and Power
General
Unlike agriculture, fuels such as coal and oil ex-
tracted from the earth can never be replaced, (the
'robber industry') and the world as a whole, is get-
ting poorer every day with such an intensive ex-
ploitation of the earth's wealth to meet modern in-
dustrial demands. At the rate that automobiles and
industrial plants are consuming petroleum, there will
come a day when the oil wells will dry up too. New
substitutes must be found if the modern civilization
created by Man is to be sustained. The question of
fuel exhaustion is an important one and measures
have already been taken by scientists and govern-
ments all over the world to conserve resources and
invent substitutes. Hydro-electricity forms a substi-
tute power resource and steps have already been
taken to harness tides and solar energy and to sup-
plant present mineral fuels with atomic or nuclear
power.
Fuel and Power
COAL
Coal, comprising mainly carbon of vegetative origin,
is one of the oldest forms of power. It provided the
basis for the Industrial Revolution. Its importance
as both fuel and raw material was greatly enhanced
with the invention of the steam engine by James
Watt in 1769. Coal became the greatest single factor
of industrial location. The pull of coalfields on indus-
trial locations was so great that the majority of the
world's manufacturing areas are located on or near
coalfields. The discovery of oil and the invention of
electricity have greatly altered the prominence of
coal in almost every field. Its low heat output, its
untidy appearance and its great bulk, which raises
transport costs, have all contributed to the decline
of coal as a modern fuel. However, in most parts of
Europe, America and some Asiatic countries, coal
is still extensively used as a domestic fuel, a source
of industrial power, and a vital raw material for the
chemicals industry. Coal yields gas, tar, benzole and
sulphate of ammonia which have many industrial
USES.
264
Coal mining methods. Coal, which occurs in sedi-
mentary rocks in layers or seams of varying thick-
ness, may be exposed or concealed. That which
outcrops on the surface (exposed) is easily and eco-
nomically mined by open-cast or strip-mining meth-
ods. The coal-bearing rocks are simply stripped off
by giant shovels, and the coal scooped up into the
trucks to be carried away (Fig. 27.1).
When the coal occurs underneath the earth's sur-
face in concealed beds, underground mining is nec-
essary (Plate 27.A). This involves the excavation of
the coal by drivingvertical shafts down to the seams
and removing the coal through tunnels (Fig.27.l).
This method is more expe,nsive and also more dan-
gerous. It has to take into consideration problems
of ventilation, water supply and underground trans-
port, not to mention the possibilities of gas poison-
ing, explosion and the collapse of the tunnel roofs.
There are many instances of coal miners being bur-
ied alive in the underground mines.
When the coal seam lies beneath the sea, off-shore
marine mining methods have to be employed
(Fig. 27.I).
Types of coal
There are different types of coal which vary greatly
in their prices and their industrial uses. The follow-
ing'categories of coal are arranged in descending
order of hydrocarbon content and calorific value.
1. Anthracite. This is the best coal, and constitutes
not more than 5 per cent of the world's total coal
output. It is the hardest, with the highest hydrocar-
bon content. It has very little volatile matter, is prac-
tically smokeless, burns quietly with great heat and
leaves very little ash behind. It is used mainly for
steam-raising in industrial plants and for domestic
heating. Due to its scarcity and its higher price,
anthracite is only used when other types of coal are
less suitable.
2. Bituminous coal. This the most abundant type
of coal and may be subdivided into three classes:
(a) Steam coal. lts hydrocarbon content is a little
less than that of anthracite. It is the superior grade
Fig. 27.1 The nature of
coal deposits and mining
methods
of the bituminous coal, occurring in seams that have
been highly compressed. It is black, very hard and
burns readily with great heat. As it is relatively
smokeless, like anthracite, it is extensively used as
'bunker coal' in steamships, and in locomotives and
engines where soot accumulation is undesirable'
(b) Coking coal. This is a very useful type of coal
which is burnt in closed ovens to drive off the vol-
atile matter and increase its carbon content. This
particular class of coal softens and fuses while burn-
ing and produces coke, a hard, grey porous material,
which is used in blast furnaces to extract iron from
its ores.
27.A An Australian coal mine. Notice the conveyor belt
which transports the coal and the pit-props which support
the roof. Camera Press
265
(c) Gas coal. This low-rank bituminous coal has
a high percentage of moisture and volatile matter.
When heated, it gives out much of its gases and
vapour which are collected for use as coal gas and
other chemical by-products.
3. Lignite or brown coal. This is the lowest category
of coal with a high moisture and ash content' It is
smoky, for it still retains some of its original vege-
tative matter. It has comparatively little carbon and
has low heat value. Half the world's lignite resources
are in West and East Germany and a quarter in the
Tula brown-coal deposits of the U.S.S.R. It is exten-
sively used for domestic heating, generating thermal
electricity and in the chemicals industry.
4. Peat. This is exlusively of vegetative matter and
represents the initial Stage of coal formation. Its car-
bon content is in the form of wood or decayed plants
and it is highly charged with moisture. A large
amount of peat is found in the bogs of Ireland and
Scotland where it is cut in pieces like turf, dried, and
burnt as domestic fuel. It has only local importance
and is not traded.
World coal distribution
Coal is mainly found in three continents, Europe,
North America and Asia. The greatest producer of
both anthracite and bituminous coal is the U.S.A.
(24 per cent), from the Pennsylvanian, Central and
Rockies Coalfields. This is followed by the U.S.S.R.
(20 per cent) from the Donbas, Kuzbas, Karaganda,
Ural and Tula coalfields. Amongst the European
producing countries, Poland is the greatest, account-
ing for 7 .5 per cent of world production. Next comes
the United Kingdom with 5 per cent. It has eighteen
coalfields flanking the Pennines and the Welsh
Mountains, in the Midlands of England and the Cen-
tral Valley of Scotland. West Germany is another
important European coal producer (3.7 per cent),
mainly from the Ruhr and Saar. The other coalfields
of Europe include the Franco-Belgian coalfield, the
Limburg (Netherlands), the Kempen or Campine
(Belgium), the Silesian field in Poland and scattered
fields in France and Spain.
In Asia, China is the largest coal-producing coun-
try and also has the greatest coal reserves. Its pro-
duction stands at 20Vo of the world total. The coal
reserves in North China, in the provinces of Shanxi
(Shansi) and Shaanxi (Shensi) are so great that it is
referred to as the 'second Pennsylvania'.
deposits are located in Sichuan (Szechwan), Hunan,
Yunnan, Shandong (Shantung) and Manchuria.
India's only sizeable coal deposits are in the Damo-
dar Basin centred at Raniganj. Japan has limited
coal deposits in Hokkaido, northern Kyushu and
central Honshu. She is a net importer, particularly
of coking coal. Coal is unimportant in Malaysia. The
only commercial deposit at Batu Arang, which was
developed by the Malayan Collieries Limited in 1915
was forced to close down when the Malayan Rail-
ways and the Central Electricity Board switched to
imported diesel oil.
In the southern hemisphere, coal deposits are rel-
atively insignificant. The greatest deposits are in
Australia, around Newcastle, New South Wales, and
much is exported. Greymouth and Westport are the
coal-mining towns of New Zealand. In Africa, coal
is mined in Transvaal and Natal, South Africa, and
in Zimbabwe and Nigeria. Coal is least important in
South America where scattered deposits occur in
Concepcion, Chile and southern Brazil. Fig. 27.2
shows the chief coal areas of the world and Fip. 27 .3
shows the major coal-producing nations.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum is mineral oil, organic in origin, and
Large occurs in the pore spaces of sedimentary rocks. It is
derived from the decomposition of marine or vege-
tative matter. It normally occurs in dome-shaped
Fig. 27.3 Major coal producers of the world IJN Statistical
Year Eook 1977
8 United Kingdom
2C lchina
20 u.s.s.R
23 U.S.A
15 30%

Fig. 27.2 The chief coalfields of the world

a
F
>.y*,) *> *
\ I"U'{I , ;;TLF"
l, Karaga\nd?
;lr i . r\Egqr
(7 0 -r...
rutt .'

"lr5: '' '-.'.; -. shanli'jr-

.$c )\
v. ' shtnr<l?l

.Binta Canterina

Scale 1: 215 000 000

266
Fig.27.4lal An anticline containing oil

Fig.27.4lbl An oil trap formed by a fault

Fi1.27.4(cl An oil pool imprisoned by a non-porous dyke

267
anticlines, between two layers of non-porous rocks
as shown in Fig. 27.a@). The oil is usually trapped
in the crest of the anticline with gas above and water
below. Oil traps may also result from faults as in
Fig. 27.4$) when porous and non-porous strata are
brought into juxtaposition. In volcanic districts,
when a resistant impermeable dyke is intruded into
alternating layers of rock, it may act as a cap rock
imprisoning a pool of gas, oil and water. This is illus-
trated in Fig. 27.4(c).
Besides its liquid form, oil may also be extracted
in its gaseous state as natural gas. This consists
mainly of methane and ethane and is increasingly
used for heating, lighting and the chemicals industry.
In America, Europe, Russia and New Zealand, nat-
ural gas is pumped through pipes for use in house-
holds and industrial plants. 27.8 Oil derricks in the Texas oilfields Servizio Editoriale
Another interesting product mined in connection Fotografico
with petroleum is asphalt or bitumen or pitch. It is, edge of the mode of oil occurrence and if they did
in fact, highly viscous oil. The most important find oil, it was pure luck! But modern oil prospecting
asphalt deposit is the Pitch Lake of Trinidad which is a very technical job that requires modern, scien-
has been dug for over a century though only a frac- tific equipment. A detailed survey of the geological
tion of its 87 metres (285 feet) depth has so far been structure of the area is carried out first and precise
removed. It is an excellent material for road surfac- instruments that can register the density, permea-
ing. Large quantities of this natural asphalt are dug bility and complexity of the rocks beneath are used.
up, melted into barrels and exported. It is then possible to draw a fairly accurate sketch of
the subterranean structural pattern before drilling is
Oil prospecting and drilling recommended. Modern oil wells are sunk to a depth
The modern oil industry began in 1859 when the first of between a few hundred and 6 700 metres (22,000
oil well was sunk by Edwin Laurentine Drake in feet). To drill a well of average depth can cost as
Titusville, N.W. Pennsylvania. Today the number of much as M$1 000 000! So unless there is a fair
oil wells in the world must be well over 700 000 and chance of striking oil, it is a terrific waste of money
the annual oil output more than 3 000 million to attempt 'wild-catting'. Once a drilling site is
tonnes. decided, a steel derrick about 30 metres (100 feet)
In the early days of oil prospecting, fortune-seek- high will be erected and equipment for drilling
ers merely drilled randomly called ('wild-catting') brought in (Plate 27.8 and Fig.27.4). Steel tubes
hoping to strike oil. They had practically no knowl- are inserted in the bore-hole and, once the drill

Fil.27.5 Sketch of an oil tanker

radar.scanner

load ing/discharge
pipelines bunkers

cargo tanks
boiler & slop tanks water
engine oil fuel in winqs ballast
bunker tank

268
reaches the oil-bearing strata, oil gushes out through
the bore-hole and keeps 'flowing' for weeks or even
years. When it ceases to flow naturally, it is pumped
to the surface.
Oil transportation. The cheapest and the most effi-
cient method of transporting crude oil overland for
great distances is by pipelines which may be 610 mm
(24 inches) or 945 mm (36 inches) in diameter. This
involves the construction of pumping stations at
intervals and the installation of pipes, hundreds or
thousands of kilometres long. The initial cost may
be high, but in the long run, it is very economical.
It saves time, money and labour and the operation
is very simple. In this manner crude oil can be car-
ried by pipelines direct to the refineries or to export-
ing ports for filling oil tankers that transport the oil
to distant countries. For local use, oil trucks and rail-
wagons are used for the conveyance of refined petro-
leum products. For military and emergency require-
ments, barrels of oil are sometimes transported by
aircraft. For sea transport, oil tankers which are
often extremely large, are used (Fig.27.5).
Oil Refining
1. Location of refineries. Oil refineries may be
located:
(a) In or near the oilfields. This is a temporary
measure and applies only to small refineries. As oil-
fields are often located in remote or desert regions,
there is little industrial demand for the refined prod-
ucts and they are not likely to be good locations for
refineries.
Fig.27.6 A fractional distillation plant
Bubble cap
-+
Crucle oil
269
(b) At the port of export. Examples are the refi-
neries in the Persian Gulf area, e.g. Abadan which
serve local needs and protect the interests of the oil-
producing countries. They provide ernployment for
local people but industrial demand is not very high.
(c) At the port of import. Refineries, as in Sou-
thampton, Yokohama, Singapore, Port Dickson, are
normally owned by large international firms that
have world-wide oil interests. It is cheaper to import
crude oil and refine it locally for domestic and indus-
trial use than to import refined products.
2. The distillation of oil. Mineral oils are made up
of different hydrocarbons. Crude petroleum has lit-
tle use unless it is refined, by a process known as
distillation. In distillation, the mechanism is simply
to split the oil into its various 'groups' of hydrocar-
bons or 'fractions' at very high temperatures. As
each fraction boils at a different temperature, the
various groups of hydrocarbons can be extracted at
their own boiling points. The lighter fractions such
as petrol, paraffin or kerosene and benzene will be
evaporated and condensed first at temperatures
probably below 38 'C (100 'F). The heavier fractions
such as diesel, lubricating and fuel oils will condense
later at temperatures between 38.C and 427 "C
(100 "F and 800 "F). At the end of the line is the
residue comprising the heaviest fuel oils as well as
vaseline, wax, and asphalt. The process of distilling
oils by fractions is referred to as fractional distilla-
tion (Fig. 27.6).
Fractional distillation is one of the oldest and most
universal forms of oil refining, but of the total oil
Condenser
Refinery gas
Gas separator
Petrol
Naptha
1 10'C
for chemicals
lgooc
Kerosene
2600C
Diesel oils
Fractionating
column
340"C
Bitumen
 Petrol for cars

ffi

DIESELOILS +

lubricating oil

='-=-:
f:a:

{=.---3
I

fchemicals
-

\i

-,

Bo,n,'rn* @oorirr*,

FUEL OILS

BITUMEN -+

Fig.27.7 Oil products and their uses

270
distilled, the motor fuel fraction is only 15 per cent.
With the rapid rise of the automobile industry, which
demands enormous quantities of the lighter oils such
as petrol or gasoline, it has been found necessary to
adopt the thermal cracking process in which the
heavier fractions are heated to much higher temper-
atures until they break down or 'crack' into the
lighter fractions such as petrol. In recent years,
oil chemists have found that by adding a catalyst
such as powdered platinum, to speed up the
cracking process, more and better motor fuels
can be extracted. This is the catalytic cracking
process.
The uses of oil
The many uses of oil may best be grouped under
four categories.
l. As an indispensable motor fuel. This is the great-
est use of oil, 'the servant of the automobile age'.
As petrol and diesel oil, petroleum drives all the
motor vehicles and aircraft of the world as weli as
a large proportion of trains and ships. The modern
communication complex would simply break down
if petroleum were exhausted. At the rate that the
hundreds of millions of automobiles consume petro-
leum daily, scientists will have to find a substitute
for oil in the future.
2. As a lubricant. Petroleum in the form of grease
and lubricant is absolutely essential in lubricating
machine parts to reduce friction to the minimum.
Our 'machine age' with its high-speed machines
would grind to a standstill if lubricants were not
available.
3. As a vital source of power. Vast amounts of min-
eral oil are being burnt daily in heaters, boilers and
furnaces to provide power in factories and to gen-
erate thermal electricity. Its great calorific capacity
and its convenience for handling and transporting has
made petroleum the most extensively used fuel.
4. The many uses of its by-products. Kerosene has
long been a domestic fuel for cooking, lighting and
heating. Bitumen or asphalt is used for roofing,
road-surfacing and water-proofing purposes. Paraf-
fin and wax are used as illuminants and lubricants
and for the manufacture of candles, seals and
polishes. Its various'by-products form the basic raw
materials of a host of industrial items such as plas-
tics, synthetic rubber, detergents, insecticides, and
pharmaceutical and organic chemical products such
as drugs, varnishes, solvents, diluents (Fig. 27.7).
271
World oil production and distribution
About 60 per cent of the world's oil reserves are
estimated to be in the Middle East. The present
major oil producing countries in 1977 are the
U.S.S.R. (l8Vo of the world total), Saudi Arabia
(l6Vo), the U.S.A. (l3Vo) and Iran (9.5Vo).In the
U.S.S.R., the oldest oilfields are lochted in the Cau-
casus region of which the Baku fields are the most
productive. Fresh sources have been discovered be-
tween the Volga and the Urals and have surpassed
the outtput of Baku. Other very new sources are
found around the Caspian Sea and Russian Turkes-
tan, as well as in Siberia. In the U.S.A., oil comes
mainly from the Mid-Continent states of Kansas,
Oklahoma, Texas and the Gulf Coast region of
southern Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi. The
rest of the American output comes from California,
the Rocky Mountains and the older, now almost ex-
hausted fields in the Appalachians.
Venezuela now accounts for only 4 per cent of
world oil output. Oil is found around Lake Mara-
caibo and the Orinoco basin. Some of the crude oil
is sent to the nearby Dutch islands of Aruba and
Curacao in the Caribbean to be refined, some is
refined locally and the rest is exported as crude oil.
Amongst the Middle East producers, Saudi Ara-
bia is the greatest (16 per cent) mainly from the
Dharan oilfields opposite the oil-rich island of Bah-
rain. Next comes Iran (9.5 per cent) where the oil-
fields are at Masjid-i-Sulaiman at the foot of the
Zagros Mountains. The refinery at Abadan is one of
the largest in the world. Iraq accounts for 4 per cent
of the world production. The pipelines from the oil-
fields of Kirkuk and Mosul run across the deserts to
the tanker teminals at Tripoli in Lebanon and Banias
in Syria. Another oil-rich state is Kuwait (3 per cent)
where the bulk of the oil comes from the Burgan
oilfields. The North African countries of Libya (3
per cent), Algeria (2 per cent), the West African
country of Nigeria (3 per cent) and the United Arab
Emirates (3 per cent) are also important producers.
'I'he rest of the world contributes the remaining 25
per cent. This includes the Canadian oilfields in the
Prairie provinces, the Indonesian fields in Sumatra
and Borneo, and fields in Brunei and Mexico. Now-
adays, oil can also be obtained from bituminous
shales, sands and coal, but due to the high cost of
distillation, such new sources of oil cannot be
expected to be operated on a large scale. Figs. 27.8
shows the major oilfields of the world, andFig. 27.9
the major producers.
 {

Scale 1: 215 000 000

Fig.27.8 The chief oilfields of the world

ELECTRICITY
Of the power resources, electricity is the cheapest.
It is not exhaustable like coal or petroleum but is
renewable. The French have aptly described it as
'white coal' . There are two different sources of elec-
tricity. That which is derived from water sources
(streams, glaciers, natural waterfalls or man-made
dams) by hydro-turbines is referred to as hydro-elec-
tricity. When it is derived from generators driven by
steam-turbines by burning coal, oil or natural gas,
U. Arcb Emlrltrr it is calledthermal electricity. The former is best
developed in the mountainous regions of temperate
o6101520263035% latitudes where precipitation is adequate and there
Fig. 27.9(a) The major oil producers of the world. are ideal sites for the location of hydro-electric
power stations. The latter is widely scattered all over
Fig. 27.9(b) Major producers of natural gas of the world the world wherever mineral fuels are available for
(% of world total) UN Statistical Year Book, 1977
burning in the thermal:power stations. It is thus best
50 developed in industrial districts and near coalfields.
40 Large quantities of water are also necessary for cool-
%30
ing purposes in thermal plants.
20
10 Uses and advantages
0 In regions where coal and other mineral fuels are
iq{ev.:Ei
q?Erji:E absent, electricity compensates for their deficien-
-;E-Ei
)qEo cies. In Switzerland hydro-electric power is the chief
source of motive power. Watches, machinery, pre-
5c:
z7 cision instruments and electrical appliances are pro-

272
duced for export. All Swiss trains were electrified by
1961. There are a number of industries that can only
be successfully undertaken with a very cheap supply
of H.E.P., e.g. the electro-chemicals industries,
especially the smelting of aluminium (from bauxite),
and the production of nitrates and calcium carbides.
This explains why countries like Norway, Sweden,
Canada and Japan which are deficient in mineral
fuels are yet able to attain such a high level of tech-
nical and industrial development.
There are a number of advantages of electricity
over other forms of energy.
l. Its cleanliness. Unlike coal, electricity does not
give out smoke and it is never dirty. It can be con-
veniently used in kitchens, furnaces, and radiators
for heating and is without ashes or residue. In fac-
tories, offices and homes, a flick of the finger brings
light in darkness almost instantly. It preserves food
in refrigerators or deep-freezers. It is difficult to
imagine what would happen if there were a power
failure in the world for just a few hours!
2. Its unlimited degree of divisibility. By the use
of simple mechanical devices such as transformers,
electrical energy can be adjusted from a fraction of
a watt to thousands of watts per hour. It is thus
indispensable in modern complex manufactures
where the control of speed in machines or in fur-
naces is precise to a fraction of a second.
3. Convenient translort. Unlike coal or petroleum,
electricity needs neither trucks nor pipes. By means
Fig. 27.10 A hydro-electric power station where electricity
is generated and distributed
llir
ERATT ON
tl
-I<-TRANSM1SS;
o
o
E
!o
273
of only wires and plugs, electric energy can be trans-
ported to consuming points over great distances and
with the greatest ease. With the use of large under-
sea cables, Sweden is able to 'export' electricity
across the Sound to Denmark. Very high voltage
cables are now used to transmit electricity for dis-
tances over I 600 km (1,000 miles) with negligible
loss in energy.
Basic requirements for hydro-electricity
development.
For successful H.E.P. development, the following
factors are essential.
l. A steep gradient or slope. This enables rivers
or streams to plunge down swiftly to fiffn the hydro-
turbines that generate hydro-electricity. Natural rap-
ids and waterfalls are especially advantageous. The
regions with the greatest H.E.P. development are
those with the strongest relief: Scandinavia, Alpine
Europe, Scotland, Canada, the U.S.A. (Appalachi-
ans and Rockies), Japan and New Zealand
(Fig. 27.11).
2. A sufficient and constant volume of water. Regions
with a heavy precipitation from either rain or snow
throughout the year are ideal for generating H.E.P.
Large dams, made possible by the invention of spe-
cial types of cement, and the development of hydro-
turbines and electrical dynamos enable large-scale
hydro-electric schemes to be established. The arti-
ficial lakes, created by the erection of dams, hold
Oru # DtSTRt BUTTON
o
o
o
water for use during periods of low precipitation. In
the colder north, the freezing of rivers limits power
generation.
3. Heavy capital outlay. Modern multi-purpose
schemes need a very large capital outlay. The initial
cost of erecting a dam is so great that it is normally
undertaken by the government, but the expenditure
is worthwhile because the scheme may have a mul-
tiplicity of uses including H.E.P. generation, irriga-
tion, flood-control and navigation. Once the dam is
completed, its maintenance costs, in comparison
with those of a thermal power station, are much less.
Fig. 27.12 The world's chief producers of electricity (H.E.P.
4. A large domestic and industrial market. For a and T.E.P. combined) UN Statistical Year Book, 1977
dam to be worth constructing, there must be a fairly
large market to make use of the H.E.P. generated.
The cost of installing power plants, transforming sta- World production and distribution of electricity.
tions, storage reserves and transmission lines is so Over two-thirds of the world's electricity supply
great that a reasonable market must first be assured. comes from thermal plants, mainly from the indus-
The growth and decline of the market for both trial areas. Fig. 27 .I1, shows the world production of
domestic and industrial uses will directly affect the hydro-electric power. The United States alone
profits made by the hydro-power stations. The high accounts for 3l%o of the world's annual electricity
demand for cheap and abundant electricity by indus- output, followed by the U.S.S.R., the United King-
trial Japan led to the expansion of H.E.P. devel- dom, East and West Germany, France and Japan
opment all over the country. Fig. 27.10 shows a (Fis. 27.r2).
sketch of a hydro-electric plant where electricity is As for hydro-electric power, it makes up only
generated and distributed. about a third of the world's electricity supply. The

Fig.27.11 World major hydro-electric power schemes

./1 - BOOUCHAN
.

i
Il a
(fo!6'+q ...
/ oNtEPRosIRol
"on . IRKUTSK
ALP3|5 .i&
^'U
$\6To
{
"05'o".
*.*,iu" i'/."** u-."
";of

+ I

I
I

I
. Major hydro-electric power schemes ( SELECTED DAMS NAMED )
scale 1 : 215 0OO OOO

274
 Africa
Australia
S, America
Asia
Europe
: developed
N.
Iiii:,i$;::':::l rnrater
nmericaNl
20 30
- power on a con-
Fig.27.13 Potential and developed water
tinental basis
ternperate lands of Europe and North
have, in fact, the greatest output of developed water
power. In terms of individual countries, the United
States is the greatest, producing 23 per cent of the
world's H.E.P. Next is Canada, 15 per cent and third
Japan, 14 per cent. The other producers in order of
importance are France, Sweden, Norway, the
U.S.S.R. and Switzerland. Fig. 27.13 gives a com-
parative representation of their output.
As the world's output of developed hydro-power
differs so significantly from the tropics to the tem-
perate lands, it is best to consider world distribution
on a continental basis.
1. North America. The United States and Canada
together account for about one-third of the world's
total developed H.E.P. They have some of the
world's best known dams. The Grand Coulee Dam
in Washington state is the world's largest concrete
dam, 183 metres (600 feet) above river-level, and is
multi-purpose. The Hoover or Boulder Dam of
Arizona is 222 metres (727 feet) high, the highest in
the world. It controls the River Colorado, supplying
water and electricity to western U.S.A., includ-
ing Los Angeles and San Francisco where prodigious
quantities are needed every day. The dam holds
back the huge Lake Mead, which is like an inland
sea (Plate 9.D page 87). The St. Lawrence Seaway
Scheme is for both electricity and navigation. The
Kitimat Scheme in British Columbia was constructed
to supply H.E.P. for aluminium smelting industries
at Kitimat, with much of the imported bauxite com-
ing from Jamaica. Under the Tennessee Valley
Authority (T.V.A.), more than 30 multi-purpose
dams have been constructed across many rivers to
rehabilitate a vast devastated area as big as the
whole of Peninsular Malaysia.
2. Europe. Europe ranks second in the world's total
H.E.P. output. It is best developed in countries lack-
ing in coal and where the relief is rugged. Most of
the annual H.E.P. production comes from only six
countries: Italy, France, Norway, Sweden, West
Germany and Switzerland. Norway, with neither
coal nor oil, has fully developed its potential water
power resources for industrial and domestic use. She
has in fact, the highest per capita output of water
power in the world. Sweden's chemical and metal-
lurgical industries are based on 'white coal' and her
power
rich deposits of iron ore. The swift glacially-fed
poteniial
streams of the Alps, the Apennines, and the Pyre-
vEter povrcr
nees are all vital to the development of the industries
of their respective countries: Switzerland, Italy and
France. In the U.S.S.R., the Dnieprostroi Dam on
America the Dnieper River is one of the largest dams in the
world, and the country is rapidly expanding its elec-
tricity production with new dams such as those at
Bratsk and Krasnoyarsk in Siberia.
3. Australia and New Zealand. Together they
account for less than 2 per cent of the world's devel-
oped water power resources. The multi-purpose
Snowy River Scheme of south-east Australia is the
largest in Australasia and there are a number of
smaller ones.
4. Asia. Almost a third of the world's potential
water power capacity is found in Asia, but in terms
of developed H.E.P., it is not so important, pro-
ducing about a quarter of the European output.
Japan alone has developed more water power than
all the other Asian countries combined and accounts
for 14 per cent of the world total output. China has
made remarkable progress in the last few decades,
while Indo-Pakistan has many comprehensive
schemes to meet the urgent needs for domestic light-
ing, irrigated farming and flood control. In Peninsu-
lar Malaysia, the Chenderoh and the Temenggor
Dams on Sungai Perak supply most of the power
requirements for the local tin and rubber industries.
The recently completed Abu Bakar Dam in the
Cameron Highlands supplies the H.E.P. require-
ments of central Peninsular Malaysia, particularly in
conjunction with ambitious rural development pro-
grammes.
5. Africa. Despite its vast potential water power
resources, Africa's developed H.E.P. is about 1 per
cent of the world total. A number of dams have how-
ever been built holding back some of the largest
man-made lakes in the world. These include the
Aswan Dam of Egypt, Akosombo Dam of Ghana,
Sennar Dam of Sudan, the Kariba Dam on the Zam-
besi, and those at the foot of the Owen Falls
11<
(Uganda) and Victoria Falls (Zimbabwe).
6. South America. It
has little-developed power
resources, though the potential is good. There are
good natural conditions for the siting of power sta-
tions in Brazil. Chile. Venezuela and the countries
within the Andean Cordillera. The presence of oil
has prevented the intensification of efforts in devel-
oping the water power resources of some of these
countries.

Ouestions and Exercises

1. (a) Name one major area in Europe and another area in Asia where coal is extensively mined.
(b) What important industries made use of this coal as a fuel or a raw material for their manufacturing
industries?
(c) What problems are encountered by these coal mining areas to-day?
2. Either: Compare the merits and limitations of oil transport by pipelines and tankers
Or : Explain why the largest oil refineries have a seaboard location.
J. Make a comparative study of the generation of electricity by hydro power stations and thermal power
plants under these headings:
(a) constructional cost;
(b) maintenance costs;
(c) transmission costs;
(d) labour costs.
4. Write explanatory accounts of any three of the following:
(a) Many large industrial areas in Europe are located at or near the coalfields;
(b) Natural gas has become an increasingly important domestic and industrial fuel;
(c) The bulk of the world's electricity comes from thermal power stations;
(d) Estimates of the world's oil reserves are never very reliable.
5. Coal, petroleum and electricity are three major forms of power. For any one of them:
(a) locate their major areas of production on the world map;
(b) state the geographical factors that assist their exploitation;
(c) state their chief uses.

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. Mining is a 'robber industry' and
mining area can be easily exhausted.
Care therefore has to be taken to
conserve mineral resources as they
are irreplaceable. Of the following
suggested mineral conservation mea-
sures which one is /east helpful?
A Avoid wasteful use of minerals
B Improve techniques of mining
C Increase the wages of miners
D Utilize substitute materials
2. When coal seams are contorted and
deep-seated in the ground, it can be
expected that
A the quality of coal will be poor
a B the cost of extractions will
high
C mining will be relatively easy
D other minerals will be present
3. Electricity is preferred to coal as a
source of fuel in modern industries
for these reasons excepl
A It leaves behind neither smoke
nor soot
B It has a higher calorific value
C It can be more economically
transported
D It yields by-products for the che-
micals industry
be 4. China has often been referred to as
'a beggar with a golden bowl'. This
implies that
A China has rich gold deposits
B much of the country's mineral de-
posits are still untouchedd
C Chinese beggars beg for gold in
the streets
D the Chinese have their food in
bowls made of gold
5. Coal normally occurs in
A alluvial deposits
B cracks and crevices of rocks
C seams between rock strara
D lodes deep below the earth

276
6. Which of the following factors have
to be considered before an area can
be mined?
I the size of the ore dePosit
II the metallic content of the ore
III the specific gravity of the miner-
al
IV the demand for the metal
V its degree of resistance to ero-
slon
VI its mode of occurrence
VII the availability of a transport
network
A All, except II and VI
B All, except III and IV
C All, except V and VI
D All, except III and V
10. Most of Canada's oil is drilled B geothermal power
A on the shores of the Hudson Bay C solar energy
B in the North-west Territory D power harnessed from the rising
C around the St. Lawrence-Great tides
Lakes region
D in the Alberta province 16. Of the following statements of com-
parison between hydro and thermal
n. The most convenient and economic-
electricity, which one is least accepr
al way of bulk transportation of oil
able?
A The world consumes more hydro
in most places is by
than thermal electricity.
A pipelines B The output capacity of a hydro
B tankers plant is greater than a thermal
C oil trucks plant
D tank wagons C It costs more to maintain a ther-
mal plant than a hydro plant
t2. The greatest quantity of crude oil is D Thermal plants are more labour
transported between intensive than hydro plants

7. The following lists the different

A Nigeria and Mediterranean
Europe 17. Of the following types of coal which
types of coal. Which list gives the
B the Middle East and Westerri is most extensively used in indus-
coal type in an increasing order of
Europe tries?
carbon content?
C the Persian Gulf and the U.S.A. A peat
A peat, lignite, bituminous, anthra-
B lignite
cite
D Venezuela and the Far East
C bituminous
B lignite, peat, anthracite. bitumi-
D anthracite
nous 13. The increase in oil piices around the
C bituminous. anthracite, peat, lig- world has resulted in the following 18. The quality and price of coal are de-
nite except pendent on the following factors
D anthracite, bituminous, lignite, A higher prices for manufactured except
peat goods A its carbon content
B greater wealth for the oil nations B its specific gravity
C world wide inflation C the amount of moisture present
8. In modern industries the use of coal D increased international goodwill D the amount of impurities present
as a fuel has declined sharply in
popularity mainly because 19. Oil tankers today are increasing in
t4 Thermal electricity generating plants
A it is not easily available are mainly located
size because
B it is very expensive fuel A in regions of strong relief
A there is no risk in fire
C it does not yield any industrial B in densely populated urban dis-
B they sail the high seas
by-products C they can carry other cargoes
tncts
D other alternate fuels are more besides oil
C where the annual rainfall is heavy
D it has a lower operation cost per
efficient and well distributed
unit of oil transported
D away from metropolitan areas to
9. Which of the following is not a ma- minimize air pollution 20. The greatest advantage of hydro-
jor use of coal? electricity over other fuels is that
A generatingelectricity 15 Apart from hydro-electric power, A it is free
B raising steam power another important source of energy B it is inexhaustible
C fuelling rockets into space in the North Island of New Zealand C it can be transported across
D the manufacture of chemical pro- is national frontiers
ducts A nuclear power D it can be generated anyrrhere.

277
Chapter 28 Manufacturing Industry and
The lron and Steel Industry
The Rise of Manufacturing Industry
Man's universal demand for food, clothing, shelter
and other comforts of life has prompted the creation
of many new things. Foods are preserved or canned
to last longer. Modern homes have telephones, tel-
evision sets, refrigerators, washing machines and
other luxuries. Few people ever realize that all these
changes have come about only within the last 200
years, beginning with the Industrial -Revolution of
the eighteenth century. Two great developments,
the burning of coal for steam power and the smelting
of iron to make steel, have ushered in a new phase
in human history, the age of science and technology.
A host of raw materials such as cotton, timber, rub-
ber, copper, bauxite and limestone can be converted
into manufactured goods of great utility like shirts,
paper, tyres, copper wire, aluminium and cement.
The work of domestic craftsmen has been taken over
Fig. 28.1 The major industrial regions of the world
231's
-----r.i-----
t
I
-T-
I
I
by highly complicated machines. Village workshops
were forced out of business and in their place were
established factories. The manufacturing industries
penetrate deeply into the life of everybody.
The industrial growth was greatest in Western
Europe and North America. It is spreading fast into
other continents and to the less developed countries.
The increase in the population of industrial workers
and the greater productivity of each worker have
increased the annual output of manufactured prod-
ucts many times. Through greater automation and
standardized mass-production, industrial expansion
seems likely to go on and on. Fig. 28.1 shows the
chief manufacturing regions of the world.
Groups of Industries
The range and complexity of modern manufacturing
industries are so great that it is by no means easy to
Principal manufacturing areas
Lesser manufacturing regions
278
 28.A A clothing factory in Singapore. Many layers of cloth
are cut out simultaneously to speed production. Ministry of
Culture, Singapore
classify them but most of them fall into the following
eight groups.
l. Iron and steel industry. The iron and steel indus-
try forms the basis of all the ferrous metallurgical in-
dustries. It is the mast important of all industries
known. Without the steel bars, blooms, billets, slabs
and wires supplied by the iron and steel mills, other
industries cannot survive. The existence and pros-
perity of the automobile industry, metallurgical
industry, shipbuilding and aircraft industry and the
mineral extracting industry is directly linked to that
of the iron and steel industry.
2. Fuel and power industry. This branch of industry
deals entirely with the generation, extraction or
refining of the various sources of power: steam
power (mainly from coal), hydro-electricity (from
falling water), thermal electricity (from burning
other fuels), petrol and oil (from the refining of
petroleum). In addition to these are natural gas and
nuclear power.
3. Mineral extracting industry. This includes the
concentration, smelting and alloying of minerals and
the smelting of non-ferrous metals, e.g. copper, tin,
aluminium, lead, zinc and their alloyed metals such
as brass and bronze; also that of ferrous metals, e.g.
iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, tungsten,
cobalt, vanadium, molybdenum and others.
4. Metallurgical industry. This section refers to
machinery, instruments, equipment and tools that
are manufactured from metals. It includes iron and
279
steelworks, mechanical engineering, electrical engi-
neering, shipbuilding, locomotives, automobiles,
aircraft and cutlery.
5. Chemicals industry. This is the production and
development of a chain of scientifically devised
materials of a highly specialized nature and is
encroaching into almost every branch of industry.
Some of the most important products of this branch
of industry include: acids, alkalis, gases, dye-stuffs,
soap, paints, varnishes, solvents, detergents, fertil-
izers, insecticides, pharmaceuticals (drugs and medi-
cines), glass, plastics, paper and pulp, synthetic fibres
and synthetic oils.
6. Textiles. This is one of the oldest and the most
widespread industries. It is the spinning and weaving
of textile materials from cotton, wool, flax (linen),
silk, jute, hemp and hairs. The existing textile
centres have also developed artificial fibres from syn-
thetic or nitrogenous materials, e.g. rayon, nylon,
dacron, teteron, terylene, perlon (Plate 28.A).
7. Food processing industry. This is the preparation
of foodstuffs for human consumption from both
animal and vegetative sources and includes flour
milling, oil milling, sugar refining, meat packing,
brewing, confectionery as well as the canning, bot-
tling, preservation and preparation of a whole
range of foodstuffs like fish, fruits, vetetables, bev-
erages, spices, breakfast cereals and other products.
8. Rest of the consumer goods industries. This
branch loosely covers all the rest of the manufac-
 . lehnologY
. Irbour torca
I politicsl stability
. sta
. climate
. hittorical etc.
ara
. land
a lta
Fig.2a.2 Factors of industrial location
tured goods consumed or used by Man. They include
miscellaneous industries such as footwear, furniture,
pottery and porcelain, printing, cement, toys, cos-
metics, jewellery and other luxury goods.
Factors of Industrial Location
Many factors may play a role in deciding where
industries should be located and it is never easy to
pin-point them all. An industrialist who sets out to
locate a site for his factory will have to assess, to the
best of his ability, the various forces that may influ-
ence his investment. Basically, the production fac-
tors, raw materials, power and human resources,
merit his greatest attention. A good network of
transport enables all the production factors to be
assembled at his factory site at the lowest possible
cost. But unless there is a demand for his goods, all
the other advantages will serve no purpose. The
location of the site in relation to the entire trading
zone and, above all, the period of time when the
enterprise was undertaken also affect industrial
location. No single factor decides the location
and the growth of an industry. The factors are com-
plementary, reacting upon one another in a complex
fashion. Very often the advantage of one factor is
offset by the disadvantage of another. For instance
an abundant, cheap labour force may be offset by
280
low output and inefficiency, or by high transport
costs, or by high unavailability of certain vital raw
materials. It is never easy to secure an ideal site. The
entrepreneur simply has to make the best use of
whatever factors are at his disposal.
The following are the various factors that are nor-
mally considered in the location of an industry
(Fig. 28.2).
1. Raw materials. Raw materials are the basic
requirements of any manufacturing industry. No fac-
tory can turn out goods unless it has some raw
materials to begin with. They may be in the form of
metals, ores, rocks, cereals, fibres, beverages or any
other economic product. Before the development of
an adequate system of roads, rhilways, waterways,
sea and air routes, industries were very localized,
depending to a great extent on the availability of
local raw materials. The pencil-making industry of
Keswick in the Lake District owed its existence to
the availability of local graphite and timber. On a
larger scale, the cotton textile industry of Bombay
was based, and is still dependent, on the supply of
raw cotton from the Deccan cotton fields. The tim-
ber and paper industry of Canada relies entirely on
its temperate forests. This avoids the unnecessary
transport of waste materials, e.g. sawn timber makes
up less than 40 per cent of wood in a log, the rest
being mainly waste.
Modern industries require a wide variety of raw
materials and not all of them are available on the
spot, imports are necessary. For example, the iron
and steel industry requires iron ore, coke and flux
and ferro-alloys such as manganese, nickel and chro-
mium. The Ruhr district of West Germany has abun-
dant coal and limestone (used for flux) but nowadays
has little iron. It imports the iron from Sweden, and
the other ferro-alloys from all over the world. It is
not true to say that without local raw materials,
industries will not prosper. Britain has no cotton and
yet she has been a leading exporter of cotton textiles
since the nineteenth century.
2. Power or fuel. If you look at the world's indus-
trial areas, shown in Fig. 28.1, you will realize that
the greatest concentration is around the major coal-
fields. This can be easily explained. As industries
began with the Industrial Revolution, when coal was
the only available fuel to generate steam power to
run the machinery, industrial sites had to be located
at or near the coalfields. Furthermore. the fuel effi-
ciency was extremely low at that time requiring
something like twelve tonnes of coal to smelt one
tonne of iron ore. The pull of a coalfield as an indus-
trial location factor was indisputable! In fact, almost
all the major industrial areas of the world are based
on coalfields, e.g. the Ruhr, Pittsburgh, Midlands,
Donbas, Kuzbas, Jamshedpur, Sydney and many
others.
With the improvement made in fuel efficiency
today, requiring only one tonne of coal to smelt one
tonne of iron ore, it matters very little whether iron
is brought to coalfields or coal to iron fields but
industry remains in the coalfield areas where it was
first established.
Its great bulk, its higher transport cost and its
lower energy output, have all contributed to the
declining importance of coal as a fuel. But its use is
still of economic significance. Coal is still burnt to
power steam turbines, to generate thermal electric-
ity or as a source of coke for smelting. Useful by-
products from the coke ovens, e.g. gas, benzole,
coal-tar for dyestuffs, ammonium sulphate for fer-
tilizers and for manufacturing nylon are also impor-
tant.
The most economical form of power is electricity
both thermal and hydro. It is clean, efficient, and
can be easily transmitted. Modern industrial plants
are run by electricity, but because it is easily trans-
mitted from place to place it is rarely a significant
control over industrial location. In some cases, how-
ever, it is important. For instance, the siting of
aluminium smelting plants relies to a large extent on
281
the supply of cheap and abundant hydro-electric
power as at Odda in Norway and Kitimat in British
Columbia.
Though petroleum is extensively used in industries
as a form of power, it is seldom a factor of location.
The Middle East, Venezuela and many other petro-
leum drilling areas have few manufacturing indus-
tries. There are, however, industries at the exporting
ports or importing ports where the products of oil
refining give rise to petrochemicals and allied indus-
tries.
Other sources of power such as natural gas, solar
and nuclear power are used only in the very
advanced nations. When their extraction and control
is perfected on a commercial scale, they may be a
decisive factor in the location of future industrial
areas.
3. Transport. The function of transport is to move
raw materials to industrial sites and to convey the
finished products to the consuming districts. Bulky
goods like coal, iron, timber, grains and heavy
machinery are most economically conveyed by
waterways. Rivers and canals have long been
regarded as a vital link between the 'maker' and
'user' of consumer goods. The Rhine and its asso-
ciated canal system serve the industrial districts of
three European nations-Switzerland, West Ger-
many and the Netherlands. In North America, the
St. Lawrence-Great Lakes waterway links the Atlan-
tic with the interior. The two-way transport of coal
and iron ore between the Pittsburgh district and the
Lake Superior region enables the most advanta-
geous load-coefficient to be attained. If you look at
a world map you will see that many of the major
industrial regions have a coastal location, which
facilitates the import and export of bulky goods by
sea, e.g. Merseyside (Liverpool), Clydeside (Glas-
gow), Hamburg, Genoa, New York, San Francisco,
Tokyo-Yokohama, Sydney and many others. Where
expensive overland routes by road or rail add appre-
ciably to the cost of production as in the case of
Switzerland, people tend to specialize in high grade
articles that are less bulky but fetch a higher price.
The greater mobility of inland motor transport has
resulted in the decentralization of many industries.
Lack of an adequate network of communications has
prevented large areas of the tropics from being
developed.
4. Markets. Economic production is based entirely
on demand. Unless there is a promise of reward in
monetary terms, industrialists will hesitate to invest,
no matter how eood is the location. Industrial
regions are therefore established near consuming
areas, where there is a heavy concentration of peo-
ple, even when raw materials and other factors are
unfavourable. The densely populated regions of
Western Europe and North America are thus impor-
tant industrial areas as well. Their high per capita
income creates great demand for consumer goods of
any kind. But dense population alone, without the
necessary purchasing power need not constitute a
market at all. Countries like China, Indo-Pakistan
and Indonesia, which are densely peopled, do not
have a proportionate amount of industrial develop-
ment.
5. Human resources. This comprises the inventor,
the manager and the worker. A successful industrial
undertaking makes use of the various machines
devised by scientists, technologists and inventors.
Researches are carried out all the time to improve
the productivity and elficiency of existing means
of production. Human ingenuity and inventive re-
sourcefulness have made it possible for highly com-
plex plants to be machine-operated in almost any
geographical environment. Withoui the techno-
logical skill of such people, industrial development
could not have taken place.
Factories are run by people and the numbers
ngededare determinedbythesizeofthe factory.Three
u$""t. of labour have to be considered, its availa-
bility, capability and reward. In the past when
machines were smaller and less complicated, a large
number of factory hands were needed to operate
them. Many stages in processing. e.g. sorting or
28.8 A car assembly line in Britain Standard Triumph
282
packing, were done by hand. This required a large,
cheap but relatively unskilled labour force. But con-
ditions today are quite different. Large, sophisti-
cated machines can be managed by only a few,
skilled workers. More and more production stages
are being mechanized. But this has not resulted in
any decline of production. It has, on the contrary,
increased the annual output. It is useful to remem-
ber that a cheap and abundant labour force is not
always a locational advantage, unless the labour is
also efficient. In the light industries, where a little
factory knowledge is preferred, semi-skilled labour-
ers are employed. Women are normally engaged in
jobs that are repetitive in nature. In the field of
highly specialized industries such as diamond-cutting
and the making of precision instruments, the skill
and experience of workers are the most important
factors. The Swiss are craftsmen whose inherited
skill and aptitude for watch-making and other fields
of engineering are outstanding. Such specialized
industries are often very localized.
The availability of labour and technology is of lit-
tle significance unless they can be put to good use.
The entrepreneur's role is to coordinate such factors
with various others that he encounters in his day-to-
day administration. With foresight and careful plan-
ning, he will be able to forge ahead and achieve his
goals. But in many instances, bad management will
wreck an entire organization even with the best of
the locational factors.
6. Capital. For the inception and continuance of an
industry, capital is indispensable. Whether it be a
private or a joint-stock company, unless the enter-
prise is financially sound, there will be no prospects
for the firm. Fortunately capital is a very mobile
factor. Where the industrial potential is good, even
in adverse geographical areas, financiers will invest.
In the desert of Chile are copper smelting and ni-
trate extracting industries. Tin is mined in the
Andean highlands at a height of over 3 660 metres
(12,000 feet). Water and provisions are brought in
daily from Perth to the gold mines at Kalgoorlie
and Murchison in the Australian Desert more than
560 km (350 miles) away. All these are evidences of
the great mobility of capital. It is not an exaggera-
tion to state that the majority of the tropical planta-
tions, mines and large firms are in the hands of
foreigners, because these are the people who have
capital.
7. Other factors. A close examination of some the
world's minor industrial areas will reveal that several
other local factors have influenced industrial loca-
tion. These complex factors may be physical, social,
political, or historical. A natural site such as a shel-
tered coast ora strategic junction, may be the key
factor to a certain factory siting. A stimulating cli-
mate like that of the temperate zone is much more
comfortable to work in than that of the tropics. The
on-shore Westerlies were partly responsible for the
rise of the Lancashire cotton textiles industry
because a humid atmosphere is conducive for cotton
spinning. The invention of artificial humidifiers has
since offset the advantage. A stable government pro-
vides the right climate for foreign investment. Sin-
gapore is striving to do this. Disturbances caused by
Red Guards in Hong Kong and political conflict in
mainland China caused many international investors
to divert their capital from Hong Kong for a time
though this setback has now been overcome. Bang-
ladesh will feel the effects of its civil war for much
longer. The confidence of overseas investors will
have to be restored.
In many countries, the government has found it
necessary to intervene in the location of industries,
for political, economic or military reasons. In the
U.S.S.R., a dispersed pattern of industrial location
was established, in the belief that 'putting all the
eggs in one basket' is far too risky. Her development
of the Trans-Ural and Kuznets (Kuzbas) industrial
districts was aimed at further decentralization of her
industries. Efforts made in industrial development
by the T.V.A. (Tennessee Valley Authority) in the
United States are part of the scheme to rehabilitate
this 'most depressed area' of America. Similar
283
attempts are being made in the United Kingdom to
encourage industrial undertakings in the depressed
'Development Areast, such as the north-west. As an
inducement to potential investors, very favourable
terms are being offered, such as lower local rates,
low-cost lands, interest-free loans, government
assistance and other preferential treatment.
Whatever advantages and industrial site may
enjoy, there is no guarantee that the advantage will
be permanent. New highways may divert much of
the traffic; a previous unorganized labour force may
suddenly be unionized as in Japan; local rates may
be increased; revised factory legislation may double
the cost of production; elections may return a new
government, and so forth. The world is changing so
quickly that an advantage at one time may not be so
by the turn of the century. There is always risk in
business and one must be very subjective when
analysing the factors that affect industrial location
at any one time. And yet we have seen that although
coal is no longer as important a location factor as it
was, coalfields are still the main industrial areas.
This is partly because a supply of skilled labour has
been built up, thus offsetting some other disadvan-
tages, and partly because of the huge expense
involved in setting up new lines of communications,
workshops, and homes for factory workers in new
sites with locational advantages. When industries
stay in traditional sites in this way, it is called indus-
trial inertia.
The lron and Steel Industry
NATURE, PROPERTIES AND USES
Iron is the commonest, cheapest, and most versatile
of all metals. It is, in fact, the basrs of the modern
industrial complex. About 90 per cent of the world's
iron ore is used in the making of steel. A host of
secondary industries are based on iron and steel,
including mechanical, constructional and electrical
engineering, shipbuilding, the making of rails, auto-
mobiles, aircraft, bridges, machines and other
equipment. Its magnetic properties make it indis-
pensable in electrical engineering where it consti
tutes an-essential part of the dynamo, the motor,
telephone, telegraph, radio and other electrical
appliances. It has a high ductility and can be drawn
into bars or wires of varying sizes without snapping.
Besides its great strength and toughness it is also
elastic and can withstand great stresses without any
appreciable distortion. When alloyed with other

28.C Open-cast iron ore mining in Minnesota Servizio Edi-
toriale Fotografico
metals such as nickel and chromium, it has increased
resistance to heat, shock and abrasion. These are
useful properties in making tools, machine parts,
springs and stainless steel.
Types of lron Ore
Generally speaking, the world's principal sources of
iron ores belong to one of the following kinds.
1. Magnetite. It has the richest metallic iron content
(70 per cent) with high magnetic qualities, excellent
for the electrical industry. It is mainly from igneouS
rocks and is black in colour. The Swedish iron fields
at Kiruna have some of the world's best magnetite
iron ores.
2. Haematite. Another high grade iron ore with a
metallic content of 50 to 65 per cent. It is mainly
from sedimentary sources and is reddish in appear-
ance. Most of the iron from the Lake Superior
region is haematite.
3. Limonite. The commonest of the commercially
workable iron ores. Its metallic content is less than
50 per cent and it is heavily charged with impurities.
It is brown in colour and is formed by the decom-
position of other iron-bearing minerals. It is some-
times called 'bog, iron ore' as it occurs in lakes and
swamps.
4. Siderite. One of the low grade iron ores with a
metallic content of between 20 and 30 per cent. It
is a residual ore deposited as a sediment when other
rock materials have been eroded and carried away.
There are important deposits of siderite ore in the
Cleveland Hills and around Scunthorpe in England
and in Lorraine, France where the ore contains
high proportion of phosphorus.
The properties of lron and Steel
Iron and steel, which form the basis of ferrous metal-
lurgical industries, are of the greatest importance in
modern industry because they are capable ofvery exten-
sive application. Their important properties are summa-
rized below:
l. Great strength and toughness. Iron and steel being
so strong and tough are indispensable in modern con-
structional and mechanical engineering industries.
2. Great elasticity. Steel can withstand great stress and
strain without appreciable distortion and is excellent for
making machines and transporting vehicles.
3. High ductility. Steel can be drawn into bars, tubes,
wires or plates without snapping. It is thus very useful
for making machine parts and tools.
4. Cheap metal. It is because iron is so common that
steel is so cheap. Its price is only fi that of tin.
5. Ease of production. Iron-ore when processed with
coke and limestone in blast furnaces can easily be made
into steel of many different quatties.
6. Alloyability. Iron when alloyed with other ferro-
metals gives rise to a wide range of steel which is suitable
for a variety of industrial purposes. It can be alloyed
with each of the following minerals with the following
results.
(a) With manganese, iron becomes tougher and is
very good for the manufacture of steam rollers.
(b) With vanadium, iron becomes highly resilient and
is excellent for making springs.
(c) With chromium, iron is able to retard rusting, as
in stainless steel, which is used for the manufacture of
cutlery.
(d) Mth cobalt, the magnetic qualities of iron are
improved. This is useful for making high-speed cut-
ting tools.
(e) With nickel, iron becomes tougher and more
ductile. The alloy is used for making armour plating.
(f) With tungsten, the melting-point of iron is raised.
This is useful for the manufacture of cutting tools.
(g) With copper, the resistance of iron to corrosion is
increased. This is useful for the manufacture of rail-
way sleepers and steel sheets.
(h) With molybdenum, the high temperature strength
of iron is raised. This is excellent for the manufacture
of rifle barrels and propeller shafts.
The making of different types
of lron and Steel
l. The essential ingredients for the manufacture of
a iron and steel are: iron-ore, coke and limestone. They
are smelted in a blast furnace at a temperature of over
284
I 650"C (3,000"F.). The sxygen in the ore and the
carbon in the coke ombine to form a gas (oxide of
carbon) while the impurities in the ore combine with the
limestone to form slag. The molten iron is then drawn
off from the furnace base and led into moulds to solidify
as pig iron which has a carbon content of 34Vo.
2. From the pig iron the following iron products are
obtained as a result of further processing.
(a) Cast iron is made by reheating the pig iron with
steel scrap and then pouring the heated material into
sand or metal moulds. It contains impurities and is
brittle, e.g. cast iron lamp post whicli snaps under
pressure.
(b) Wrought iron is made by re-smelting pig iron and
removing the impurities and carbon by the puddling
process. It is strong and tough and resists rust. It is
expensive too and is used for making ornamental
gates and fences.
(c) Steel is made by reheating pig iron in converters
to remove the impurities and adding in controlled
amounts of carbon (0.3 to 2.2%) and ferro-alloys,
e.g. manganese, vanadium, chromium, cobalt, nickel,
tungpten, molybdenum, etc.
o
N
!
3
(o
o
Fig. 28.3 A typical blast furnace
28s
Methods of Steel making
There are several methods of making steel. These are
as follows:
l. The Bessemer acid process. The Bessemer process
was first invented by an Englishman named Henry Bes-
semer in 1856. The converter with acid-lining bricks and
with a perforated base as shown in Figure 28.4 is filled
with molten pig iron, into which air is blown to remove
the impurities. Controlled amounts of carbon and alloy-
ing metals are then added at the mouth of the converter.
Within 20-30 minutes the process is completed, the
converter is tilted and the molten steel is porjred into
ingots or used to make slabs and billets.
2. The basic Bessemer process (Gilchrist-Thomas
Method). The original Bessemer process does not re-
move the phosphorus impurities from pig iron. In 1878
the Gilchrist-Thomas process was invented. In this pro-
cess tlere is a basic lining of bricks in the converter,
capable of effectively removing the phosphorus and
sulphur impurities in pig iron. This method enables large
quantities of phosphorus-rich iron-ore to be smelted.
3. The open-hearth prooess (Martin-Siemens Method).
In this method, pig iron lies in a shallow, saucer-shaped
pool as shown in Figure 28.5 and is heated from above
by a powerful flame of pre-heated air at a temperature of
I 650'C (3,000'F.). The bumt gases escape to the regen-
erators to be found on both sides of the furnace. The
process is slow and.takes about 12 hours to complete.
smoke and flames due
' to burning up
' of impurities
impurities
molten
pig iron
Fig.28.4 The Bessemer Converter

Fig.28.5 The open-hearth furnace
But it enables high quality steel to be produced and
it also makes use of scrap iron. Most British stainless
steel is made by this process.
4. The electric furnace. This is the most effective
but also the most expensive way of making very high
quality steel. This is an electrolytic process con-
trolled by the graphite-made electrodes. The current
passes through the molten iron with no contamina-
tion whatsoever. About 15% of Britain's steel is
made in electric furnaces.
5. The oxygen process. In highly advanced coun-
tries the oxygen process is employed to make high
quality steel. A high pressure jet of oxygen (instead
of just air) is blown through the molten iron in the
converter as in the Bessemer process to make excel-
lent steel. The process takes only an hour. It is a
Fig. 28.6 World distribution
of steel production
286
quick and cheap way of making steel. Seventy-five
per cent of Japan's steel is made by the oxygen
process.
Factors affecting the location
of the lron and Steel industrY
Figure 28.6 shows the world's major steel-making
areas. The most important areas are located in West-
ern Europe and north-east U.S.A. and Japan. There
are many factors which influence their location in
these areas. The chief factors are set out below.
1. Raw materials. The availability of pig iron scrap
which is most abundant in heavily populated indust-
rial areas, e.g. Britain and Japan.
2. Fuel. Coal used to be the major fuel pull for
British iron and steel areas and this was also true of
most European countries. The availability of cheap
hydro-electric power in Sweden, Switzerland, Japan
and the U.S.S.R. (the Dnieper River Scheme) has
influenced the siting of iron and steel mills in these
areas.
3. Water. As 293 cu. m (65,000 gallons) are re-
quired to produce 1 ton of steel, a wet-point location
is a great advantage for steel sites, e.g. Chicago,
Gary, Cleveland, Buffalo and Hamilton on the St.
Lawrence-Great Lakes region are some of the
greatest steel cities of the world.
4. Transport. As the raw materials for steel mak-
. major steel-producing districts
ing as well as the finished steel itself are all very bul-
ky, cheap transport is vital in deciding the location.
The Labrador ores of Canada come through the St.
Lawrence-Great Lakes Waterway to the steel mills
of the Lakeside industrial region. Similarly, the
Rhine transports most of the ore and steel output of
the Ruhr industrial region. Most of the steel mills
of Japan and Australia have coastal locations,
e.g. Yokohama, Kobe, Nagoya, Yawata (Japan);
Sydney, Port Kembla, Whyalla and Newcastle
(Australia).
5. Market. The steel mills are usually found in
large industrial districts which have other related in-
dustries, e.g. machinery, automobiles, locomotives
and electrical engineering to absorb the finished
steel and their by-products. The large population
also forms the market for consuming the various
products made by the mills and factories.
6. Capital. A large capital is required to initiate
and maintain the iron and steel mills. The acquisi-
tion of a site which might cover 10 sq. km (4 sq.
miles) for an integrated mill (i.e. those that combine
the smelting of ores in blast furnaces, the making of
steel and some finished products like steel sheets,
pipes and girders) may run to millions of dollars.
Some of the world's largest corporations are iron
and steel corporations, e.g. the giant United States
Steel Corporation in Pittsburgh and the Tata Iron
and Steei Company (TISCO) in Jamshedpur. In the
U.S.S.R. and China, the iron and steel plants are
state-owned and they are dispersed for strategic
reasons.
7. Human resources. Large iron and steel corpora-
tions are managed by entrepreneurs possessing great
experience and skill. The mills are supervised by
qualified engineers and worked by skilled operators.
This is clearly evident in the industrialized countries
where the iron and steel industry is best developed.
The developing nations lag behind in this branch of
industry because of the lack of industrial personnel
and technical know-how. The few that have some
steel output have had their machines installed and
manned by foreigners or the plants are the result of
joint ventures involving local and foreign capital and
personnel.
The changing locations of the
World's lron and Steel industrY
The changing technology in the smelting, refining
and working of iron-ore and economic and political
considerations have been the main factors determin-
287
ing changes in the sites of the iron and steel industry.
The progressive changes in the location of the sites
over time and the reasons for the changes are set out
below.
1. Near forests and hills. In the early fifteenth cen-
tury when Man first knew how to make iron from ore
deposits, the basic requirements were wood, wind
and water. Scattered iron-making yards were near
forest edges where wood and charcoal were readily
available. Hillside positions were an advantage as
the downslope wind provided the 'blast' in the bel-
lows to smelt the ore. Rainfall, lakes and rivers pro-
vided the water.
2. Movement to the coalfields. In the eighteenth
century when coal and coke were increasingly used
to smelt iron, the movement was towards the
coalfield. The development of the blast furnace ex-
panded the iron and steel industry tremendously.
Since 8 tons of coal were needed to smelt 1 ton of
iron in those days, it was naturally cheaper and more
convenient to transport the ore to the coalfields. The
world's largest iron and steel sites in this period were
located at or near coalfields, e.g. in Britain the Ruhr
region, Belgium, Pittsburgh (the U.S.A.), Donbas
and Kuzbas (U.S.S.R.), etc.
3. Movement to ore-fields. By the late nineteenth
century when smelting techniques had greatly im-
proved (when only 1 ton of coal was required to
smelt 1 ton of iron-ore) the pull by coalfields no lon-
ger existed. Many steel mills sprang up in ore-fields,
e.g. in Luxembourg, Lorraine, France, Cleveland
Hills and Scunthorpe, north-east England, the Urals
of the U.S.S.R. and Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
4. Coastal locations. By the twentieth century
many of the traditional ore-fields had become ex-
hausted and remote ore-fields, e.g. Labrador, Cana-
da, had to be mined to supply the ore. The cost of
transportation, especially of bulky ores and finished
steel, became vital considerations. A coastal loca-
tion, i.e. along sea-coasts, rivers and lakes is an
advantage, and many of the newest iron and steel
mills are located near the coast, e.g. Fairless and
Sparrows Point, U.S.A.; Cleveland, Detroit and
Chicago on the shores of the St. Lawrence-Great
Lakes; Margam and Newport of coastal south
Wales.
5. Political and strategic considerations. Some gov-
ernments prefer a dispersed pattern of location for
their major industries. In the U.S.S.R. in order to
avoid over-concentration of industries in Moscow
and the Black Sea shoreland, and to develop the in-
terior of Siberia, iron and steel works were iet up in
 6 4

{l
E
v .', uRlLs KU.ZNETSKY

CLEVEL i:'.i' .
ROG MAGNITOGORSK

ORE i . *e$["^"i':
BIL

NEV

t'r
OERRO

MARCONA

. major ironore areas

Fig.28.7 World distribution of iron ore

the Urals using the ores of Sverdlovsk and Magnito-
gorsk. Coal is brought 2250km (1,350 miles) from
the Kuzbas Coalfield in Central Siberia. In return.
ore is transported to Kuzbas for the manufacture of
steel. In Brazll, steel mills were set up at Belo Hori-
zonte, making use of local ore and coke and im-
ported alloy metals to attract investors
mineral-rich district of Minas Gerais.
World production and distribution of
lron and Steel
Two countries, the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. are
leading producers in both iron ore and steel.
The U.S.S.R. leads the world in both iron ore pro-
duction (27 per cent) and steel production (22 per
cent in 1977) (see Fig. 28.11). Its greatest single
iron field is at Krivoi Rog to the north of the
Black Sea. Much smelting and steel production is
done in the Donetz Basin. Iron ore is also mined in
the Kerch Peninsula with steelworks on the shores
of the Sea of Azov. Other iron and steel areas
to this include Magnitogosrk (magnetite iron), Nizhny
Tagil and Ivdel of the Urals, and the Kuznetz basin
in Siberia (Fig.28.7).
The United States accounted for 17 per cent of
the world's crude steel and 7 per cent of iron ore in
1977 (Fig. 28.11). The iron ore deposits in the Mesabi
Hills south-west of Lake Superior were once all
important, but are now being exhausted. The major
steel areas are in Pittsburgh, and the Great Lakes
region stretching from Chicago to Detroit and Buf-

Fig. 28.8 Flow Chart showing the manufacturing of steel

structural
sh!p6

H€arth sneets
-;?
-_l;T 6.fQ *',.
Basic Oxyg6n

tric Furnace €Le::l;ili;.","."

288
 now imported from fields in Labrador, Canada and
from Brazil, Venezuela and Liberia.
After the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. the other iron
and steel areas are mostly in Europe including West
Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Sweden,
Italy, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia. Their
respective output of iron and steel are shown in the
table in Fig. 28.11(a) and (b)
In Europe, there is far more coal than iron. The
French iron and steel industry in the north-eastern
industrial district depends on local Lorraine iron ore
and coal from the Franco-Belgian coalfield.
Some ore is available from Sweden and Mauritania
and is used in the steelworks in Dunkirk. The
Fig. 28.9 The iron and steel industry of the Ukraine region greatest iron and steel centre of Germany is in the
Ruhr region where the imported iron ore from Lux-
embourg and Sweden is smelted with excellent cok-
ing coal from the Ruhr Coalfield. In Scandinavia are
high quality haematite and magnetite iron ore
depoSits at Kiruna and Gallivare, Lapland and in the
Swedish Lake Depression. Much of the iron is used
locally at Stockholm and Eskilstuna, with imported
coke from Germany and Britain for making steel.
Of the major steel producers Britain has least iron,
mainly low grade siderite ores of the Jurassic rocks

Major iron ore producers by percentage

of world total,1977

Vo Vo

u.s.s.R. 27 Canada 7
Australia 12 India 5.5
Brazil t2 S. Africa J
U.S.A. 7 Sweden
China 7 Liberia 2.5
France 2

Fig.28.11(a) Major iron ore producers by percentage of

PH Philadelphia world total, '1977 U.N. Statistical yearbook.
! steel centre P Pittsburgh
lron ore HA Hamilton Fig. 28.11(b) Major steel producers by percentage of world
..- U.S.A. 10% steel East sea total U.N. Statistical Yearbook 1977
-I Coal
board
,41t iron ore 33% Great Lakes
tul producing areas 33% Pitrsburgh
B Bethlehem
C Cleveland Canada 80% Lakeside
SP Sparrows Point Sault St. Marie
Y Younqstown Hamilton

Fig.28.10 The iron and steel industry of north-eastern

u.s.A.

falo; the Eastern Atlantic States centred at Phila- q{EaEi9t?:€:EE

ao. FP:s ji:;Eg;
1r-! ;E
delphia and Baltimore (Fig. 28.10); the south-east, -o*6"36 "
centred at Birmingham (Albama) and west, in Fon-
tana (Los Angeles) and San Francisco. Much ore is
=! o

289
from the Cleveland Hills, Lincolnshire and Nor-
thamptonshire. Much has to be imported from Swe-
den, Spain (from the Cantabrian Mountains) and
France, to be smelted with local coking coal. There
are iron and steelworks in Northamptonshire, South
Wales, Middlesborough and the Central valley of
Scotland.
Japan, the most industrialized country in Asia
accounts for 15 per cent of the world's steel produc-
tion. It depends on imported ore from the Philip-
pines, Australia, and till quite recently from
Peninsular Malaysia too (from Bukit Besi, Kuala
Dungun and Ulu Rompin). Japan's own iron ore,
mined at Kamaishi and Kutchan, hardly supplies a
tenth of her industrial needs. Much scrap iron is used
to supplement her deficiency in the ore.
India produces 5.5 per cent of the world's iron ore
(mainly haematite) from her outcrops in Bihar and
Orissa. This area also contains India's large-scale
iron and steelworks at Jamshedpur, Durgapur,
Rourkela and Bhilai. China's iron ore deposits (7
per cent) are located at Anshan, Manchuria; Daye
(Tayeh), Hebei (Hopei) where Wuhan (Wuchang,
Hanyang and Hankou/Hankow) is the leading iron
and steel district. New areas are also increasing pro-
duction, e.g. Baotou (Paotow) in Inner Mongolia,
Taiyuan in Shanxi (Shansi) and Chongqing
(Chungking) in Sichuan (Szechwan).
The southern continents have rich deposits of iron
ore but make little steel. Australia's iron ore are at
Mt. Tom Price, Iron Knob, Yampi Sound and there
are steelworks at Whyalla, Newcastle and Port Kem-
bla. Australia is self-sufficient in iron and steel.
There are large iron ore deposits in Itabira, Brazil
in the mineral-rich Minas Gerais district. There are
steelworks at Volta Redonda and Belo Horizonte.
There are also rich ore deposits in the south of Ven-
ezuela. Africa is rich in iron ore but has little coal.
High grade deposits are being exploited in Liberia
and Mauritania. Vereeniging in South Africa, is the
centre of the iron and steel industrv.
Major lron and Steel areas
of the world
l. The world's three greatest steel producers are: the
U.S.A. (24%), the U.S.S.R. (22%) urd Japan (13%). West
Germury accounts for 8% while the United Kingdom
accounts for 5%. France, Italy and China e4ch accounts
for about 3%. Some steel also comes from Belgium,
Poland, Czechoslovakia and Canada(2Vo each).
290
2. The major iron and steel areas of the producing
countries are as follows:
(a) The United States of America.
(i) The Pittsburgh area ofPennsylvania;
(ii) The lake Michigan area (Chicago and Gary);
(iii) The Lake Erie area (Detroit, Cleveland and Buf-
falo);
(iv) The Atlantic Seaboard @ethlehem, Sparrows
Point and Morrisville);
(v) The Southern Appalachian region (Birmingham).
(b) The Soviet Union.
(i) The Donbas (Donetz) region of the lJkraine
(Krivoi Rog is the largest);
(ii) The Ural region (at Sverlovsk, Magnitogorsk and
Nizhny Tagil);
(iii) The Kuzbas (Kuznetsk) region (uses iron'ore
from the Urals with local coal at the Kuzbas Coal-
field);
(iv) The Karaganda region (Temir Tan is a new iron
and steel town);
(v) Eastern U.S.S.R. (at Komsomolsk).
(c) lilestern Europe.
(i) Britain. North-east England at Middlesborough,
Stockton and Darlington; Lincolnshire at Scunthorpe
and Fordington; the Midlands at Birmingham and
Sheffield; Northamptonshire at Corby; south Wales at
Margam and Port Talbot; also at north Wales and
Lancashire.
(ii) Iltest Germany. The Ruhr region at Essen,
Bochum and Solingen;
(i]d) France. The Lorraine region at Metz and Thion-
ville;
(iv) Belgium. The Franco-Belgian Coallteld region at
Liege and Charleroi;
(v) Luxembozrg. Southern Luxembourg at Esch,
Dudelange and Differdange ;
(vi) Sweden. The Lake Depression region around
Stockholm and Eskilstuna:
(vn) Imly. The industrial triangle of Milan, Turin
and Genoa.
(d\ Asia.
(1) China. Southern Manchuria at Anshan and
Mukden or Shenyang; the Wuhan region (especially
Hankow city); the Szechwan region around Chung-
king and Chengtu; the Shansi-Paotow area at Paotow,
Taiyuan and Tatung.
(ii) India. The Damodar Industrial Region at Janr
shedpur, Durgapur, Rourkela and Bhilai;
(nl Japan. The Keihin Industrial Region at Tokyo,
Yokohama and Chiba; the Hanshin lndustrial Region
at Kobe and Osaka; the Kitakyushu lndustrial Region
around Yawata; also in the isolated cities of Nagoya,
 Chungoku,Muroran and Kamaishi: (ii) South America. In Brazil, at Volta Redonda and
(e) The Southern Continents. Belo Horizonte;
(l) Australasra. In Sydney, Newcastle, Port Kembla 0n) Afnca. In the Republic of'South Afrlca at the
and Whyalla; Witwatenrand area.

Ouestions and Exercises

1. Select three important industrial areas in either Europe or Asia:
(a) Draw large sketch maps to show their location.
(b) Name any two of the industrial towns in each.
(c) State their chief manufactured products.
(d) Explain the industrial growth in any one of them.
2. (a) With the aid of separate sketch maps, locate an example of an iron and steel industry which is
located
(i) on a coalfield;
(ii) on an iron field;
(iii) where neither coal nor iron ore is present.
(b) For any one of the above trace back the factors which have led to their rapid industrial growth.
3. (a) Why is the iron and steel industry considered to be the basis of all industries?
(b) What ferro-alloys are normally used in the manufacture of alloyed steel?
(c) Describe the specific qualities of any one of these alloyed steel.
4. The following are some of the major iron and steel areas of the world:
(a) The Ruhr-Westphalia Area (West Germany);
(b) The Pittsburgtrlake Erie Area (U.S.A.);
(c) The Yokohama-Chiba Area (Japan);
(d) The Newcastle-Port Kembla Area (Australia).
Account for the factors that have led to the growth and importance of the iron and steel industry in
any two of the abgve areas.
5. Write briefly on any two of the following:
(a) The effects of changes in technology on the location of the iron and steel industry.
(b) The world's major iron and steel areas have a coastal location.
(c) Relate the location of iron and steel mills to sources of fuel and raw materials.
(d) Japan has very little iron ore but she is a major producer of steel.

Sample Objective Ouestions

l. The world's iron and steel industries cessed in steel mills till the invention C the Malaysian government re-
are often located where coking coal, of the fuses to sell the ore to Japan
iron ore and limestone are readily A open-hearth process D cheaper ore is available else-
available. This is mainly B electric furnace where
A because these three essential C Gilchrist-Thomas Bessemer pro-
items always occur together cess 4. The coke used in the iron and steel-
B to lessen the transport charges of D oxygen process works comes from
these bulky products A bituminous coal
C because local capital is always 3. Japan used to buy large quantities of B lignite
available in such areas iron ore from Malaysia, but has C gypsum
D because immigrant labour can be stopped doing so recently because D kaolin
attracted to work here -'
" i1.. oT,:1'1.:i":t""XtXt:fiT 5. of the forowing ramous structural
2. In Europe, iron ore with a high con- B Japan's iron and steel industry constructions of the world, select the
tent of phosphorus could not be pro- has been hard hit by the oil crisis one which contains the greatest

291
 amount of iron and steel.
A the Statue of Liberty, New York
B the Eiffel Tower, 'Pans
C the Sydney Harbour Bridge, Syd-
ney
D Buckingham Palace, London
6. The greatest concentration
iron and steel industry is found in
A Mediterranean Europe
B north-east U.S.A.
C coastal China
D New South Wales" Australia
7. The ingredients for making steel are
I iron ore
II aluminium
III coke
IV limestone
V sulphuric acid
VI air
VII water
A All, except II and VI
B All, except III and VII
C All, except II and V
D All, except IV and V
8. The two countries which are not
only major world iron ore produc-
ers, but also lead in the production
of steel are
A the U.S.A. and Japan
B the U.S.S.R. and West Germany
C the United Kingdom and the
U.S.S.R.
D the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.
and some in neither. From the fol- A Ruhr-Westphalia
lowing major iron and steel towns B Kobe-Osaka
select one which is situated in an C Milan-Genoa
iron ore field. D Anshan-Shenyang
A Duluth, U.S.A.
B Birmingham, U.K. 18. Of the following factors which has
C Moscow. U.S.S.R. the greatest influence on the location
of the D Chiba, Japan of the iron and steel industry of
Japan?
12. In recent years. an increasing num- A The availability of skilled workers
ber of iron and steelworks have been B The availability of cheap and
sited in abundant hydro power
A isolated continental interiors C The proximity to local coal and
B coastal districts iron deposits
C the oilfields D The presence of port facilitates
D disused mining land
19. What type of iron ore is abundantly
IJ Of the following iron and steel manu- found in the Karuna resion of
facturing regions, which is most de- Sweden
pendent on imported ores? A magnetite
A Anshan, Manchuria B haematite
B Damodar. India C limonite
C Ruhr, West Germany D siderite
D Ukraine, U.S.S.R.
t4. The bar graph shows four major pro-
20. This map of north-eastern North
ducers of iron orc in 19'77 . Which one
America shows the import of an im-
portant raw material for the iron and
represents that of USSR?
steel industry via the St. Lawrence-
Great Lakes Waterways. It is
A A bituminous coal for coke
B ha*ratite ore for smelting
B
C manganese for alloyed steel
C D limestone as a reducing agent
LABRAOOR
D
La*e$
0 10 20 300/"
Knot

15. A coastal location is preferred for

9. Large iron and steelworks are found
around the Jamshedpur area in In-
modern integrated iron and steel
mills because
,{}l
dia for these reasons except A water for cooling purposes is
Ouebec
A much coal is availabie available
B presence of high grade iron ore B it enjoys a cool maritime climate t./
C ferro-alloys are easily obtainable C it is accessible to cheap, abundant
nearby labour Buffalo
D Jamshedpur has a deep-water D it facilitates the imPort of raw B Trenton
materials ,O
harbour

10. Iron ore can be alloyed with many 16. The world's location of the iron and
other ferro-metals to yield steel of steel industry has been undergoing
specific quality. Which ferro-metal many changes since the industry was
is employed to increase the strength first established. This is mainly due to
and hardiness of the steel, e.g. in the A the discovery of new iron ore faom Venezuela
Cuba and Chile
nianufacture of dredges and steam fields
rollers? B the closure of many coalfields 21. The manufacturing industry of the
A cobalt C the improved technology in the world has advanced very rapidly,
B manganese making of iron and steel creating a very wide range of manu-
C vanadium D the oil crisis. factured products and a subsequent
D nickel reduction in the cost of production.
17. Of the following iron and steel areas This is possible for the following
of the world, which is LEAST dePen' reasons except
11 . The iron and steelworks of the world
are sometimes located in coalfields, dent on the import of foreign ores for A Mechanization simplifies and
in iron ore fields. some in both areas its steel mills? speed up production

292
 B Specialization improves the quali-
ty of production
C Mass production enjoys the eco-
nomies of large-scale production
D Automation utilizes a larser
Iabour force
22. An example of light industry is
a
A industrial machinery industry
B transport equipment industry
C petrochemicalsindustry
D iron and steel industry
23. Of the following major industrial
cities, which one is not connected
with the automobile indusiry?
A Coventry, U.K.
B Marseilles, France
C Wolfsburg, West Germany
D Turin. Italv
24. T}:'e following statements outline 25. What type of industry requires a vast
some of the usual factors that contri- area of level ground, fine weather,
bute to the growth of the major in- highly skilled workers, very heavy
dustrial areas in the world: capital and an enormous expendi-
I location in a coalfield ture on research, design, promotion
II nearness to an iron ore field. and security?
III served by a navigable waterway A shipbuilding
IV sited on a deep-water harbour B locomotive engineering
on the coast C aircraft industry
V a ready supply of skilled labour- D heavy chemicals industry
ers
VI availability of all required raw 26. The southern continents are nor ex-
materials
tensively industrialized. Which of
Which two of these statements, the following areas is /east industrial-
together with I and II, are applicable
ized?
to the Ruhr-Westphalia Industrial
A Whyalla, Australia
District of West Germanv?
B Rotorua, New Zraland
A III and V C Belo Horizonte. Brazil
B III and VI
D Durban, South Africa
C IVandV
D IV and VI
293
Chapter 29 World Population
Size and Growth of World Population
The map in Fig.29.1 shows the general pattern and
density of the world's population distribution. Esti-
mates in 1977 show that the world has no less than
4 105 million people. This is an alarming figure, for
all these people have to be adequately fed, clothed,
housed, educated and cared for. The problems they
pose are no longer just the study of the demographic
experts, they are the concern of everyone, every-
where! In the past when total human numbers were
small, and the death rate (mortality rate) was high,
the annual increase in population was relatively
small. Today, with such a huge number as 4.1 billion
and lower mortality rates in most parts of the world,
the increase is becoming greater every year. In the
last 70 years, the world population has almost tre-
bled. We can see from Fig. 29.2that although it took
many thousands of years to reach a billion and a
half, it took a little more than half a century to more
Fig. 29.1 World population distribution
294
than double that number. The United Nations esti-
mate of an average increase of 1.5 per cent (or 1.5
per thousand) per annum means that the world will
have 6 650 000 000 people by the end ofthis century
(2 000 A.D.).
The fact that population increases in geometrical
progression (i.e. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,...,) has
worried Man since the time of Thomas R. Malthus
(1766-1834), a British clergyman and political eco-
nomist, who noted with dismay that Man would one
day reach a starvation level when food production
would fail to keep up with population increase. For-
tunately this pessimistic outlook has been modified
by three developments which Malthus did not fore-
see.
1. The advances made in technology and industry.
2. The mechanization and intensification of agricul-
tural production.
3. The practice of family planning or birth control.
Considering that more than half the human race

A.D.1 1650 1750 1850 1900 1950 1970 2000
Fig.29.2 World population growth
is malnourished (underfed too!) at present there is
no guarantee that Malthus' predictions may not yet
take place. Famine is already too common in many
parts of the globe. All countries struggle to keep
food production abreast with population increase.
International trading data show that more and more
nations have to import food. Of all the rice-produc-
ing countries in Asia, only Burma, Thailand and the
Philippines have any surplus for export (only
between 3 and 5 per cent of the world's rice pro-
duction enters international trade). At their present
rates of population increase (ranging from 1.5 to 3.2
per cent), even the few rice and wheat exporters may
soon have very little left to spare the others. For
instance, from the Second World War until 1952.
world population increased by 12 per cent. In the
same period world food production increased by
only 9 per cent.
Fortunately, with the immense power of modern
applied science at his disposal, Man has so far been
able to avert the impending disaster. Food yields
have been raised, new sources of food have been
29s
introduced and effective measures have been taken
to conserve food, fuel and other natural resources,
so that the scarcity of food is less acute. But how
long will this last, and how far can science combat
the problems that arise if the world population dou-
bles in every half a century? These are some of the
problems that Man must be prepared to face and
solve.
World Population Distribution
Apart from their rapid rate of increase, human
beings are also very unevenly distributed, which
leads to the problem of overpopulation.*
Less than 2O per cent of the world's surface is hab-
itable, and within this area are striking contrasts in
population density. Some areas are very densely
populated, e.g. Singapore Island has an average den-
sity of 4 000 people per sq. kny'lO 300 people per
square mile (area: 585 sq. kml255 sq. mile, popu-
lation: 2.4 million), while Australia has less than 2
people to the square km/4 people to the square mile
(area:7.7 million square km/3 million square miles,
population: 15 million). Generally speaking, about
half the world's land surface is uninhabited, a
quarter is sparsely populated and the remainder is
more densely populated. There are many geograph-
ical factors which influence population densities and
their pattern of distribution.
l. Climate. This is probably the greatest deciding
factor, which in turn influences the type of vegetation
(desert, grassland or forest), the kinds of crops that
can be cultivated, the animal kingdom and the over-
all suitability of the region for human habitation.
2. Physical relief. From your regional studies of the
world, you should have already noticed that most of
the lowlands and river valleys suiport the greatest
number of people. Their levelness leads to ease of
communications, cultivation and overall develop-
ment. The world's most densely populated districts
are, in fact, the coastal plains and the basins and
alluvial deltas of great rivers, that are usually served
by a good network of communications. The mouri-
tainous interiors, unless they are rich in minerals, are
very sparsely inhabited. Even if they have some min-
* Overpopulation is a relative term used to refer to an area where
its natural resources and the technical competence of its people
can no longer support its inhabitants comfortably. A few nomads
per square kilometres in the arid Middle East may be considered
overpopulated, but 192 persons per square Kilometre (500 per-
sons p€r square mile) in the industrial Midlands, United Kingdom
may not be so.
erals, their altitude and difficulties in communica-
tions reduce their capacity for population. The few
mining communities may be separated from one
another by high mountains, or dense forests.
3. Soils. This is a factor which is usually closely
related to climate, though not always. A well-devel-
oped, mature soil in either the tropics or the tem-
perate regions with a fair balance of precipitation
and evaporation is suitable for agriculture, which in
turn supports the peasant population. The soils of
the temperate deciduous forests and those of the
tropical monsoon lands are intensively tilled and
support large populations. Excessive leaching in the
equatorial regions, intense evaporation in the
deserts and perpetual freezing in the polar regions
impoverish the soil. These areas are therefore
sparsely populated. Soils that are independent of
local climatic causes such as the fertile volcanic soils,
alluvial soils, aeolian (wind-blown) loess and glacial
soils (boulder clay) are suitable for agriculture and
support dense populations.
4. Mineral reources. Mineral deposits are very
unevenly scattered over the globe. Their presence
in commercially exploitable quantities either in the
form of metallic ores (e.g. tin, copper, zinc, lead,
aluminium, iron) or fuel (coal, petroleum) is a vital
factor in the location of industries which in turn sup-
port a high population density.
5. Other minor factors. These usually affect only
limited areas and are of varying significance. They
include government policy in immigration and redis-
tribution of settlers, and other factors which may be
historical, cultural, social. economic or medical.
The Pattern of World Population
Distribulion
Having analysed the various factors which influence
population densities, we shall now examine more
closely with the aid of Fig.29.1. the pattern of the
world's population distribution.
1. The very sparsely populated parts of the
world. These include the cold polar lands of the
Arctic and Antarctic, the Canadian and Eurasian
tundra, Greenland and the high mountains of the
Himalayas, the Rockies and parts of the Andes. The
hot deserts, of the Kalahari, the Atacama, the
Sahara, the Great Australian Desert, the Mohave
and other deserts in the U.S.A. and Mexico, and the
Middle East arid lands are all sparsely populated.
Within the tropics are large, virtually uninhabited
jungles and rain forests like the Amazon basin, the
296
Zaire basin and the interiors of some of the South-
East Asian islands.
2. The moderately populated parts of the world. This
covers large areas of the cool temperate forests, the
taiga of Eurasia and the Canadian coniferous for-
ests. Lumbering districts normally do not need many
people. But if the forests are cleared for arable farm-
ing, population may be larger. Similarly, in the tem-
perate and tropical grasslands where pastoralism and
large-scale mechanized farming predominate, only
a moderate population is found. These include the
southern U.S.S.R. (steppes), the American and
Canadian Prairies, and the grasslands of the south-
ern continents. The rest of the agricultural U.S.A.,
Mediterranean Europe, Africa and most parts of
South-East Asia may also be classed as moderately
populated, except for pockets of high pouplation
density caused by local factors.
3. The very densely populated parts of the
world. These are found in the industrial West and
the agricultural East and include:
(a) Industrial North-West Europe. Here are
found the most advanced and the most heavily indus-
trialized countries of the world: Great Britain,
France, West Germany, Benelux and Denmark.
Reasons for their very high population densities will
be dealt with later.
(b) Industrial north-eastern U.S.A. This is the
great industrial belt of the United States and Canada
stretching from the shores of the Great Lakes
through Pittsburgh to New York and the Atlantic
seaboard. The density decreases gradually south-
wards and westwards into the agricultural areas of
the Mississippi basin and the Gulf states.
(c) Agricultural Monsoon Asia. This is the largest
area of continuous high population density. It
includes populous countries as China, Japan, India,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia (Java particu-
larly) and the coastal plains and deltaic regions of
continental and insular South-East Asia. The fertile
alluvial soils of the Huang He (Hwang Ho), Chang
Jiang (Yangtze Kiang) and Xi Jiang (Si Kiang) of
China; the Indo-Gangetic Plain of Indo-Pakistan
and Bangladesh; the rice-bowls of the Irrawaddy
delta, the Chao Phraya basin, the Red and Mekong
deltas, together with the rich volcanic soils of Java
and the Philippines and industrial Japan, support
almost half the human race. In no part of the world
is the land so intensively tilled and people so closely
packed together as in these parts of Monsoon Asia.
(d) The Nile valley and delta. This is another area
of unusually high density, and has been so since the
establishment of the Egyptian civilization. The
waters of the Nile have converted this part of the
barren Sahara Desert into fertile cotton and padi-
lands. The Nile floods annually, which enables the
Egyptian peasants to practise a form of basin irri-
gation. Large quantities of silty water are held back
for crop irrigation. Today with multi-purpose dams,
e.g. at Aswan, more and more land is being claimed
from the desert to support the growing population.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TWO AREAS WITH
CONTRASTING POPULATION DENSITIES
North-West Europe (density over 77 persons per
square kn/201, persons per square mile) and the
Amazon basin (density below 4 persons per square
km/10 persons per square mile).
1. North-West Europe has been a centre of civili-
zation for over I 500 years. It has long been settled
and developed by people of European and Cauca-
sian stock. In contrast. the Amazon basin is the
home of only a handful of primitive tribes such as
Boros who are still at a level of. Stone Age civiliza-
don, similar to that of the Pygmies of the Ziiire
basin. They have no permanent settlements and they
have been unable to develop the area in any way.
2. North-West Europe lies entirely within the tem-
perate zone which has warm summers and mild win-
ters. This climate is the most conducive to human
habitation because it is stimulating and men have the
greatest capacity for work. The region is thus pleas-
ant to live in and favourable for development.
The 'steaming' heat of the Amazon, excessively
damp and with a very high relative humidity, make
living conditions difficult. The climate is oppressive,
enervating and most trying. One gets tired very
quickly, and it is not possible to work for long hours.
Few people are ever attracted to settle here and the
Amazon remains one of the least developed parts of
the globe.
3. The natural vegetation of North-West Europe is
temperate deciduous forest on the lowlands and
evergreen coniferous forest on the highlands. The
trees have great commercial value and are exten-
sively felled for the lumbering industry or to make
way for the plough. Agriculture is highly developed,
farms are scientifically managed and the fertility of
the soil carefully maintained. Crop yields are some
of the highest in the world. Despite all these factors,
the high population density makes the import of
foodstuffs a necessity.
ln comparison, the Amazon has practically no
organized agriculture. It is a vast stretch of tropical
297
jungle or selvas, difficult to clear, and, once cleared,
even more difficult to maintain. Though it is the
home of natural rubber, climatic, soil and other
environmental conditions are so adverse for its
large-scale cultivation that it accounts for less than
1 per cent of the world's natural rubber production.
Lumbering is difficult because the wide variety of
trees do not occur in pure stands. The Amazonian
natives are still at a stage of hunting, fishing and
food-gathering, or raising a few starchy crops in their
small clearings. The soil is heavily leached, acidic
and deteriorates rapidly when cleared of forest. It
can support few settlements.
4. North-West Europe is the home of the industrial
Revolution. Many inventors, technicians and scien-
tists come from here. The presence of coal, iron ore
and other industrial raw materials enables a large
range of manufactured goods to be made and
exported. [t is from here that other countries have
learnt how to industrialize, Britain, France, Belgium
and the Netherlands were all great colonial powers
which once held land overseas. Industrial raw mate-
rials used to come from their colonial territories and
still come from newly independent countries. Fero-
metals, cotton, wool, rubber, sugar tohacco arrive
in North-West Europe in large quantities to be pro-
cessed by the industrial plants. Industrialization and
economic wealth enable the small countries of
North-West Europe to support a large population.
In contrast, the Amazon was once a colonial ter-
ritory. Portuguese influence is still apparent in the
cities and towns of Brazil but climatic conditions
were so unfavourable for permanent residence that
few Europeans were prepared to settle in the
Amazon. The question of industrialization does not
arise when agriculture itself cannot be firmly estab-
lished, and thus population is limited to those who
can subsist on the fruits and animals of the forest.
5. North-West Europe is bounded by a long
indented coastline giving great opportunity for sea
transport which is the most economic form of bulk
conveyance. Its network of rail, road, air and water
transport has resulted in its pre-eminence as the
'heart of world trade'. London, Paris, Amsterdam,
Rotterdam, Brussels, Copenhagen, Hamburg and
Antwerp have long been centres in international
commerce and industrv. In fact. few areas outside
north-western Europe have developed an urban
life,so highly sophisticated as in the metropolitan
capitals here. In comparison, the Amazon, despite
its central position astride the equator and between
the two Americas, has not been able to advance
beyond the food-gathering stage. The Amazon
River floods extensively. Though it is navigable for
thousands of kilometres upstream, the absence of a
productive hinterland and lack of commerical enter-
prises mean few towns and even fewer ports. lts pop-
ulation will remain sparse for many years to come.
6. North-West Europe is not as rich in mineral
resources as in the past because many minerals have
been exhausted. Its greatest assets are still coal and
some deposits of iron. They are easily developed for
industrial uses. But in the Amazon, although some
rich minerals have been located, they are so inac-
cessible that they are as yet of little economic
significance.
Some Basic Population Problems
The world is experiencing an ever increasing rise in
human numbers. The rise differes greatly from,coun-
try to country, e.g.2.8 per cent per year in Malaysia,
and 1.3 per cent in Japan. It has been found that
industrial countries and urban districts usually have
lower birth rates than agricultural nations and rural
districts. Can you attempt to explain why? Countries
29,A A slum in the overcrowded Peruvian port of Callao.
The need for housing and employment are two problems
posed by population expansion Camera Press
298
with a higher standard of living (Britain, Sweden,
the U.S.A., Australia) have lower rates of popula-
tion growth (i.e. families tend to be smaller) than
countries where the standard of living is lower (e.g.
India, China, Indonesia, Zaire).It is most disheart-
ening to note that the countries of Monsoon Asia
which can ill-afford any further increases in popu-
lation, register some of the greatest population
increases. The growth of population creates an
urgent need for the basic requirements of civilized
human existence: food, clothing, housing, educa-
tion, social, medical and cultural amenities.
According to a recent United Nations survey, four
out of five people in the world are probably
underfed. Many of the Asian countries suffer acute
shortages of food and many people perish in famines
every year. The problem of food shortages is great-
est in China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Indo-
nesia, where there are far more mouths to be fed
than there are crops to be harvested. For clothing,
Asia's needs are not too great, thanks to its tropical
climate. Even so, there are millions in Asia and
Africa going about clad only in rags.
The housing problem is often acute, especially in

29.8 Boat dwellers in Aberdeen, Hong Kong Servizio
Editoria le Fotografico
fast growing towns and cities. Many families are
crammed into small houses, badly ventilated and
unhealthy. Many are pavement dwellers and some
spend their whole lives on boats (Plates 29.A and
B). Slums are almost inevitable in every major city.
Illiteracy is still high in many parts of the world.
There are literally millions who cannot read or write.
Adequate funds must be found to construct schools,
train teachers and provide textbooks to educate the
masses. Every effort must be made to eradicate pov-
erty and raise world's standard of living. Both sef-
help and mutual-help are necessary to improve the
living conditions of the masses of the underdevel-
oped countries. The problem of overpopulation is
not a domestic issue, it is the concern of the world.
Let the 'haves' help the less fortunate 'have-nots',
and let the more prosperous nations render effective
assistance to the weaker and poorer nations. If this
attitude of mutual help can be made to work on a
global scale, Man will have gone a long way in
making the world a better place to live in.
increase of population will be slowed down and
although population will continue to grow, increases
in food production may be able to keep pace with
the demand. Japan is a fine example of a country
where this has happened. Her annual birth rate has
been cut down from 22 per thousand in 1947 to only
L3 per thousand today. She has succeeded in almost
halving her birth ratu within the two decades and has
experienced an appreciable rise in the standard of
living.
2. Increase food yields. World production of food-
stuffs and raw mateials can be increased either by
opening up new lands for agriculture or by raising
the crop yields of the existing farm lands. New tech-
niques can be developed to obtain higher yields per
hectare through such processes as plant breeding and
experimentation, increased application of fertilizers,
farm mechanization, elimination of weeds and in-
sect pests and more intensive use of land.
Many lands that were once considered wastes can
be made productive by drainage or irrigation
schemes. Drought-resistant crop varieties can be
grown in semi-arid regions. Similarly, cold-resistant
species have proved tolerant of temperate continen-
tal conditions. Over large areas of the mid-latitude
29.C The world's growing population must be kept healthy.
Indonesian school children receive innoculations. United
Nations

Some Ways of Relieving World

Population Problems
There are probably three main ways of meeting
world population problems.
1. Cut down the rate of population increase. This is
done through family planning or birth control, which
is now widely practised throughout the world. If the
number of births can be cut down, the rate of

299
grasslands, selected pasture grasses and fodder crops
have been sown to make them more nutritious for
animal-grazlng. Reafforestation helps to conserve
one of the richest natural resources-timber.
3. Migration. This may not reduce the total popu-
lation of the world, but it does help to relieve the
socio-economic problems caused by overcrowding in
certain parts of the globe. The world is so unevenly
peopled that underpopulation, as in Australia, New
Zealand, Canada and some parts of the U.S.S.R.,
can be looked upon as a national weakness that
retards full economic development. Floods of emi-
grants have left Europe to seek their fortune in the
New World. The U.S.A. is, in reality, a nation made
up of the various European stocks that
streamed across the Atlantic since the beginning of
the sixteenth centurv. Canada with less than two
persons to the square kilometre (five persons to the
square mile), should welcome immigrants to develop
her vast potential national resources.
It is estimated that lands south of the Tropic of
Capricorn contain less than five per cent of the
world's population. These empty southern conti-
nents thus form the target for the present wave of
intercontinental migrations. The European and
Asiatic immigrants to South Africa, Brazil and Aus-
tralasia have not only played a useful role in devel-
oping the 'south', but also by their departure have
helped to relieve the population pressure of their
mother lands.
The Chinese and Indians from their crowded
have homelands in mainland China and India have con-
tributed most significantly in the economic devel-
opment of many parts of South-East Asia.

Ouestions and Exercises

1. Locate on a world map:
(a) A very densely populated area.
(b) A very sparsely populated area.
Account for the various factors that contribute
to lheir great contrast in density.
2. What is meant by the following:
(a) overpopulation;
(b) mortality rate;
(c) inter-continental migration;
(d) annual population growth.
Give examples from your population studies of
the context in which the above terms may be
used. (Quote any available statistics to support
your explanation).
3. Climate, vegetation, relief, accessibility and
minerals are some of the major geographical
factors that determine the pattern and density
of population distribution. Choose one actual
area in the world where each of the above fac-
tors plays a vital role in population distribution
and explain its effects.
4. Explain any three of the following statements;
(a) Rural districts often record a higher birth
rate than urban districts.
(b) Industrial countries normally maintain a
higher standard of living.
(c) At the present rate of world population
increase the pessimistic outlook of Malthus
will be justified.
(d) Migration alone will not solve the popula-
tion problems of the world.
5, Either: Explain how Japan was able to almost
halve her birth rate within two decades (from
2.2 per cent in 1947 to 1.3 per cent in I97l).
re71,).
Or: Say why north-western Europe is one of the
most densely populated parts of the world.

Sample Objective Ouestions

l. Java, Hong Kong and Manhattan
share one of the followins features.
Pick out lhe correct one.
A commercial activities.
B high population density
C rapid industrial growth
D multi-racial communities
2. Thomas R. Malthus (1776-1834)
predicted that the world would suf-
fer from a population explosion
when food production falls to keep
up with the alarming rate of popula-
tion increase. Yet today we are
much better off than our forefathers.
This is because of the following de-
velopments which Malthus did not
foresee except
A the advances made in the fields of
science and technology
B the mechanization of agriculture
C the practice of family planning

300
 D the shorter life expectancy of 8. Problems of overpopulation include A sponsor their students in overseas
modern man the following except universities
A widespread unemployment B regularly host conferences at the
3. The continent which has one- B a rapid increase in population United Nations
quarter of the world's land surface C a decline in the standard of C accept many immigrants who are
but accounts for only one-tenth of health professionally qualified
the total population is D inadequate work force D offer scholarships to their own
A Europe students in local universities
B North America 9. Of the following densely populated
C Africa islands which has the highest density 15. Life expectancy refers to the
D Australasia per sq.km/mile? A average age at which people die
A Java B span of life during which women
4. The temperate grasslands of the B Luzon can bear children
world may be described as
C Hong Kong C maximum number of children
A very densely populated D Singapore that a couple may have
B densely populated D age when men get their pension
C moderately populated 10. From the list of geographical areas
D very, very sparsely populated given below, the most densely popu- 16. The most densely populated part of
lated is the Brazil is
5. Factors which discourage the con- A the Mid-west of U.S.A. A the Brazilian Plateau
centration of population and settle-
B northern Europe B the Amazon Basin
ments are
C East Africa C interior Bazil
I cold
D the Indian sub-continent D coastal Brazil
II heat I l Countries with a high population 17. The most densely populated indust-
III aridity
density and a high rate of annual rial district of Japan is
IV altitude
V remoteness
population increase are those which A the Hanshim Industrial Districr
Which of the above factors are ap-
A have low crop yields B the Keihin Industrial District
plicable to the sparse population of
B receive large numbers of immig- C the Kitakyushu Industrial District
Patagonia, South America?
rants D the Nagoya Industrial District
A I, II, and III C export mainly manufactured
goods 18. Which of the following statements is
B I, III and V D have a high standard of living incorrect?
C II, III and IV
D II, IV and V A Women live longer than men
12. There are not many Japanese who B Large parts of Canada are very
emigrate. The majority of those who sparsely populated
6. Which of the following countries has have gone overseas are to be found C The population of Switzerland is
ihe lowest rate of annual population in very evenly distributed
growth?
A thc U.S.A. D In most countries, the capital city
A Japan B Brazil has the largest urban population
B Malaysia C Australia
C India D Vietnam 19. The cool temperate continental in-
D Brazil
teriors are sparsely populated be-
13. Of the following areas which is cause
7. Industrial areas normally register a LEAST likely to attract many peo- A they have an interior location
lower birth rate than agricultural ple? B there are few materials
areas because A the Laurentian Shield C the sub-soil is permanently frozen
A industrial workers are most con- B Mediterranean Shoreland D natural vegetation is very lacking
scious of family planning C Visayan Islands
B pollution in industrial areas re- D Coastal Brazil 20. Central Australia is almost uninha-
duces the fertility of women bited because it
C there are fewer women in indust- 14. Countries like the U.S.A., Canada A is densely forested
rial areas and Australia are said to have be- B has few minerals
D married couples are usually sepa- nefited from 'brain gain' because C is a desert
rated in industrial areas they D is too far from the urban districts

301
Chapter 30 World Communications

engine has made it necessary to construct better

The Significance of World Transport roads, for motor vehicles are now the most mobile
In Chapters 26 and 27 , we studied the various kinds and universal form of transport. Achievement in
of crops and minerals that men produce. We men- world transport reached its peak with the invention
tioned that many of these commodities enter inter- of aeroplane. The world 'shrinks' with the speed of
national trade. They are sold and bought by traders the 'jet age'.
and consumers who are usually separated from one
another by many kilometres of land and sea. How LAND TRANSPORT
are these goods moved form place to place? This 1. Road transport. Road ranging from mule tracks
brings us to another interesting topic-world trans- to modern highways are the most universal form of
port. In short, it is the role of transport in modern transport. Local people have benefited more from
commerce and industry. road usage than any other means of transport. Rail-
To facilitate the movement of people, freight and ways and waterways link large centres whilst flying
mail, an efficient network of cheap and speedy trans- is a luxury, confined only to the more wealthy. But
port is essential. Since time immemorial, men have as soon as one steps out of one's house, one is bound
devised means of conveying thernselves and their to tread on roads of some kind. They are so univer-
goods from one point to another. Human porterage sal that men take for granted that roads exist, and
and beasts of burden were the earliest means of ful- never pause to think of the tremendous effort and
filling such a task. Tracks were stamped out by men expenses that have made them possibe.
across difficult terrain and through the jungles. 30.A One of the disadvantages of road transport is traffic
Draught animals such as horses, buffaloes, ele- congestion. Fleet Street, London is always busy. Central
phants, mules and camels were domesticated and Office of lnformation London
extensively employed to save men carrying things
themselves. But such animals could hardly carry a
load of more than 45 kg (100 16) and could, at best,
cover 24 km (15 miles) to 48 km (30 miles) per day.
But in those days, and even in some remote parts of
the world today, this was the only available way. In
Tibet today, yaks are still used as the most important
beast of burden in the rugged Tibetan highlands.
The Andean Indians make use of the Ilama and the
polar Eskimos still have to depend on their huskies
(dogs) and reindeer. The problem of transport has
always been in the minds of our forefathers and
takes a good portion of our national revenue today.
A good metalled road will cost several million Sin-
gapore dollars per kilometre to construct, and a fur-
ther substantial sum to maintain in serviceable
conditions. The road tax that motorists pay goes
partly to finance and maintain our roads.
In the history of transport, perhaps the most spec-
tacular progress made was by the invention of loco-
motives. George Stephenson opened the first
railway in 1825, which ushered in the 'railway age',
so vital to the development of our present land trans-
port. The introduction of the internal combustion

302
 Modern highway transport takes various forms,
and each is meant for its specific function. Private
automobiles, passenger buses and taxis serve great
local needs but they move over relatively short dis-
tances. Trucks, lorries and vans are becoming
increasingly important in competing with railways as
freight carriers. Their flexibility is their greatest
advantage over other forms of bulk transport. In
recent years, many railway companies have found
increasing difficulty in competing effectively with the
various forms of motor transport. Private cars, long
distance taxis and chartered coaches have largely
replaced trains for passenger transport.
2. Railway transport. Railways have contributed
most significantly to the development of industrial
sites, city growth and the opening up of new lands.
In large countries and continental interiors where
other forms of organized transport are compara-
tively inadequate, railways are the only convenient
form of long-distance transport. They have in many
instances decided the pattern of population and
land use distribution. The trans-continental rail-
ways such as the Trans-Siberian Railway
(9 000 km/5,600 miles long) and the Canadian
Pacific Railway (almost 4 800 km/3,000 miles long)
are well-known for their pioneering role in the open-
30.B The Trans-Siberian Railway near lrkutsk, eastern Sib-
eria. This railway has helped to open up hitherto underde-
vefoped parts of the U.S.S.R. Society for Cultural Relations
with U.S.S.R.
303
ing up of the Russian Steppes and'Siberia (Plate
30.8) and the Canadian Prairies respectively. Geog-
raphers are interested in railway patterns rather than
highway patterns because railways carry bulky goods
to and from industrial sites or link population
centres. They reflect the pattern of regional geog-
raphy of an area.
The running and carrying capacity of railways is
much dependent on the width of the railway gauge.
This is the precise distance between the two metal
rails on which the wagons run. The standard gauge
is 143 cm (4 feet 8l inches), and is common in
Europe, North America and China. The world's
faster and most efficiently-run railways are all on the
standard gauge. Because of differences in topogra-.
phy or in construction costs, there are also some rail-
ways which run.on the broad gauge (160 cm/5 feet
3 inches or sometimes more) or the narrow gauge
(around 107 cm/3 feet 6 inches). The former is more
suited to level ground while the latter is more likely
to be constructed across hilly tracts where there are
sharp bends to negotiate.
Australia is the best example of a country that had
its railways operated on all the three different gauges
(Fig. 30.1). They were constructed independently by
each state authority without foreseeing the difficul-
ties that were to arise when all the states were fed-
erated later as the Cornmonwealth of Australia.
Railways in New South Wales were constructed on
the standard gauge; in Queensland and Western
Australia on the narrow gauge; and in Victoria on
the broad gauge. With the federation of these states,
the Trans-Continental Australian Railwav which
Fi9.30,1 Bailways of Australia
.Bdun ! W -....---
TERRrr,Ry
! ,-r*-r, --.''O
Alccsp.rns. a ---.
ouEE!stAN-o----
III !
sourH \ I
mmw gEurr I
13 fer inchc/to7 cm)
rtEndard gouo. (4 fct Sl imha/143 ml
brcad gaugo (5 fet 3 imh6/td) ml ,*ror,og1$".".,."
!i/x'un
runs from Perth to Sydney had to travel on three
different gauges. Goods had to be unloaded and
loaded again and passengers had to change coaches
at the point where the gauge changed. It was most
inconvenient. The changeover to the standard gauge
was, however, essential and has recently been com-
pleted. This is one instance where unplanned trans-
port development can cause serious problems.
As a form of land transport, railways have played
a vital part in distribution services. Locomotives can
pull heavy loads and still travel fast. Freight trains
can travel 1 930 km (1,200 miles) a day and mail
trains can go even faster. Railways are fairly adapt-
able to topographical conditions, but the initial cost
and overhead expenses are very high. In encounter-
ing topographical barriers, railway engineers have
devised ways and means of overcoming them.
Embankments and cuttings, viaduct's and tunnels are
used to keep the track nearly level. Where the gra-
dient exceeds 1 in 50, zig-zags are constructed
(automobiles can manage a gradient up to 1:3).
In sparsely populated parts of the world, e.g. Sib-
eria, railways are often the only means of commu-
nication with the outside world though aircraft are
becoming increasingly important.
As a means of passenger transport, the railways
304
as a whole have declined in popularity because of
competition from automobiles. Many railway com-
panies have been forced to provide better services.
Luxury coaches have been introduced. Many are
made of aluminium alloys (which, because they are
lighter, can save up to 12 per cent on fuel) with air-
conditioned compartments, reclining chairs and
sleeping berths for long-distance night travel. Spe-
cial rates are offered for return journeys, seasonal
or party travel. Even for freight services, improved
facilities are now available. Refrigerator-cars are
used for carrying perishable fruits, vegetables and
meat. Keen competition from lorries and trucks has
resulted in extra services, such as the free delivery
of goods to the consignee, being provided by many
railway companies.
3. Inland water transport. Water transport is the
slowest but cheapest form of bulk transport. In
Europe and North America, many industrial areas
have their raw materials (coal, iron ore, rubber tim-
ber) and bulky finished goods (machinery, steel)
conveyed entirely by inland waterways. Cheapness
is the greatest asset. Many densely populated indus-
trial areas rely heavily on low-cost water transport.
The Great Lakes (joined by the Welland and Soo
Canals) and St. Lawrence Seaway, constitute one of
Fig. 30.2, Inland waterways of
Europe
the world's most important inland waterways. They
serve the industrial areas on both sides of the
U.S.A.-Canadian border. Ships laden with wheat,
dairy products, meat and industrial goods can sail
from the Prairies to the Atlantic to continue their
voyages across the North Atlantic to Western
Europe. Similarly, the numerbus man-made canals
such as the Mittelland Canal, Ems Canal and Rhine-
Rh6ne Canal joining important rivers such as the
Rhine, Weser, Elbe, Seine and Danube, have
played a very important part in the industrial and
economic development of Western Europe
(Fig. 30.2). In Asia, the Chang Jiang (Yangtze
Kiang), the Ganges and the rivers of continental
South-East Asia have all provided cheap and effi-
cient transport for their respective countries.
Waterways may be improved by dams and locks
which help to maintain a uniform depth of water.
Where waterways are too small for ships, barges or
'narrow boats' are used. Several barges are often
pulled or pushed by more powerful craft in 'barge
trains'.
Unfortunately, water transport has its own limi-
tations. Rivers lack flexibility as their natural
courses cannot be easily altered. They may flow in
directions that are not commercially desired. The
longest Russian rivers (Ob, Lena, Yenisey), flow
north into the cold uninhabited Arctic and are frozen
for the greater part of the year. In spite of this, they
are gradually being developed with the use of ice-
breakers for the export of timber and minerals from
Siberia. Some rivers like the Zaire and the Amazon
flow through dense jungles which are sparsely pop-
ulated; such rivers can only be used by the people
for bringing their local products to be exchanged at
the river-side markets.
There are other drawbacks to be considered. Most
rivers have their long profile broken by changes in
gradient. A waterfall or a rapid is sufficient to
obstruct the smooth navigation of a river. This is typ-
ical of the rivers in Africa which plunge down from
the edge of plateaux to drain into the oceans. The
Chang Jiang (Yangtze) Gorge above Ichang can only
be used by small craft. The Iron Gates on the Dan-
ube, once a dangerous stretch, have been improved
by a dam which raises the water-level. Few rivers are
perfectly navigable in their natural state. Man has
to do his part to improve their navigability. Large
rivers bring down much alluvial material, causing
silting in the lower courses. They have to be con-
stantly dredged to be usable by large steamers. The
ports on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia are
305
shallow and silty because of moving sand-bars that
are built up by the stormy South China Sea. There
are other rivers that are so winding that their use-
fulness for commerce is greatly reduced. The wind-
ing nature of a river slows down navigation by
lengthening the distance. Seasonal fluctuatlon in the
volume of the water is another factor that affects the
navigable length of a river.
OCEAN TRANSPORT
Much of the world's trade passes along certain well
charted ocean routes served by established junctions
and terminals. They are the natural roadways by
which goods from one continent reach another at the
lowest possible cost. Nature has provided Man with
this vast expanse of free highway, which shipping
companies can utilize with no initial cost and no
maintenance except on the ships themselves. The
cheapness of ocean transport is a vital consideration
in international trade. '
Various kinds of vessels ranging from a few
hundred tonnes to over 300 000 tonnes sail the high
seas. The most luxurious ones are the passenger lin-
ers. They carry mainly passengers, express mail, and
a limited amount of high-value freight. They are on
scheduled routes and leave on time whether there
are enough passengers or not. Some of the large lin-
ers are like 'floating cities', complete with spacious
halls, shopping centres. swimming pools, postal
counters and banks. They carry sufficient provisions
to feed up to 2 000 passengers and crew for weeks
without refuelling. Passenger liners are suffering
more and more from competition from the airways.
Another kind of vessel which combines freight
with passengers is the cargo liner. These also keep
to scheduled routes. Their gross tonnage is about
one-third to half that of an average passenger liner.
Many of them have refrigerated hotds for carrying
perishable fruits and meat. They always reserve suf-
ficient cabin space for would-be passengers.
The next group is made up by all kinds of tramps
of between 2 000 and 10 000 tonnes. These are
independent cargo-boats that have no fixed schedule
and sail when there is cargo to carry. A tramp that
leaves Singapore in February with Malaysian rubber
and Straits tin may stop at Colombo to pick up some
tea, and call at Marseilles to unload some of the
goods destined for Lyons. When it eventually
reaches its headquarters in Southampton, it could
well be Christmas time. Such tramps sail from place
to place and receive instructions from their head-
quarters by wireless.
 There are also some specially constructed vessels
designed for specific cargoes only. They are referred
to as industrial carriers. They are the ocean spe-
cialists, not jacks-of-all-trade like the tramps. They
include the oil tankers that carry only petroleum, the
self-unloading colliers that ship coal, the banana car-
riers and grain ships. They are usually owned by
large shipping companies that have world-wide
interests, or are operated by commercial corpora-
tions that own both the vessel and the cargo, e.g. oil
companies. Oil tankers are some of the biggest ships
afloat. The latest development in ocean transport
is containerization. Special ships are built to carry
containers, i.e. standard-sized metal boxes packed
with goods. This has not only made cargo handling
easier but has also eased the transfer of goods to
land transport by rail or road at the world's major
ports.
Last but not least are the coastal shipping vessels
that ply between the coastal harbours and river
ports, close to the shores. They carry the more bulky
goods which are not sent by rail. For example, ves-
sels from Singapore sail to Port Kelang, Butterworth
and Bangkok. They compete with the inland roads
and railways for carriage of the local products. They
have very little passenger traffic because of their
irregular movements.
Fig. 30.3 World shipping routes
os Aires
21 5 000 000
H"-;b ....-.' 2. the
_ J. ths Trans_pacific route,
WORLD SHIPPING ROUTES
The following are some of the principal ocean trade
routes (Fig. 30.3).
l. The North Atlantic route. This is the busiest and
the most important route, that links two of the most
populous and heavily industrialized parts of the world,
Western Europe and eastern North America. Both
the regions are highly developed and enjoy high
standards of living. The large volume of passengers
and freight is therefore to be expected. It is estimated
that half the world's major ports lie within the
sphere of this route. London, Southampton, Ham-
burg, Liverpool, Glasgow, Rotterdam, Antwerp and
Le Havre are on the European side. New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Montreal and
Quebec are on the American side. Most of them
have deep, spacious harbours and first class port
facilities. Some of the world's largest shipyards and
terminal stations are located here. The region's total
annual foreign trade is more than all the rest of the
ocean routes combined. The eastward-bound goods
going to Europe comprise mainly grain (wheat),
meat, petroleum, cotton, tobacco and metallic ores.
The westward-bound trade to America is made up
mainly manufactured goods of one kind or
of
another. The passenger traffic was once also brisk
but has nolv greatly declined.
€o e
,ilsrNAL
CApEt-FG6OD HOPE
--- 4. the Cape route,
Panama Canal route, ...... 5. the South Atlantic route.
---> 6. the Suez route
306
30.C The Panama Canal: a ship approaching the pedro Mig_
uel lock Servizio Editoriale Fotografico
2. The Panama Canal route. This is a more recent
route which began to be used only in 1914 when the
Panama Canal was opened (Plate 30.C). Over half
of the shipping is domestic tralfic between the east
and west coasts of the U.S.A., but the canal has also
improved the trade of Caribbean countries like Mex-
ico, Cuba, Jamaica, Venezuela and the Central
American states as well as that of Colombia, Ecua-
dor, Peru and Chile. Goods handled are mainly oil,
cotton, coffee, ores and manufactured goods. It has
virtually replaced the long and arduous Cape Horn
route (Fig. 30.4).
3. The Trans-Pacific route. This route is the longest
in distance and has increasing significance in view of
the rapid economic development of western U.S.A.,
China, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. This
marathon sea route links Yokohama, Manila, Syd-
ney or Auckland with Vancouver, San Francisco or
Panama by way of Honolulu, Hawaii. The commod-
ities shipped are mainly grain (wheat), meat, dairy
products, wool and manufactured goods.
4. The Cape route. This is one of the oldest routes,
first sailed by Vasco da Gama on his voyage of dis-
covery to India. It was severely affected by the open-
ing of the Suez Canal when ships travelling between
Colombo and Southampton saved as much as
6 440 km (4,000 miles) by the Suez route. Now,
however, with the economic development of the
South African states and their production of min-
erals (gold, diamonds, copper), the volume of trade
along the Cape route has increased considerably.
307
Fig. 30.4 The Panama Canal
The outbreak of the Arab-Israeli conflict in 1967
forced the Suez Canal to be closed. It was a great
loss to the United Arab Republic in toll charges but
a tremendous gain for South Africa. To avoid canal
tolls, many shipping lines have already reverted to
the Cape route after 1967. As the Suez Canal was
not able to accommodate oil tankers over 20 000
tonnes, and many companies now use larger tankers
(up to 300 000 tonnes) they will have to use the Cape
route permanently even though the Canal has been
reopened.
5. The South Atlantic route. There is no important
east-west route between South America and South
Africa as you can see in Fig. 30.3. The largest vol-
ume of trade is between eastern Brazil and Argen-
tina (coffee, wheat, meat and dairy products) on the
one hand and Western Europe (industrial goods) on
the other. Much of the South American produce also
goes direct to the eastern U.S.A., particularly cof-
fee, of which the latter is the world's greatest
importer.
NOTE: The Suez Canal route which liirked Europe
with Asia, and carried bulky raw materials, oil and
manufactured goods since its opening in 1869 was
closed in 1967 because of the Arab-Isaeli war.
Although the Suez Canal is now open again and car-
ries a great deal of traffic, it can never regain its for-
mer strategic or economic importance, partly
because of political insecurity of the Middle East as
a whole and partly because of the larger tonpage of
today's shipping.
Summarizing the above pattern of the world's
ocean routes:
(a) The Suez route is the route of the past.
(b) The North and South Atlantic routes and Cape
route are the routes of the present (the peak of mod-
ern trade).
(c) The Trans-Pacific and Panama routes are the
routes of the future (excellent prospects for coun-
tries bordering them).
AIR TRANSPORT
This new form of transport has great advantages,
because it is little affected by ground conditions. An
aeroplane can cross mountains, dense forests and
large oceans with the greatest ease and speed. It can
reach the remotest, the farthest and the most inhos-
pitable places on earth provided a landing place is
available. Modern commercial air services operated
by large international airway corporations provide
prompt and efficient services to practically anywhere
on earth. Because of the speedy service, the airlines
are taking more and more of the passenger trade
from the much slower ocean liners.
There is a phenomenal growth in the world's aer-
ial transport of passengers, mail and freight. Many
parts of interior Africa, arid Australia and Arctic
Canada are heavily dependent on schduled and char-
tered air flights to link them with the outside world.
30.D The Flying Doctor in Australia Walkabout
308
Other forms of land and water-borne transport are
simply impracticable for geographical reasons. It is
often necessary to despatch urgently reqluired med'
ical supplies machine psrts or express mail to certain
isolated parts of the world, and the only way this can
be done isby plane. To overcome the difficulties of
finding a suitably long runway for the safe landing
of planes, more and more helicopters are being
used. It will not be long before air transport can be
made more economical for the general public. Many
Muslim pilgrims fly from Subang Airport, Kuala
Lumpur to fulfil their pilgrimage to Mecca. Much
time can be saved and inconvenience avoided.
But the development of air transport has been rather
unbalanced in different parts of the world. The den-
sest airline network is found in Western Europe and
North America, both internally and across the North
Atlantic. They are linked up with the rest of the
world, especially with the major capital cities of
Asia, South America, Africa and Australasia
(Fig. 30.s).
There are many factors that may prevent air trans-
port from being rapidly developed into a universal
form ofconveyance. Lack ofspace in aeroplanes will
restrict their use for freight to those companies
which can afford the high freight charges. Bulky
goods will still have to be transported by the con-
ventional means of conveyance; by sea, road or rail.
For passengers, as long as alternative and cheaper
forms of transport exist, the comfort and speed of
air transport will be confined to the more fortunate
minority.
 I
I
i d;
I

A s
F
Churchi!
Vancouve)
Seattle
z-* a
#iL--t Q..'
San wYerk - -
Francisca
\ " B.,mrd"
Los

Kong
/H6noluluMexico \ICity Lr""", GambiT Wake ls.
rgetown //
Panama'
gglsrn lltonrovia-
N Ouito seE_'+g /e

+ Lima

I
ir"e")\,
..., -p
Reciie (

Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo
Fiii ry
x.t
/l
I
I
!

I
Santiago --'u//"n Durban I
Buenos Cape Town
Aires Melbourne S

Major air routes

Kc
-$
-- -
r Major air ports Scale 1: 215 000 000

Fig. 30.5 Major world air routes

In many developing countries, priority has to be
given to the development of land and sea transport
through which most of the nation's exports and
imports are channelled. The few existing air termi-
nals serve mainly the internal flights and do not have
adequate landing facilities and ground maintenance
services for the larger and more sophisticated
planes. Such modern planes have no choice but to
bypass the small local terminals and will not benefit
the people of these less developed countries. Tour-
ists, senior government servants, company execu-
tives and the wealthier citizens are those who benefit
most from the comfort and luxury of modern air
transport.
The freedom of the air is often interrupted by
countries who claim jurisdiction over the air space
above their territory. Alien planes who make use of
their air space will have to seek their permission to
do so and also pay a fee for landing rights. Countries
which are located at the strategic points of the earth
for air communication like Honolulu, Rome, Sin-
gapore and Tokyo stand to make great gains from
landing charges of international airlines. Close con-
trol must be exercised from ground stations over the
movements of planes in the air above to ensure max-
imum safety for air transport. With the use of super-
sonic planes and jumbo jets that fly at great speed
over heavily congested cities, especially over Europe
and North America, highly sophisticated equipment
has to be installed at all major air terminals to avoid
possible aerial collisions.
COMMUNICATIONS
'Communication' is not the same as transport as it
refers to the transmission of messages rather than
the physical carriage of goods and people. The ear-
liest form of communication was by word of mouth,
when messages were carried orally form one person
to another, which often led to distortion of infor-
mation since misinterpretation or exaggeration eas-
ily occurred in the process of transmission. Later on,
other devices were employed to convey the thoughts
and wishes of the people. Signals of all kinds were
tried out such as sounding gongs, ringing bells, blow-
ing whistles, flashing mirrors, or making smoke or
flag signals. They are still being used in everyday life
today in remote communities where other forms of
communication cannot be used.
The invention of writing marks a milestone in the
progress of communications as messages could then
be permanently recorded. The written messages were
transmitted over unlimited distances by hand, on
horseback and by road, rail or sea. The establish-
ment of post offices further facilitated and increased

309
the range of distance over which mail of all kinds
could be delivered in comparatively good time and
at a very small cost in the form of stamps. Wtih the
advent of telecommunications, messages and news
could be transmitted almost instantaneously simply
by the use of telegraphs, telephones, cable or the
telex system, by which written messages sent out
from one end of the world can be typed out at the
other end by a teleprinter.
The development of radio, later television, and
more recently space satellites marks the climax of
Man's effort in the science of telecommunications.
News read out at the BBC, London can be heard
simultaneously in any part of the globe by tuning to
the right wave-length on the radio sets. The moon
landing by the American astronauts was televised
'live' back to earth through the satellites to all parts
of the world. Men are being brought much closer to
one another through such useful mass media. They
have far reaching effects on every aspect of our daily
lives, be it trade. culture or entertainment. Televi-
sion allows pictures, advertisements and even school
lessons to be transmitted to the remotest parts of the
country. Whatever disasters, achievements or polit-
ical events that have taken place in one country can
be made known to the rest of the world almost
immediately. With the modern network of telecom-
munications, men live very close to one another
despite their separation by many kilometres of phys-
ical barriers.

Ouestions and Exercises

1. (a) State three ways in which goods produced (b) The type of commodities that pass through
in one part of the world can reach con- them.
sumers a thousand kilometres away. (c) The trading nations they best serve.
(b) Explain why the charges on transporting the 4. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of
goods are dependent on such factors as: two of the following forms of transportation:
i. the nature of the goods; (a) inland waterways;
ii.
the distance they are carried; (b) railways;
iii.
the mode of transport. (c) motor highways;
2. Explain any three of the following: (d) air transport.
(a) Freight charges need not be proportional to 5. What do you understand by the following terms
distance. connected with transport. Choose any four of.
(b) Inland water transport has its own limita- them, explain their meaning and account for the
tions. part they play in communications.
(c) The North Atlantic sea route is the busiest (a) standard gauge;
in the world. (b) passenger liner;
(d) Most railways are owned by governments. (c) tramps;
3. Give a comparative account of the Cape of (d) air terminals;
Good Hope and the Panama Canal routes under (e) tankers;
the following headings: (f) colliers;
(a) Some of the chief ports that each links. (g) beasts of burden.

Sample Objective Ouestions

1. Despite the rapid development in C other modes of transport are A they fluctudte in volume
modern air transport around the more efficient B large rivers may be silied at their
world, its service is still confined to a D it costs more to go by air mouths
fraction of the population because c their navigability can never be
A people fear air disasters in their natural state may not
2. Rivers improved
B many countries do not have air- be useful as inland waterways for D their courses may be interrupted
lines these reasons except by changes in gradient

310
3. The busiest and the most importanl A it cannot carry bulky commod- Yl dairyproducts
the
trans-oceanic route is ities Which of the above commodities are
A North Atlantic Route B it consumes much petrol usually transported along the Trans-
B Cape of Good Hope Route C its carrying capacity is very li- Pacifc Route between the two sides
C Trans-paoific Route mited of the Pacific?
D panama Canal_Caribbean Route D it runs on fixed rails A Commodities I, V and VI
B Commodities I, II, IV and VI
4. Colliers are ships that specilize in 7' The man-made canal which connects C Commodities I, IIl, IV and VI
the transportation of Lake Ontario to Lake Erie in the St. D Commodities II, III, tV and V
A coal Lawrence-Great Lakes Waterway is
B wheat the 8. The multi-lane highways in West
C bananas A Soo Canal Germany are termed as
D oil B Erie Canal A autoroutes
C Welland Canal B autobahns
5. The busiest inland commercial D Rideau Canal C autostradss
waterway is the D motorways
A Mississippi River 9. The following are some of the major
B Rhine River commodities that are transported 10. The greatest asset of air transporta-
C Indus River atong world shipping roules; tion is
D Murray-Darling River I ryheat A economy
II rice B security
6. The greatest disadvantage of rail III meat C speed
transport compared with other IV machinery D carrying capacity
means oftransport is that V coal

311
Chapter 31 Settlements and Urbanization
A settlement may be defined as a group of buildings
with people living in them. It is a unit or organized
group of men, women and children making a living
out of their surrounding environment. These units
vary in size, complexity and stage of development.
There are always reasons why a group of people
should have chosen to live in a certain place. There
are even more reasons why one settlement should
grow from an isolated one-family farmstead to a
sizeable village, eventually becoming a town or even
a city.
You have been to many places, you have read
about some interesting towns and cities in your
geography books. Have you ever for a moment
thought to yourself how these settlements came into
being? You should, if the geography you have learnt
so far is to mean something to you. Geography
begins at home and the best place to start finding out
some interesting geographical facts is your own
hometown. It has almost everything that you want;
landscape, vegetation, rocks, soil, weather, houses,
buildings, roads and the various things that the local
people do, buy, sell and talk about. There is so much
that you can learn about geography from settle-
ments.
Types of settlement
Basically, there are only two main types of settle-
ment, dispersed and nucleated settlements.
l. Dispersed settlements. These are one-family or
a few-family residences scattered about in isolated
places. They are separated from one another by
open country or by geographical barriers (Fig. 31.1).
Life for the settlers is simple, quiet, and much the
Fig. 31.1 A dispersed settlement
r:i..-.1, Settlement
iir.:.J Mining Area
River& L
Road
312
-rOaOS
dE rivers
tlr viltages
% mile
0km8
0 mile 5
{$*n"
N
l-t
t,
I
I
Fig.31.2 A nucleated settlement
same all the year round. There is little opportunity
for social gatherings and even less for any spectac-
ular development. Dispersed settlement is most typ-
ical of rural areas. e.g. on the highlands of Malaysia,
the scrublands of central Australia, and the out-of-
the-way wheat farms in the Canadian Prairies.
2. Nucleated settlements. These are groupings of
several family residences. There are collective amen-
ities to serve the community like shophouses, mar-
kets, schools, places of worship and of entertainment
and a transport network. The settlement is compact,
concentrated and distinguishable by certain well
developed features (Fig. 31.2). Nucleated settle-
ments are called by different names according to
.their sizes and their functions. They may be village,
towns, ports or cities. Malaysian examples of nu-
cleated settlements are Sungai Sumum (a linear
village, with houses packed together on both sides
of the main Bagan Datoh Road), Teluk Intan (a
river-bend town), Port Kelang (a fast-developing
port) and Kuala Lumpur (a thriving city).
Location of settlements
A close look at the towns and cities shown in your
atlas, will reveal that they have certain advantages
\-Main Roads l\./f 1;...1t, ;.:iTaPadtfu .
;;il: l\
aD industrial Estates |
6 Berri

*'.i
N _-'t
\R"it*"y, I /

t\ LumDur
i;;n \i
!
!

+€A
Ar%
ri Besi
.atang
i\
-)
I

olr-
r
0 miles
'l
15\

Fig. 31.3 Site of Kuala Lumpur 0_k-.

of site and position which have enabled them to
grow. The site of a town is its topographical location
in the immediate neighbourhood. Kuala Lumpur is
sited at the confluence of the Sungai Kelang and its
tributary the Gombak. Its position is its locational
situation in relation to the rest of the region. Kuala
Lumpur is situated in the 'rubber and tin belt' in cen-
tral Peninsular Malaysia. Fig. 31.3 shows the site of
Kuala Lumpur and Fig. 31.4 the position of Kuala
Lumpur. It is important not to confuse site with
position or situation.
Fig. 31.4 Position of Kuala Lumpur
THAI LAND
0 miles 10
"%rc,est
'..: ,]':l.t: Padi
rords
{++
- railways
Fig. 31.5 Alor Setar, on a fertile plain
The following are some of the more favrourable
combinations of site and situation which have led to
the establishment and growth of settlements.
l. Fertile alluvial plain. The basic requisites of
human existence are food and water. A fertile allu-
vial plain traversed by rivers is the best for raising
food crops and maintaining a secure water supply.
A level plain also facilities the movement of people
and goods. It is an ideal situation for the exchange
of products and ideas. It is the potential centre for
trade, communication and administration. Examples
are Alur Setar on the fertile Kedah Plain, drained by
the Sungai Kedah (Fig. 31.5 and Plate 31.A), Nanj-
ing (Nanking) on the rich Chang Jiang (Yangtze)
Plain of Central China, and Paris in the intensively
cultivated Paris basin drained by the River Seine.
2. Coastal lowlands. Where narrow coastal plains
are bounded on the landward side by mountains,
agriculture, transport and settlement have all to be
concentrated on the lower land. Where there is a
route through the mountain barrier, this naturally
leads to the growth of a town. Examples include
Taiping on the Larut Plain at the foot of Maxwell
Hill, part of the Gunung Bintang Range, about
16 km (10 miles) from the coast. Trondheim lies on

E
+at?,
Land over
183 m (@O feetl
Railways
the fertile lowland of the Trondheim Fiord, bounded
inland by the Scandinavian Mountains (Fig. 31.6)
and Durban on the coastal plain at the foot of the
Roads
I t- a.o
Drakensberg is another example.
a Major towns 0 miles 50
3. Sheltered indentations on the coastline. An

313
 0km80
.^o
o mites
'r$:
u0
a*y

#
rw: ill.ftl r,rrin uuirt-
.:+-..uparl
*t""i i$-{ii*fr suburbs

Fig. 31.7 Singapore, on a sheltered port

road railways ttlsttt.na bour, Empire Dock, East, West, and Main
--- +H+r- ffi Wharves) are well sheltered in a curved bay, pro-
Fig. 31.6 Trondheim, on a fiorded coastal lowland tected by Pulau Brani and Pulau Sentosa (Fig. 31.7).
Melbourne is ideally sited on Port Phillip Bay and
indented coastline has calm waters and is sheltered protected by protruding headlands on both sides of
from the waves of the open sea. It is particularly the entrance to form one of the best sheltered nat-
well-suited for a seaport where off-shore islands ural harbours of the southern hemisphere. Tokyo is
offer an added protection. Examples includes Sin- located at the end of the sheltered Tokyo Bay. A
gapore whose wharves and dockyards (Keppel Har- dredge channel enables ships of over L0 000 tonnes

31.A Alur Setar, sited at a bend of a river and situated in the

fertife Kedah Plain Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia
l"- ' s:,r';

314
 Milwaukee
n to Duluth a.|d PRAIRIES
ro Attaniic o@n
|
\ll
?
0km80
o-miles 50 / ll r.ko Michisln
\ llen
o;ll
II gll
I ll lrom Duluth and PRAIRIE
rrom Atlantic ocan
t lf
Fig. 31.8 Chicago, a nodal town
to reach Tokyo itself, though the large ocean liners
and tramps prefer to call at its outport, Yokohama,
32 km (20 miles) away.
4. A natural focus of routes. These are the nodal
towns. By virtue of their geographical location in
relation to the region, many towns assume promi-
nence as centres of road, rail or water communica-
tion. People congregate to provide commerical and
social services that passing tt'avellers can make use
of. Examples of such nodal towns include Bidor
whose function is more as an intermediate
route junction between two state capitals, Ipoh in
the north, and Kuala Lumpur in the south. Chicago
is an ideally located route town in the Mid-West of
the U.S.A. (Fig. 31.8). Road and rail routes converge
on Chicago from the west, east and south while
water routes on Lake Michigan lead north, and give
it an outlet to the Atlantic via the Great
Crewe is a central location for the railways of Brit-
ain. It is the greatest main-line railway junction of
the country.
5. Sites for generating hydro-electric power.
Waterfalls are natural sites for generating hydro-
electricity. Where such a site occurs, the avail-
ability of cheap power attracts industrial concerns.
These require labour and provisions, and a set-
tlement is very likely to grow up, taking advan-
tage of the cheap power. Examples include Buffalo
south of the Niagara Falls, which is an example of
l
Fig. 31.9 Buffalo, at the top of Niagara Falls
the growth of a large city associated with the devel-
opment of H.E.P. (Fig. 31.9) and Trollhattan, a
Swedish town. Trollhattan, which is linked by rail to
Goteborg, the premier port of Scandinavia, owes
much of its recent growth to the H.E.P. works of the
Trollhattan Falls-'the Niagara of Sweden'. Killaloe
on the River Shannon in Ireland once supplied the
whole country with electricity. There are now many
other producers but electrical transmission lines
from Killaloe still bring light and heat to many Irish
farms and homes.
6. By the side of lakes. Lakes provide fish, water
and a means of inland transport. Some of the best
known tourist centres are located on or near lakes
because of their scenic beauty and recreational facil-
ities. Examples of lakeside towns include Como, one
of the most frequented tourist resorts of Europe,
located close to Lake Como, Italy whose scenic
beauty and proximity to the Alps made it a popular
base from which to explore the Alps. Entebbe is a
lakeside town of Lake Victoria (Fig. 31.10) whose
importance is further enhanced by its proximity to
Lakes. the Ugandan capital, Kampala. Salt Lake City, sit-
uated near the Great Salt Lake of Utah, is one of
the largest nucleated settlements in the Rocky
Mountains. It is at a height of 1 200 metres (4,000
feet) above sea-level.
7. Mineral wealth. Many settlements have grown
to considerable size purely because of the presence
of minerals. Even in the desert or high in the moun-
tains valuable minerals will attract investors and men
to work in the mines. Examples include Johannes-
burg, the 'Golden City', whose growth was initiated
by the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand Plate
315
 KENYA

LAKE
VICTORIA

Fig. 31.10 Entebbe, a lakeside town

31.8 Johannesburg,South
taif ings from gold mines in the background. Camera press
31.C). It has expanded so fast that it is now the cap-
ital of Transvaal, the second largest city of Africa Fig.31.11 lpoh, a tin-mining town
after Cairo, and the rail and road focus of South
roads
Africa. Kiruna was founded when rich magnetite
iron ore was discovered in northern Sweden. Kiruna, -*1+ railways

together with Gallivare, produces more iron than

any part of the Scandinavian peninsula. Because of
ffi nbnrno

tin
its northerly location, its importance will always be $
confined to that of a mining settlement lpoh, 'the
town that tin built', has experienced phenomenal
growth since tin was discovered in the Kinta Valley
a century ago. It has expanded from a tin trading
centre for the Kinta Valley to being the administra-
tive capital of Perak today (Fig. 31.11).
E. Good site for defence. This was a deciding fac-
tor in ancient times when defensive strategy, exe-
cuted at the right moment, could save the whole
community. However, in modern warfare with aerial
attacks, even New York or Moscow could not be
saved. Some of the older towns that grew up on
defensive sites include Beijing (Peking), the ancient
and present capital of China, and a well fortified
town. The Great Wall of China formed the first line
of defence against the barbarian invaders from the
north (Fig. 31.12). Today, the city is still surrounded
by a series of walls that once shut out invaders.
Edinburgh, the strategic capital of Scotland was
once a fortress that commanded the important
routes of the Central Valley. Edinburgh Castle,
standing on a rocky crag, is a reminder of the town's

316
 ffi tticht"td

9kmg0
0 miles 50

Fig. 31.14 Orleans, on a river bend

t\ a^^ *",,,

Fig. 31.12 Beijing (Peking) a defensible site

military significance in the past. Rome located on the

Tiber River and the seven hills was the ancient
Roman capital of the world. Castles and fortresses
were built on the many small hills to defend parts of
the city. Today, it contains the Vatican, ecclesiastical
capital of the Roman Catholic world and is the cap-
ital of Italy, but its economic importance has slipped
well behind that of industrial Milan in the north.
9. River-borne sites. These include a vast number ;- ', dens€ly
'- populated rea
of sites carved out by a river on its course from source
to mouth.
(a) Where a river passes through a gap.This is 0 miles 2OO

the lowest part of the region and it naturally carries

many road and railway routes, e.g. Shenyang (Muk-
den) in Manchuria (China), Lincoln on the River
Witham (U.K.), Toulouse (Fig. 31.13) on the River
Gar6nne (France).
Fig. 31.13 Toulose (France), a gap town
Fig. 31.15 Khartoum. on a confluence town
(b) Where a river bends or meanders. A town
may take advantage of a change in the river's direc-
tion of flow, e.g. Teluk Intan on Sungai Perak,
Orleans (Fig. 31.1a) on the River Loire; or a town
may be sited on the inside of a bend, a defensive site
almost surrounded by water, e.g. Durham, England.
(c) Where two rivers meet (confluence town). The
volume of the river increases when two streams
merge into one. The navigability of the river is
increased and a town may grow, e.g. Temerloh, at
the confluence of Sungai Pahang and Sungai Seman-
tan; St. Louis, at the confluence of the Mississippi
and Missouri; Khartoum (Fig. 31.15) at the meeting
of the Blue and White Nile.
(d) Where a river enters or leaves a lake on is
course A town may take advantage of being near

3r7

okm66
0 miles 4A
Fig.31.16 Geneva, where a river leaves a lake
two sources of water and two lines of communica-
tion, the river and the lake, e.g. Geneva (Fig. 31.16)
where the River Rh6ne leaves Lake Geneva; Duluth
where the small St. Louis River enters Lake Supe-
rior: Detroit. where the St. Clair River enters Lake
Erie.
(e) Where a river enters or leaves a gorge. The
gorge itself is too steep for any large settlement, but
at the points where the river enters or leaves the
gorge, the valley widens and there are better sites
for settlements, e.g. Bingen, where the Rhine enters
the Rhine Gorge, Bonn, where the Rhine leaves the
Fig.31.17 Bingen and Bonn, at either end of the Rhine
Gorge
318
NORTH SEA
WEST
GERMANY
Bremen
,r-\
0 km 1OO 're^
O miles 80
Fig. 31.18 Bremen and Hamburg and their outport
Gorge (Fig. 31.17); Linz, where the Danube enters
its gorge and Vienna, where the Danube leaves the
gorge.
(t) The limit of river navigation or the head of
ocean navigation. The point where the river
becomes too shallow for river steamers to go any
further upstream or the point where high steamers
begin sailing downstream towards the ocean, are
important points. Large settlements in the form of
river ports are located there, e.g. Wuchang on the
Chang Jiang (Yangtze Kiang) and Oxford on the
Thames are river ports at the limit of river naviga-
tion. Bremerhaven (Fig. 31.18) on the Weser and
Rouen on the Seine, are river ports at the head of
ocean navigation.
(g) Fording or bridging point on a river. At a
point where a river can be forded or bridged a town
may grow up to take advantage of this improvement
in communications, e.g. Bedford on the Great Ouse,
England; London, the'lowest bridging point'on the
Thames.
Functions of Settlements
All settlements perform certain useful functions to
justify their continued existence. Most of them have
several functions. A village may just serve the com-
munity as a meeting place for people and goods and
have no other outstanding functions to distinguish
it from the neighbouring villages. But as a village
grows into a town and later into a city, the increase
in population alone warrants many actiyities that a
village does not require. These activities lead to cer- Geneva (international capital but not the capital of
tain specializations that differentiate one from the Switzerland), Washington D.C. (capital of the
others. London with its nine million people has U.S.A.), Canberra (the planned capital of Aus-
many functions. It is an administrative centre (being tralia), Brasilia (the capital of Brazil, noted for its
capital of the United Kingdom), a port (with highly bold modern architecture) and Islamabad (the new
specialized docks and wharves), a financial centre capital of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan).
(the Bank of England is the central bank of the 6. Cultural and educational towns. These are
Sterling Area), and industrial centre (some highly towns in which are found world renowned univers-
sophisticated luxury goods are made here) and a cul- ities, e.g. Oxford, Cambridge and London in U.K.,
tural centre (with the University of London, art gal- Heidelberg in the Netherlands.
leries, museums and theatres). But most towns have 7. Ecclesiastical towns. The towns under this cat-
one dominant function. We can therefore classify egory are very special. They are historical and reli-
towns according to their functions. gious centres and are frequented by pilgrims from
l. Market towns. These towns act as centres of all parts of the globe. Such ecclesiastical towns
exchange. They are collection and distribution include Jerusalem, (Judaism, Christianity), Mecca
centres for local products. The mere fact that a town (Islam), Varanasi (Hinduism). There are other
lies in a densely populated district or in an agricul- smaller ones which have religious associations of
tural region necessitates its function as a town of some kind or have important shrines. e.g. Canter'
commodity distribution, e.g. Seremban (Malaysia), bury (U.K.), Lourdes (France).
Kumasi (Ghana), Norwich (U.K.). 8. Royal towns. These are the traditional resi-
2. Industrial towns. These are towns that are pri- dences of monarchs, kings and queens, sultans and
marily concerned with the processing of raw mate- their consorts. They may have beautiful palaces and
rials into manufactured goods. They normally have are visited by foreign dignitaries, e.g. Copenhagen
certain advantages as industrial sites, such as prox- (Denmark) Luang Prabang (Laos) and Kuala Kang-
imity to power, minerals, raw materials, labour or sar (the residence of His Highness, the Sultan of
markets and are well served by a good network of Perak).
communications. They may be towns specializing in 9. Holiday resorts, hill resorts and health
textiles (Leeds, U.K.), chemical (Remscheid, West resorts. Various kinds of resorts are located in
Germany), or steel (Pittsburgh, U.S.A.). favourable geographical surroundings. They include
3. Commercial towns. These are centres of com-
merce and finance, where trade is the primary con- 31.C St. Moritz, Switzerland, a popular winter sports resort
cern. There are established facilities for banking, is sited near skisf opes and a lake. Servizio Editoriale Fotogra-
fico
insurance and other commerical interests. London
is the financial headquarters of the Commonwealth.
New York, with business concentrated on Wall
Street, is the financial centre of the U.S.A. Zurich
and Frankfurt are also financial centres.
4. Mining towns. The mining towns can be
located in very unusual places provided there are
sufficient mineral resources. Some of the more out-
standing mining towns are Newcastle, U.K. (coal),
Sudbury, Canada (nickel), Magnitogorsk, U. S.S.R.
(iron), Kalgoorlie, Australia (gold), Chuquicamata,
Chile (copper), Anshan, Manchuria (iron), Potosi,
Bolivia (tin). With the exhaustion of the minerals,
some of these settlements shrink. Many acquire
other functions and are permanent towns.
5. Administrative towns. These are the head-
quarters of the government and they are capital cit-
ies or centres of local administration. They deal with
the organization and administration of the nation or
of a division within the country. Some capitals are
319
coastal resorts for bathing and yatching, e.g. Brigh-
ton (U.K.), Miami (U.S.A.); hill resorts for moun-
tain climbing and for the cool mountain air. e.g.
Grindelwald, Moritz (Plate 31.D) (Switzerland),
Innsbruck (Austria), Tanah Rata, Cameron High-
lands (Malaysia); health resorts for those who need
specialists' treatment, e.g. Baden Baden (Germany);
Bath (U.K.).
10. Ports. These are berthing places for steamers
and river craft and usually have deep waters, ware-
houses and international transport arrangements,
including customs offices and banking and. insurance
services. They can be sub-divided into the following.
(a). Seaports. These are the large ocean termi-
nals with all the essential port facilities to accomo-
date cargoes and passengers, e.g. Southampton,
Marseilles, Hong Kong, Yokohama, Auckland,
Honolulu.
(b). Entrepdts. These are ports that specialize in
receiving and redistributing goods to the neighbour-
ing countries and to all corners of the world, e.g. 31.E Petaling Jaya, a well-planned satellite town designed
Singapore, Colombo, Rotterdam, (Plate 31.E). for residential and light industry purposes Jabatan Pener-
angan Malaysia
(c). Packet-stations. These are ferry-terminals on
an international scale. They deal with goods and pas-
ships, e.g. Fremantle serves Perth; Lyttleton serves
sengers crossing channels and seas, e.g. Calais
Christchurch, Cuxhaven serves Hamburg (Fig. 31.18).
(France), Ostend (Belgium), Folkstone (U.K.).
(e). River porrs. These are ports which can be
(d). Outports. These are smaller ports closer to
reached by smaller steamers on the lower course
deep ocean waters and serve a larger port further
of a river, e.g. Duisburg (W. Germany), Rouen
inland which can no longer be reached by the largest (France), Manaus (Brazil).
(f). Fishing ports. Here the predominant port
31.D Rotterdam one of the largest European ports is sited acitivity is the handling of fish, with storage, proc-
at the mouth of the Rhine. Servizio Editoriale Fotografico
essing and packing facilities, e.g. Yarmouth and
Grimsby (U.K.), Lorient (France), Bergen (Nor-
way), Kuala Besut (Trengganu, Malaysia).
(g). Residential or satellite towns. These are
modern towns which have been specially developed
to accommodate urban people, who wish to reside
in more healthy and spacious surroundings away
from the city centre. These towns often include
industrial estates for light industries, e.g. Crawley,
United Kingdom serving congested London; Val-
lingby outside Stockholm; and Petaling Jaya near
Kuala Lumpur (Plate 31.F); and Toa Payoh in
Singapore.

Town Growth
Settlements grow in size and complexity with the
passage of time. In fact, all present-day large cities
were once villages or small towns, and their growth
to urban status is due to a combination of factors.

320

31.F Kano. a caravan town in Nigeria Poppertoto
All settlements are nuclei of population concentra-
tion, and each succeeding generation adds to the
number of people merely by natural increase besides
those who drift in from surrounding rural areas. Iir
recent years, many towns have experienced a rapid
population increase from large numbers of people
who flock into towns for one reason or another. 'The
lure of the town' is probably one of the greatest rea-
sons. Large towns and cities all over the world seem
to be places of great excitement to rural folk, with
many attractions that make life worth living. Many
move in from distant villages without any idea of
how they are going to make a living and end up with
problems, for themselves and the urban authorities
concerned. It cannot be denied that employment
opportunities are far greater in towns than in villages
whether in shops, offices, factories, entertainment
or other public services, but one must remember
that the number of people competing for those jobs
is proportionally great. Unless towns can grow at a
rate which provides enough job opportunities to
match the influx of migrants from the countryside,
unemployment and urban congestion are bound to
arise. At the same time problems are sometimes cre-
ated in rural areas when 'rural depopulation' leads
to abandoned farms and scarcity of farm labour.
Apart from local migrants, the numbers of people
in towns and cities are also swelled by immigrants
from other countries. The ratio of urban-rural pop-
ulation in most countries since the beginning of this
century has gone up more than 25 per cent. In Aus-
tralia, for example, for every 4 persons, 3 live in
towns!
32r
Urbanization and lts Problems
The growth of towns in human numbers lead directly
to the areal expansion of the town limits. The sur-
rounding agricultural land is gradually taken over by
urban structures and factory sites. The wealthier
people have to move further and further out into the
countryside to build their suburban homes to enjoy
the open space and fresh air which are so lacking in
the urban areas. Where the pressure of population
on available housing is great, as in many crowded
Asian cities, squatters move into the unused subur-
ban spaces and build makeshift shacks which present
great problems to urban development plans. Despite
government efforts to resettle squatters in flats in
modern multi-storeyed housing blocks as in Singa-
pore, Hong Kong, Bombay and New york, slum
dwellers are still found around most of the world's
cities.
In advanced countries the rapidly growing cities
spread in all directions. The suburban areas extend
especially along the main roads that lead into the
cities. Industrial sites have to move further and fur-
ther away from the urban hearts, drawing labour
force from the urban districts as well as from the
nearby villages. At the same time the villages and
towns that lie within commuting distance of the cities
will also be gradually developed either into residen-
tial quarters or industrial towns. They tend to grow
and expand towards each other till they eventually
merge as a continuous urban or industrial belt
known as 'conurbatrbn'. Such mergers of many
towns are very common in the developed countries,
e.g. the Midlands of England where towns like Bir-
mingham, Wolverhampton, Walsall, Oldbury, Wil-
lenhall, etc. form the well-known conurbation-the
'Black Country'. Similar kinds of conurbation are
found in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence region of
Canada, the Eastern seaboard of the U.S.A. (Meg-
alopolis) and the Ruhr-Westphalia region of West
Germany. In the years to come, the expanding sub-
urbs and industrial estates of Kuala Lumpur may
eventually merge with those of Petaling Jaya, Sungei
Way, Batu Tiga, Shah Alam, and Port Kelang to
form a great conurbation.
Urbanization caused by the combined expansion
of population and urban area poses many problems.
1. Unemployment. Unless urban growth can keep
pace with the commercial and industrial develop-
ment, many people will not be gainfully employed
in the cities. The urban authorities have to be con-
stantly on the watch for development opportunities
by offering attractive terms and economic stability
for foreign investors to channel their investments in
the city and suburban areas. Facilities should alsci be
created to teach the people the various skills in the
industrial and commercial fields so that the investors
can be assured of the right poeple to make their
investments grow. The widespread unemployment
in many congested cities of the world can be a threat
to the economic and social well-being of a country.
2. Housing. In a congested city, housing can be an
acute problem. Scarcity of living accommodation
can push up rental rates to exorbitant heights, as has
happened in New York, London and even Singapore
today. Over-congested living quarters can be a
health hazard especially in slums and squatter areas.
The scarcity of land and the exorbitant land prices
have necessitated the construction of multi-storey
flats and sky-scraper office blocks. The independent,
single or semi-detached bungalow-type residential
houses that we so commonly see in the countryside
are a real luxury in large cities!
3. Traffic congestion. Large cities, with their mil-
lions of inhabitants who have to live, work and move
about, invariably suffer from congestion on roads.
AII kinds of conveyances: cars, buses, trams, trucks,
railways, motorcycles and bicycles jam the transport
31.G An aerial view of Tokyo, the largest city in the world
lnternational Society for Educational lnformation
322
network and slow down movement. This is particu-
larly serious during the rush hours in the morning,
lunch breaks and after office hours, as well as in
the evenings where there are again many people on
the streets going to restaurants and cinemas, etc.
Public transport systems are crammed to capacity
and parking problems can be a nerve-racking expe-
rience especially when one is in a hurry to reach the
office or to keep an appointment. Many car-owners
in congested cities prefer to abandon their vehicles
and catch a taxi, bus or underground train to reach
the city centre.
4. Environmental deterioration. Overcrowding al-
ways leads to a drop in living standards. A large
population in a small area puts a tremendous pres-
sure on such everyday matters as the disposal of sew-
age and garbage, and the provision of water supply,
electricity, social and recreational amenities. Smoke
from kitchens, factories and cars pollutes the air and
increases health hazards. The noise from the traffic
and the industrial sites is often excessive and makes
town-life unpleasant. With the increase in the urban
sprawl, the natural beauty of the landscape is spoilt.
Green fields have to give way to housing and indus-
try. Environmental deterioration is a major problem
in all highly developed urban areas. (Plate 31.G)
Ouestions and Exercises
1. Either: Distinguish the differences between (a) Attempt to classify the different types of
dispersed and nucleated settlements, giving ports.
examples wherever you can. (b) Name three types of ports. Give an example
Or: State the difference between site and sit- for each type you have named and state the
uation by drawing sketch maps of towns that main functions of each example.
you know. (c) What type of port would you say each of
2. With the aid of sketch maps show specific the following is?
examples of the following types of towns: i. Singapore
(a) nodal town; ii. Fremantle
(b) confluence town; iii. Southampton
(c) gap town; iv. Calais
(d) satellite town. v. Hakodate
3. State the geographical factors which have led vi. Manus
to the growth of any four of the following 8. (a) Describe the site and situation of Tokyo.
towns. (Sketch maps are essential.). (b) Give an example each of a town which is
(a) Marseilles sited on the following:
(b) Chicago i. river confluence;
(c) Maracaibo ii. sheltered indented coastline:
(d) Vladivostlk iii. railway focus;
(e) Los Angeles iv. lake-side:
(f) Kuala Lumpur v. foot of a hill:
(g) Sydney vi. a gap.
(h) Johannesburg (c) For any two of the towns you named in (b),
4. Explain any three of the following terms con- draw maps to illustrate their sites and sug-
nected with settlements: gest reasons for their growth and impor-
(a) conurbation; tance.
(b) rural depopulation; 9. Explain any three of the following:
(c) outports; (a) Many capital cities have a central location.
(d) linear settlement; (b) Many important ports are also large
(e) hinterland. industrial centres.
5. Either: Describe some of the favourable loca- (c) The greatest number of 'million cities' are
tions for the siting of towns. located in Asia.
Or: Give a reasoned classification of towns (d) Many large cities in the developing coun-
based on any one method that is familiar to tries are of relatively recent origin.
you. (e) Large cities have various functions.
6. (a) Why are towns continuously growing both 10. (a) What do you understand by the term 'pol-
in population and size? lution'?
(b) Name three towns which have grown very (b) Why is pollution a serious problem in
rapidly in the past decade. heavily industrialized cities?
(c) Discuss the problems that are posed by (c) What other types of 'pollution' may be
fast-growing towns. expected in large cities?
(d) What attempts are being made to combat (d) What measures can be taken to combat
these problems? pollution in cities?

323
Sample Objective Ouestions
1. The growth of cities leads to the ex- 4. Darwin in northern Australia is an C environmental deterioration
pansion of areas as well as popula- example of a town that has recently D a lowering of the cost of living
tion. Their consequences are re- suffered very badly from
flected in the following ercepr A un uncontrollable bush-fire 8. Southampton in the United King-
A the deterioration of urban sur- B a disastrous earthquake dom is a typical
roundings C a prolonged drought A naval port
B the lower cost of living D a typhoon B entrep6t port
C the higher rental charges C passenger port
D theincreasedrateof crimes 5. Queenstown which is in the South D ferryport
Island of New Zealand is important
2. Rivers on their course from source because it is 9. Towns may decline for various
to mouth may carve out sites that A a tourist resort reasons. Which of the following is
lead to the growth of settlements. B a mining site largely responsible for the decline of
Which of the following descriptions C an industrial town Hiroshima in Japan?
of river sites is applicable to Gene- D a cultural centre A excessive silting at the river
va, Switzerland? mouth
A where a river enters a gorge 6. The greatest number of 'million B the decline of industrial output
B where a river passes through a cities' is found in C as a result of natural disaster
gap A Europe D destruction by war
C lake
where a river leaves a B Asia
D where two rivers meet C Africa 10. From the list of the major port cities
D North America of the world given below, select one
3. Towns may decline for these reasons which is not served by an output.
except 7. Problems arising from urbanization A Hamburg
A route.
diversion of the main include the following except B Colombo
B deposits
depletion of mineral A air pollution C Perth
C'closure of factories B traffic consestion D Bristol
D urban drift

324
Ansvrrers for the Objective Ouestions

Chapter I Ch{ter 15

l.C Z.B 3.D 4.C 5.A 1.B 2.D 3.A 4.c s'B
6.D 7.C 8.8 9.A 10.D
lt. C 12. B ChaPter 16
r.A 2.C 3.8 4.A 5.C
Chapter 2
1. B 2. A 3. C 4' A 5' C ChaPter 17
l.B 2.D 3.C 4.A 5.B
Chapter 3

1. B 2. A 3. C 4. B 5. D ChaPter lt
1.D 2..A 3.B 4.D 5.B
Chapter 4
1. B Z. C 3. A 4. C 5. A ChaPter 19
1.8 2.D 3.C 4.A 5.C
Chapter 5
1.c 2.A 3.D 4.8 5.A chaPter2o
1.C 2.8 3.D 4.A 5.8
Chapter 6
1. c 2.8 3. D 4. D 5. 8 chaPter2l
o 2' c 3' D 4' D 5' c
chapter, 't'
l.B 2.A 3.C 4.C 5.D ChaPter22
1.D 2.A 3.C 4.C 5.B
Chapter t
t.B Z.C 3.A 4.A 5.8 Chapter2.l
1.D 2.C 3.A 3.D 5.C
Chapter 9
l.D 2.C 3.A 4.8 5.A chapter2A
l.D 2.C 3.D 4.A 5.8
Chapter l0
l.B 2.C 3.D 4.D 5.B chapter2s
1.B 2.8 3,D 4.C 5.A
Chapter ll
1. D 2. C 3. B 4.8 5. D chaprcr26

Chapterl2 1' C 2' D 3' B 4' D 5' B

6.A 7.D 8.C 9.8 10.D
1.8 2.A 3.C 4.A 5.C 11.C L2.B 13.B 14,A 15.C
16. D 17. C 18. A 19. B 20. C
Chapter 13
1.D 2.D 3.8 4.A 5.8
6.C 7.8 8. A 9. C 10.8 Chapter2T

1' c 2' B 3' D 4' B 5' c

Chapter 14 6.D 7.A 8.D 9.C 10.D
t.B 2.C 3.D 4.A s.B 11.A l2.B t3.D 14.B t5.B
6.D j.C 8.c 9.8 10.D 16.A l7.C 18.A 19.D 20.B

32s
Chapter 2t ll. A T2. B 13. A 14. C 15. A
1.B 2.C 3.D 4.A
16. D 17. B 18. C 19. A 20. C
5.C
6.B 7.C 8.D 9.D 10. B
11. A 12. B 13. C 14. A 15. D Chapter 30
16. C 17. D 18. B 19. A 20. B
21. D 22. C 23. B 24. A 25. c
l.D 2.C 3.A 4.A 5.8
26. B 6.D 7.C 8.B 9.C 10.C

Chapter 3l
Chapter 29
1.B 2.C 3.D 4.D 5.A
l.B 2,D 3.C 4.C 5.B 6.B 7,D 8.C 9.D 10. B
6.4 7.4 8.D 9.C 10. D

326
 Index
Abrasion: glacier, 59, 63 ; river,
55, 56 ; wind, 78, 79
Acacia,167,176
Adobe,73
Afforestation, 243
Agriculture, 239 -41, 254-61
desert -,178,179;
mechanized -,249; pastoral
249;
plantation -, l53, l6l, 163,
248; subsistence-, 163,
246, 248;tropical -, l6 I
Air transport,30849
Alfalfa (lucerne), 192
Algae, 99
Alluvial cone (or fan), 53
Alluvium,24,86
Alpine (orogenics), 2l
Altimeter, I l7
Altitude, 134
Aluminium,284
Anemometer, l2l
Animals: of burden, 302;
camouflaged -, 168;
carnivorous -, 167, domesti-
cated -, 170,192,195
herbivorous -,167 ,235
pack -, 178;pedigree -,
2I3 ; furdearine -,22O-21
Antarctic Circle,7,l0
- Anthracite.264
Anticlines, 2l ,137 ,268
Anticyclones, 1 43
Aphelion,3
Aquifer, 42,45
tuch, 90-91, 95
Archipelagos (or island groups),
97
Arctic Circle, 7, l0
Arete,55,56
Aridity (or dryness), 67
17 4,176
Artesian: basin, 249; well,44-
45
Artificial embankment s - 27 3 -
274
Asphalt, 268
Atmosphere, 130-l3l
Atoll, 100,102
Attrition, 49,69,88
Automation,2T8
Autumn, 192,2O9
Backwash, 88, 92
Badlands, 68, 73
Bajada,T 4
Bamboo,160 Cash crops, see under Crops
Baobab,167 Catalytic cracking, 27 l
Bar,92 Cataracts, 5 I
Barchan.72 Catchment area,47
Barley, 212,227,253 Cattle: beef -, 212;breeding
Barograph, l l7 of
:
Barometer, I l6,l l7
-,
ranching
169;dairy -, 212,250;
Barrier reef, 100, l0l
-.250;
-, Batholith,2T,28
temperate -, l7O
Caves (caverns), 78, 90
Bay, 89
9l , 94; raised
Cadars,185
Beach , -, 95 Cereals, 186, 250, 251, 252, 253
Beaufort Wind Scale, 122,142 chdk, 19,76,79
Beaver,85,22l Chaparral,185
Belukar,152 Chebka,73
Benches, 65 Chemical (or solvent) action of
Berg Wind, see under Winds water,49
Bergschrund,6l Chernozem,l9l
Bindubu, 177 chiti,184
Birth control , see under Family Chinook Wind, see under Winds
Planning Cirque (or corrie), 6l
Birth rates. 229 Citrus fruits, 185
Blast furnace,285 Clay,4l, 106
Blizzards, 217 ,232 ctiff,89-90
'Blood rain',72,184 Climate: and agriculture, 239,
Blow*roel, see under Glup elements of , I l5- 28; factors
Bog bursts,40 affecting, l3l w.f.7: and
Boll weevil,2O4,24O groundwater, 4 I ; importance
Bora, 184 of, I 14, I l5 and lakes,86; and
Borax, 3 I population,295; types of, 143
Botos,297 Climatic zones: Arctic (Polar),
Boulder clay ,24 , 63 , 64 ,65 , 296 233-5; Cool temperate con-
Breakers,88, tinenta.l (Siberiran), 2l 6-1 8 ;
Breccia. l9 Cool temperate eastern margin
Buran, 217 (Laurentian), 2244 : Cool
Bushmen, 177 temperate western margin
Bush Veld (Parkland), 167, (Britistr type), 207-9; Equa-
189, l9l torial, hot, wet, 150, Hot
Buttes, 24,7O Desert, 173; Savanna (Sudan),
I 65 ; Temperate continental
Cacti,175,176 (Steppe), I 89 ; Temperate
,69, Calcite, T6 eastern margin (China type),
Calcium carbonate, 7 6, 7 9, 89, I 98-201 ; Temperate western
98 margin (Mediterranean), I 8 I ;
Caldera,29,30 Tropical monsoon, 157; Tropi-
Caledonian (orogenics), 2 I cal marine, 156;160
Caliche. 179 Climatology, I l4
Camel. 178 Clints,77
Cane sugar, 161,205, 260 Clouds, 132,135,136, l 3E, I 50;
Canyon (or gorge), 50,55,70, classificationof, 123-8; -
73 cover,135
Cap rock, 268 Coal: anthracite -,264; bitumi
Cape,89 nous -, 264:5i coking
Capital,282:283 265; distribution of , 265-6;
Carbon,264 - gas,265; industrial location,
Caribou (reindeer), 236 264, 286, 28 l, 283; lignite
327
 (brown coal), 265 ;mining 202-OS ,2lO-12;reg- Downcutting,55
methods, 264; peat, 265 ; minous -,2l2;perishable -, Downs,79
steam -, 264 3 types of , 264- 2l 0, plantation. -, I 6 I :2 , 17 O , Drainage; dendritic -, 48; and
26s 203-05,248,259,260; lakes, 83; in limestone regions,
Coasts: dalmatian -,94; de- root -,212; - rotation, 170, 76;radial -, 48; trellised -,
position on, 9l -92; emergent 2Q5,242; tropical -, 153- 54 48
upland, 95; erosion of. 89-91 ; 16l-62, - yield,s,297 Dredging,56
estuarine -, 94; fiord -, 93- Currents, 88, I 91, 2O8, 225, 226 Dreikanter, 7 I
94; rai -, 93;uplifted lowland, cold -, 67, l12, 166 ; convec- Drift (longshore), 9l
94 tion -, I 36; and coral reefs, Drift plain,.ree under Plarns
Cocoa,153,256 98-9; and deserts, 67; move- Drifters, 229
Coconuts,260 ment of -, 109-10; warrn -, Drought, 169, 174, 1 70, l9l
Coffee, 161,255, 99,108,109 Drumlin,54,83
Common Market. see under Cutoffs (or bayouts), see under Dune, 72; - belts, 92; marine -,
European Economic Com- Lakes - ox$ow 92
munity Cwm, see under Conie Duststorms, .r e e unde r Simoons
Commu nications (world), 309-l 0 Cyclones (Depressions): I 39- Dyke, I 8, 27 ; spnng, 44; and
Compressional forces, 22 140, 142-t43, 157, 158, l?6, oil,268
Condensation, 132, 136, 1 42 20041 ,207,208,234
Conduction, l3 I Cypress,185 Earth: movement of, 6,2Ot-25;
Cones, 29-30 Dairy farming ,2OS , 227 ,249 reyolution of 6€;rotation of,
Confluence, 5 I Daly, R.A., 102 6, I 10, I I l, 139; shape of,
Conglomerate, 1.9 Dam,2l0, 248,278,3O5 4 ; sphericity of , 4-5 ;structure
Conifers, 2lO, 21 6, 218, 219, Damodar industrial district. of, 17
22t.226 305 Earthquakes, 34-5 ,40
Continental: blocks, 22; - in- Darkness, T Eddies,73
teriors,6T; - ice+heets, 58, Darwin, Charles, l0l Elbow of capture, 50
63; - islands, 97; - shelf, Dates,176,179 Electricity: production of,
1O5,228,23O; Day,7 274-5;uws,273
- slope, 105
Continentality, 134, I 75, I 90 Deciduous tre es,se e unde r T rees, Elliptical orbit,5
Contour ploughing, 243 Forests Energy, 13l
Conurbation,32l Entrepot,320
Deflation, 27 ,79; - hollows,
Convection, l3l 7l Epicentres, 34
Convergence, 137 Deforestation , 2Ol ,242 Epiphytic plants,152
Coombes, T9 Delta, 55-56; arcuate -, 54 Equator, 7, 10, I I
Copper,179, bird's foot Equinoxes, 7, l5l
-, 54;cuspate -, Erg (sandy desert), 68, 72
Coral: - animals, 98; - islands, 54;dry -, 73;estuarine -,
98; reefs,98-100 Erosion, 36, 48 ;desert -,
- 54
Core stones, 37 Deltaic fans, 94 68-72; humid -, 48; glacier -,
Coriolis Force, 139 Denudation, 20, 22, 27, 36, 47 5965 ; eully -, 242 ;maine -,
Cork oak,185 Deposition,36; marine -, 92; 88-91, 102;river -, 50-55;
Corn (maize),2O3,253 river -,53,55 sheet -,242,244
Corrasion, 49; lateral -, 49, I Deposits: pelagic -, lO6; Erratic,64
52; vertical -,49, 50;and terrigenous -, 106 Esker,64
waves,8E Depressions, ^ree under Cyclones Eskimo,236
Corrie,6l Dewgoint, 120,123 Estuary,94
Cotton, 161,2O3,257 Diamonds, 179 Eucalyptus, 185, l9E, 210
Cove (or bay),see under llll.ets Differential heating, 142 European Economic Commu-
Covercropping, 243 Diseases,154 nity,296
Crag and Tail,63 Dispersed settlement, 3 I 2 Evaporation,132
Crater (or caldera) lakes, see Distributaries, 53 Evergreen trees, ree under Trees
under Lakes Diurnal range ,17 5,120,135, 166 Exfoliation, 3S, 69
Crescentic (dunes), see unde r Diurnal rhythm, 140 Exosphere,130
Barchan Divergence,139
Crest (of sand dune), 72;(of Divide (or watershed), 47
wave),88 Doldnrms, 139 Fallowing,244
Crevasses, 6 I Doline,78 Family planning, 294-5, 299
-, 16l, 20344,
Crops: cash
254,255,256; double or tre-
Dolomite, T5
Donbas industrial region, 283
Farming: arable - 249icollec-
tive 192;dairy -,212,
-,
ble cropping, 202; food -. Donetz Basin,288 249 ; dty -, 244;mixed --,
1534, l6l-52, 185-87. 192-94, Double rainfall peaks, l5l 2ll-12,249; orchard

328
 pastoral Graduated cylinder, I l5 Hydrosphere, l7
I 85, 249; -, 195, Hygrogram, I l9
211,212,249, 252; - techni- Grapes, 187,
ques, 242-46; truck -, 2 I 0, Graphite, l9 Hygrometer, 120
249 Grass: prairie ,191 ,194;tall -,
Fault,22,26 ,5 | ,7 1,7 8,268 166 Ice: -age,58,63; - bergs, 58;
Fibres, 25O,251-258 Gravity,48 - caps,58; - scouring,82:
$eets, 58
Fiord,63, 93-4 Grazing: controlled, 242-3 ; -
Igloos,236
Firn, 58,61 over -,241
Firs, 185 Great Circle Routes, l4-15 Illiteracy,299
Fish,230 Gregle,l84 lmports,28l
Fishing, 210 , 228-30 Greenwich Mean Time, I l, l2 Indigo,l6l
Fissure,34 Greenwich Observatory, I I Industrial, - concerns, 3 I 5 ;
Flastt flood, 73 Gneiss, l9 - inertia, 283,287 - location,
280{3 and population,29T ; -
Flax, 258 Grikes, T?
Flood,53, 183, 218,298 Groundwater, 4l -2 revolution, 278 ; and settlement.
Flood Plain, see under Ptilns Gullies, T3 315,318
Fluvio glacial material, 63, 64 Gypsrm,l9, Industries: chemical -, 279,
Fog, 128, 136,225,234 consumer -, 279; fishing,228i
Fohn Wind, see under Winds Haciendas,186 food processing, 27 9 ; m etallur-
Fold, recumbent,22 Haematite , 284, 289 gical - 279; - mining, 264,
Folding, 2l Haffs,84,92 265;paper andEllp 222;
Food, production of, 295,229 Hai.l, 136 specialized -, 282; steel -,
Forests: cool temPerate -, Halophytes,176 textile -,212,279
226; deciduous -, 209; equa' Hamada (rocky desert), 68 Inlets.89
torial -, | 52, li4;eucalYPtus Hanging valley,5l ,62 lnselberg, T0
Hard pans, 176 Insolation, l3l,l75
-, 198, 2Ol ,2l0;evergreen
Insularity , 2OB ,226
coniferous -, I 85, 2Ol ,2O9, Hardwood, 2O9 , 227
Harmattan, see under'illinds lnterlocking spur, 52, 6 I
2 | 8 -2 | 9 ; m editerrahean
evergreen -, 184; troPical Hausa, 170 Intermont plateaux, see under
rain Haze,l27,136 Plateaux
-, 152, 160-l International date line, l4
Fossils, l8 Headlands, 89
Fractional distillation, 2 70 Heat, l3l, 135, 151,154,239; lnternational trade, 3O2
Ionosphere, 130
Freight,308
Friction, 59
- wavesr 208,226
Hemp fibre (srnn hemp), 258 lron, 264 ; arl.d industrial loc-
Front,143,217 Hercynian (orogenics), 2 I tion, 287 ;pig -, 285 ; pro-
Frost,175 Hevea braziliensis, see under duction of, 288;and settle-
Fruits, 1856, 179, 227,260 Natural Rubber ment,3l5-16;types of,
Fuel (Power), 264-1 l, 27 9, 281 High veld, 189 284; uses of 283-284
Furious Flfties, see under Hook (or recurved spit),Jee Irrigation, 245 4 ;in deserts,
under Spit I 78 ; in Mediterranean Lands.
Winds - Westerlies
Hops,2l2 185-86; and poPulation densi'
Galaxies, 2 Horse Latitudes, 139, 1 74 ty ,229,296-7
Ise Bay industrial district, 283
Garrigre, 185 Horst. see underMountun - Isobar, ll7 , 145,
Gas,33, 130; natural -,268 block
Geo" 9l Horticultural industry, 2l I Isobath, 105
Geoid,4 Hot springs, 33 Isohaline, 107
Geyser;33 Housing, 298-9,322 lsohels,123
Gharbi. 184 Human resources,282 Isonephs,124
lsotherms, 120
Ghibli, 184 Humidity, l2O, 283:absolute -,
Glacial control theory, I 02 120; relative -, 120,133, l5l,
Glacial drift,67 17 4, 199 ,218 Jungle, I 52,
Glacial till,63 Humus, 154,176 Jupiter,3
Glacial trough, 61, 62, 82 Hunting, 1523, 192, 236, 297 Jute, 161,258
Glaciers, 25 ; Aletsch -, 59 Hurricanes, l42,2OO
Malaspina - 59; movement Huskies (dogs),302 Kalmuk, 192
of, 58-59: piedmont - 59; Hydraulic action, 49, 9l Kame,65
snout,63l valley -, 63 Hydroelectric power, 264, 27 2- Karst: lakes, E4; region, 76-9
Gloup (blowiole),91 76 and glaciated regions,65; Kazakhs,l92
Gold,179, and lakes, 86 and rivers, 56; Keihin industrial district. 283
Gour (mushroom rocks), 69 and setflement, 315 Khamsin; 184
Graben. ree under R:lft Y alleY Hydrological cycle,4l Ktghrz,l92

329
Kitakyustru industrial district. Load (of river), 4849 Moraine, 62, 82;end 63
298 Locust, 240
-,
ground -, 62;lateral -, 62 ;
;

Knickpoint (or rejuvenated Loess,24,73,173 medial -, 62; recessional -,

head), 55 Longitude, I I 63, 65; terminal -,63,64,
Koum,68 Longshore ddft,9l 65
Krakatoa, Mt., 3l Lopolith, 28 Morainic debris, 82
Kuzbas industrial district. 283 Lucerne,192 Mortality nte,294
Lumbering, 1 54, 160, 1623, Mortlake, see under Lake - ox-
Labour,282 220, 22t -222, 226, 227, 249, bow
Laccolith, 27:8 297 Moscow Gorki industrial district.
Ladang, 154 Macchia, 185 283
Lagoon, 84, 94, 92, 99, 100 Magma,27 Mountains, 20; of accumulation,
Lakes: artificial -, 85; barrier Magnetite,284 23 ; block -,22; fold , 2l -2
84; corrie (cirque or tarn), 61,
-, Mallee scrub, see under Scrubs
-
residual -, 23 ; volcanic -,23
82;crater or caldera -, 30, 83; Mangrove forest,154 Mud-flats,94
desert -, 74; formation of, Manila hemp (Abaca), 161,258 Mulga scnrb, rce under Sr;rub
8l -85; freshwater - 8l ; glacial Mantle (or mesosphere), l7 Multicropping, 241
-, 65, 83;karst -, 84; kettle -, Maquis,l85 Mushroom rock (or gour), see
65, 82;lavadammed -, 30, Marble, l9 under Rocks
83; Morainedammed -, 30, Maritime influence, 198. 200,
82€3; ornamental -, 85; 207,208,224 Nappe,22
ox-bow -, 53, 84; ribbon Markets,28l-2 National parks, 168
-,
62, 82; rift valley -, 8 I ; rock- Market gardening, 2lO, 249 Natural rubber, 153, 239, 248,
hollow -, 82; salt - (playa), Marram grass,93 259
74,81 ,84; and settlement, Mars, 2 Natural Vegetation, see under
3I 5; tectonic -, 8 I ; uses of , Masai, 169 vegetation
85{6; volcanic -, 83; wind- Mass movement, 40- l, 48 Nebulas, see under Galaxies
deflated -, 84 Mass production,2TS Nehrungs,92
Lalang, I 54 Meanders, 52, 53 ; entrenched Nephrne,3
Land and sea breezes, l4Gl (or incised), 5 5 Neve,58,6l
l,andslides, 4Q-l ,48; and lakes, Mercury 2 Ngana (sleeping sickness), 154,
84€5 Meridians, I I t70
Lapse rate, 134 Mesa,24,70 Nickel,lT,
Latitude, l0; and temperatur€, Mesosphere, see under Mantle Night,6-7
134 Metallic ores, 264, Nomads, 177,192,236
Latosolic soih, ree under Soils Meteorology, I l4 Norfolk System, 242
Lava: acid -,28-9; basalt
-, Migration, 23O ,321 North Pole, 7
28; - demmed lakes,30, 83; Milky Way,2 Notch,89
- tongues,30 Millet,253 Nucleated settlement, 3I 2
Lava plateaux, see. under Millibar, I l7 Nunatak, 58
Plateaux Minerals, 26449, 27 l, 283- Oasis, 178
Law of Deflection, 139 284; ndeserts, I 79; and po- Oats, 253
Leaching, 170 pulation density, 27 6, 298 ; set- Ocean: Atlantic, I l0-l I ;
Leap Year,6 tlment, 3 l5-16, 3 I 9; in tundra, currents, l06, 134, l7 4, l9l ;
Leeward slope,137 236 Indian, I I I ; deeps, lO6; de-
Leveche, lE4 Mining: industry, 264;nlme- posits, 106 ; Pacific, I I I ;
Levee, 53
- relief of, I 05-06 ; routes,
stone regions,T9; - methods,
Lisht.9 264 205{8 ; salinity of, I 0647;
Lightning,l38, Misfit,50 study of 104{5; temperature
Lignite, 265 Mississrppi, River,49 of,108{9
Limestone, 19,76,89 - activi- Mist, 128, 136 Oceanic islands,9T
ties, 79; characteristi,cs of, Mistral,184-185 Offshore tenace,89,92
76- 9; forms of ,77-8t -, Moisture,239 Oil, I 79, 266-7 | ; vegetable
gorge, 78; - pavement,77;
-,
Monsoons, l4l ; and climatic 260,
and springs,44; and weathering, conditions, I 57{ ; northeast-, Oktas, 124
36-7 158; offshore dry -,157; Olive oil, 186
Limon,73 onshore wet -, 157, retreating Orang Asli, see under *nois
Limonite.284 Oranges, 185
Livestock farming, 154,177
-, I 59; and seasons, I 58-9;
south*est -,157 ,159 Orogenics, 2l-3,36
178,205,2t2-2t3
-, Outwastr phins, ree under Plains
Llama.3O2 Moon,2 Overcropping, 241

330
Overfold,22
Overpopulation,29S
Overthrust fold,22
Ox-bow lake, see under Lakes
Oxidation,3T
'Pacific Ring of Fire', 33, 34
Packet station, 320
Padi, see under Rice
Pampas,189, l9l,195
Pampero,20l
Panama Canal, 307
Parana pine,201
Parasitic plants, I 54
Pearl culture, 230
Peat, 19,265
Pediment,25,74
Pelee, Mt., 29, 3l
Perched block,64
Perihelion, 3 Pustaz. 189
Pest, 240
Petroleum, 281 ; by-products,
27 I ; distribution, 27 l; occur-
rcnce, 267 -9 ; prospecting,
268-69 ; refining, 269-7 l ;
transportation, 269, uses, 27 I
Phacoliths, 27, 28
Pine, 185,202
Pitch, see under Asphalt
Pittsburg - Lake Erie Industrial
District, 288, 28 | ; and PoPula-
tion density 296
Plains: abyssal-, 106; alluvial-,
24, boulder clay -, 63-4 ;
coastal-, 24; deep sea-,
105-06; deltaic-, 24; of denu-
dation, 24 depositional-, 24 ;
drift-, 24, 63 ;erosional-,
24 ; flood-, 24, 53, 5 6 ; ice-
scoured-, 25 ;lava-, 29 ;
outwash-, 24, 64-65; pene-
plain, 24 ; and population
density, 29 5 ; and settlement,
3I3; structural-, 24 ;
Plane of the ecliptic, 7
Plankton, 105,228,230
Plantations, I 53, I 61, 248'9
Plateaux, 23 I intermont-, 23 ;
lava-, 23;submarine-, I 06
Platform, wave cut, 89, 95;
wave-planned, 102
Playa, l 4
Pleistocene period, see under
Ice Ages
Plucking (of glacier), 59, 6l
Plum rain, 226
Plunge pool, 5 I
Pluto, 3
Polje, 78,84
Polyp, 98
Port, and settlement,
3 Reservoirs, 65, 85
320;site,314
Portenage, 302
Potatoes, 213 ,227 , Resurgence (or spring), 48-52,
Poultry,2l2
Povefiy,299
Power, see under Fuel
Prairies, 1 89, l9l, 195, 296
Precipitation, I 15, 143, 151,
I 59, I 65-166, l7 4, lg2-93,
191 ,199-200,208-209,
217 -218 , 225 ,234
Pressure, l17, 157, 159, 226
-142-
Belts, I 38; and cyclones,
44. tt9
Prime Meridian, I I
Production, 280 ; costs of,
Productivity, 282
Promontaries (or capes),
^ree
under Headlands
Pygmy,297
Pyramidal peak,6l
Pyroclast, 29,30
Quartzlte,20,36
Quebracho,20l
Radar sounding, 104
Radiation, l3l, 166, 175
Railway, 302; 30344 ; and
settlement, 315
Rainfall, I I 5-l 16; in British-
type climate, 20849;
conventional, 136, l5 l, 159;
cyclonic (frontal), 137 ; in
desert, l'l 4 ; in Mediterranean
lands, I 82-l 83 ; orographic
(relief), I 36-7, I 5 I ; in
polar regions, 234 ; in savanna,
I 65-66; in Siberian-type
climate, 217 -218 ; in Steppe
lands, 191
trll-, 24 Rain gauge, I l5
Rain shadow area, 137, 173,
209,224
Rapids, 5l
Raw materials,280-81
Reafforestation, 230
Red Indians, 192
Refrigeration, 252, 313,
2t3,230,249,304,305
Reg (stony desert), 25, 68
Regolith, 36,37 ,40
Reindeer, 235,236,302
Rejuvenated head, see under
Knick-point
Relative humidity, 134, l5l ;
in deserts, 174,199
Relief, and agriculture, 239 -240
14,
Resorts. 319-20
331
Resource exhaustion, 264
76
Ria,93
Rice, 161, 202,251,296
Ridges, 64, 69
Ridge and furrow landscape,
69-70
Rift valley, 22
Rimaye,6l
River: capture, 50; cliff, 52 ;
course, 50-54 ; erosion, 49 ;
load, 48-9; navigation, 55;
ports, 56; regulation of flow,
86 ; rejuvenation, 55 ; and
settlement, 3l7 -2O; source
of 47 ; system, 47 48; terrabe,
5 5 ; transport, 304-306; uses of,
5 5-6; valley, 295
Road, 302-303; and settlement,
315
Roaring Forties, see under
Westerlies
Roche Moutonne, 63
Rock: - basin, 62; -flout,
5 9, 63 ;
-pedestal, 69 ; -salt,
84; -steps,62
Rocks: basaltic, 17, 18, 23 ;
basic, l8 ; carbonaceous, I 9 ;
crystalline, I 8 ; decomposition
of., 36;and drainage, 47 48;
and erosion, 89; extrusive, I 8;
granitic, l7 , 36, 37 ,38 , 42;
igenous, 18, 27 ;impermeable,
42-3, 45; metamorphic, 1 7,
19,28;molten (magma)
18, 27, 28 ; permeable (per-
vious), 42, 44 ;plutonic, I 8,
27; porous, 42; sandstones, I 9;
sedimentary, I 8-19 ; stratified,
I 8 ; volcanic, 18, 23, 27, 28 ;
weathering of , 3 6-39, 69
Roots, 167,176
Route junction,3l5
Rubber, see under Natural
Rubber
Runoff, 47,242
Salinas (salars), see und er Playas
Salinity, 105-108, I 10, 1 76
Salt (common), 86; in oceans,
10647
Samoyeds, 220,236
Sand, I 9; -bar, 305 ; -dune,
68; -stone, l9
Sand-blasting,see under Abrasion
Satellite, 2,3,5,32O
Saturn, 3
Savanna, see under Vegetation
Schist, l9
Scrub, 167, 185; Mallee, 185 latosolic-, I 63 ; leaching, I 70; deserts, 17 4-17 5 ; equatorial
Scree, 38 and population density, 296 ; climate, I 50-5 I ; factors
Sea breeze,140, 150, 152 and temperature, 135; tropi- infl uencing, | 32-l 3 6 ; import-
Sealing,229 cal-,154 ance of, 132; -inversion,
Seasonal fluctuation, 305 Solar: energy, I 30; insolation, 135; in Meditemanean lands,
Seasonal rhythm. 140 l3l ; radiation, l3l, 135 ; I 8 I -l 82; of ocean water,
Seasons, 6, 7 , 8, 209 system, 34 108{9; in polar regions,
Seaweed cultivation, 230 Solstice, 7 2334; in savanna lands, I 66 ;
Secondary f.orest, see under Sound, 94 Siberian-type cbmate, 21 6-
Belukar South Pole. 7 I 7 ; in steppe lands, I 90; in
Sedentary cultivation, 248 Southerly Burster, 201 temperate continental lands,
Sediment, I 8, 54 ; sedimentation, Soya beans, 227 190; tropical monsoon clirnate,
106 Spectrum, l3l I58-9
Seif, 73 Spine (or plug), 29 Tennessee Valley Authority,
Seismicity,34 Spit,92 245,27 5,293
Selvas, 152 Spring, 183, 192,2O9, l9l Tensional forces,22
Senois, 152-153,248 Squatter,32l Terraces, 5 5, 244 ; of.f+hore, 89
Sequoia,185 Stack,91,95 Terrigenous deposits, I 06
Sericulture, 203 Stalactites, T9 Thermal: -crackitg, 27 l ;
Serir (stony desert), 68 Stalagmites, T9
Settlement: dispersed-, 3 I 2; Standard of living, 298
-electricity, 27 | ,272; -plants,
274
and lakes, 85; location of, Star, 2 Thermal springs, see under Hot
3 l2-3 13 ;nucleated, 3 I 2 Steel, 283 ; industrial production, Spring
Shale (or mudstone), 40, l9 285-6; production, 287 Thermograph, I l9
Sheep rearing,2l2 Steppes, 189, 190, 191, 192, Thermometer, I l7-18; wet-
Shield (or dome), 28 296 dry bulb, 120
Shield volcanoes, see under Stevensonscreen. ll8 Threshold,93
Volcanoes Stratosphere, 130 Thrust plane (or revene fault),
Shifting cultivation, I 53, I 63, Stream; braided-, 5 3; conse- 11
242,248 quent - , 47 ; in d,esett , 13 ; Thunder,138
Shipping routes, 30548 insequent-, 47; in limestone Thunderstorms, T3, 174
Shotts, 74 areas, T 6 Tide,88, 105
Shrieking (Stormy) Sixties, see Stress,21,38,69 Till plain, see under Plains
under Westerlies Striation, 59, 63 Time zones, l2
Shrub, 185 Strip cropping,244 Tin,3l6
Sial. l7 Stump,9l Tobacco,205
Siderite, 284 Subsidence, 99 ; theory, I 0l Tombolo,92
silk, 258 Subsistence farming, see under Topographical location, 322-3
sill, 18, 29 Farming Topography (relief): 183, 239
Silting,305 Suez Canal, 307 badlands, 68, 73 ; knob and
Sima, 17 Sugar, 205; beet, 260 kettle- rolling-, 24
, 65 ;
Simoon (duststorms), I 78 Summer, 7, l4l, | 67, 8, 135, Tornadoes, 142-.3
Sink holes, see under Swallow- 157,165, l8l,183,192, Tourism,86, 168,183
holes 199,210,216,225,235 Town: functions of-, 3 I 8-3 I 9
Sirocco, 1 34, 1 83-1 84 Sun, 2, 7, 8, 9 ; dial, 123 ; growth of, 320-l ; problems
Sisal hemp (henequen), 258 sunrise, 5, 6; sunset, 5-6; of , 321-.2; site, 3 12-20
Site. 313 sunshine, 122 Traction load, 48
Six's Thermometer, I l9 Suspension,48 Trade Winds, see under Winds
Sky, l3l Swallow-hole (or sink hole),77 Tramontana, 184
Slate, I 9 Swash, 88 Transhumance, 65, 187, 249
Sleet. 136 Syncline, 21, 28 Transport: air-, 308-09 ;
Slipoff slope, 52 Synoptic chart, I l4 industry, 280; lake-, 85;
Slopewise cultivation, 241 -242 and population denslty, 297 ;
Smog, 128 Tableland,23 railway-, 303{4 ; roao-,
Snout, see under Moraine Taiga,216,218 3O2.O3 ; water-, 304-05 ;
Snow,163,183,233,234 Tartar,192 world-, 302
snowline, 58 Tea,162,254 Transportation, 36
Softwood, 218, 219, 22O, 227 Teak,162 Trapping,220-21
Soil: -additives, -244; and Tectonic lake,see under Lakes Trawlers, 230
agriculture, 239 -24O ; Temperature: I l7-18; in British- Trees, l9l; coniferous, 210,
-creep,
40, 48; flow (solifluction), 40; type climate, 207O8;in 218-19 ; deciduous-, 209 ;

332
 evergreen, | 66-1 67 ;savanna evergreen, 20 I ; Mediterranean,
type, 185,201 184-5; and population,
Trench, see under Ocean deeps | 66- 7 ; density, 297 ; savanna
Tropic of Cancer, 7, I 0 ; and type, 160; Siberian type,192;
Pressure belts, l4l Stepped type, 2l 6-17;and
Tropic of Capricorn, 7, I 0; and temperature, I 36.7; tropical
pressure belts, 141 monsoon, I 60-l ; tundra,
Tropical raw materials, 248 235-6
Tropical zone,99 Vent. 23
Troposphere, I 30 Ventifacts. 7l
Trough (of a wave), 88 Venus, 2 tion of, I 2l ; divergence of
Truncated spur, 61 Vessels, 305
Tsunamis. 34 Vesuvius, Mt.,29,31
Tundra, 233, 234, 235, 236, Viticulture, 187
297 Volcanic dust (or ash), 30, 3l,
Twilight, 233 296
Typhoon, 142, 199 ; *rain, 226 Volcanic landforms: 27 -28, 40 ;
islands, 98
Undercutting, 69 Volcanoes: active. 29 i distribu-
Underpopulation, 230 tion, 3l -33; dormant, 29;
Undertow, 88 extinct, 29; eruptions, 3 I ;
Unemployment,321 and lakes, 83;strato-, 30
Uplifted lowland coast, 94
Urals Industrial region, 283
Uranium, 285 Wadis,68,J6
Uranus,3 Water: l3O, 177; in atmosphere,
Urbanization , 321-2 130, in desert 73; -fall, 5l ;
Uvala. 78 -logging, 43 ; -shed, 47 ;
-supply, 86; -table, 42, 43,
44, 45 ;temperature 99 ; -
Valley ; glaciated, 61 4 ; hang- vapour, 120, l2l, 123,124;
ing-, 5l , 62, 65; U-shaped, -ways, 281 , 304-305; -wheel,
62,93; V-shaped, 50, 5 1 246
Vegetable, I 86, 2l 0; oll, 26O Wave, 88; -length,.88
Vegetation (natural) : British Wave-cut platform, 89, 95
type, 2Ol {2; desert, 17 5 -7 6 ; Weathet: Bureaux, I l4; -cock
type, 201 -62; desert, 1 75-6 ; 121 ; maps, I l4; recording
equatorial, hot wet, 152; sheet, I I 0
333
Weathering: chemical, 36, 37 ;
in desert 68-72; physical
(mechanical) ,37-39
Well,44, 245,246
Whaling, 229,230
Wheat, 21 2, 240, 242, 249,
25 2 : mechanized cultivation
of , 192-94; spring-, 194;
winter-, 186,194
Wind: deposition, 72-3; direc-
I 2l ; and erosion, 68-72;
-gap, 50, 56; rose, l2l
Winds: Berg-, 20 I ; Chinook-,
134;Fohn-, l34,l4l-2;
Harmattan, 166, 170; local,
I 83 ; Mistral, 1 34; Monsoon,
I l0; Planetary, I 39; Polar
easterlies, 140; Sirocco, 134;
Trade-, 109, 139, 182, | 61,
1 50, 17 4, 17 3, 1 65 ; Westerlies,
109, 140, 182,207,218
Winter, 6,7, l4l, 167, 182,
183, 184, 190, lgl, lgg, 200,
208,269,216,219,224,
233,234
Wool,258
Wuhan industrial district, 283
Xerophytes, 1 75, 1 84, 1 85
Yak, 302
Yakut,220,236
Yardang, T0
Yerba mate, 2Ol ,2O5
Zebu (cattle), 169
Zeugen,69-70
 Temperaturd graph for conversion from " F. to "C

o oc,
To convert F. to use formula 'c = $ t" f .-lZ)
 Conversion Graph Inches/M illimetres

300

280

26c,

240

220

200

't

U)
[!
E.
F 160
IJ

=
J
140

120

100

80

60

40

20
 Gonversion of Miles/Kilometres (yards/Metres)
(16o)

(+o)

(rzo)

(roo)

KILOMETRES

(ao)

(METRES'

(60)

(+o)

(zo)

6 8 10
MILES
(oo) (8o) (roo)
(vnnos)