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A Sam Ellis Academy Document

AQA A-LEVEL CHEMISTRY | 3.1.3 - Bonding (PG 1/15), Shapes)
of molecules (PG 8/15), and Intermolecular forces (PG 11/15)

Written by Sam Ellis and Hilary Meng in 2022

There are no copyright restrictions, you can distribute this document
freely.

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1.3 - Bonding
Key Terms
Melting: The change of state from solid to liquid. Temperature that this
occurs = the melting point (m.p.)
• Energy is taken in when a substance melts to overcome bonds or
intermolecular forces. The stronger the forces or bonds in a substance,
the greater the energy required to melt the substance.

Freezing: change of state from liquid to solid. Temperature that this

occurs = the melting point also
• Energy is released when a substance freezes as forces or bonds are
formed. The stronger the forces or bonds formed on freezing, the more
energy is released.

Boiling: change of state from liquid to gas. Temperature that this occurs
= the boiling point (b.p.)
• Energy is taken in when a substance boils. The stronger the bonds or
intermolecular forces in a liquid substance, the greater the energy
required to boil the substance.

Condensing: change of state from gas to liquid. Temperature that this

occurs = The boiling point (b.p.)
• Energy is released when a substance condenses. The stronger the bonds
or forces formed on condensing, the more energy is released.

Subliming / sublimating: change of state from solid to gas on heating;

change of state from gas to solid on cooling.
• Substances which sublime for the A-Level = solid iodine and solid
carbon dioxide (solid carbon dioxide is known as ‘dry ice’)

Ionic Bonding
Lattice: a regular repeated 3-D arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules
in a crystalline solid.
Ionic bonding: The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
ions in an ionic lattice. These ions are formed by electrons being
transferred from one atom to another.

Na + Cl (as dot and cross diagrams)

1 electron Formulae of
transferred Compound Ions:
Ammonium: NH4+
Carbonate: CO32-
Hydroxide: OH-
Nitrate: NO3-
Sulfate: SO42-
Formula:

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Giant Ionic Structure

1) Particles of the 3-D lattice are cations & anions.
2) Strong electrostatic attractions hold cations & anions
together.

E.g. NaCl: The ions line up with every +ve ion surrounded by —ve
ions and vice versa.

Hardness
Ionic compounds are hard, because the anions &
cations are strongly attracted to each other
therefore difficult to separate. However, when
force is applied to an ionic solid, ions of like
charge may be forced closer to each other. The
electrostatic repulsion can be enough to split
the solid completely; this is which is why ionic
solids are also brittle. (see the figure left)

Melting + Boiling Points

The giant ionic lattices are held together by a large number of strong
electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions. Therefore,
large amount of energy required to overcome the forces. That means ionic
compounds tend to have high b.p.’s and m.p.s

• Importantly, the smaller the ions (in terms of actual size) and the
higher the charge on the ions, the stronger the ionic bond.
• If this is true, a super high-melting-point ionic compound would be a
group 2 / group 6 pairing (2-, 2+), from the top of the respective
groups. They would be small and highly charged; it would have a higher
M.P. than a group 1 / group 7 combination, even if the two ions came
from the top of group 1 and 7.

• BeO, Beryllium Oxide melts at 2,578ºC (Be2+ / O2-)

• LiF, Lithium Fluoride melts at 848.2 °C (Li+ / F-)

• Point proven, science works!

Electrical Conductivity
In general…
For anything to conduct electricity, they must satisfy the 2 criterion:
1. The substance must contain charged particles.
2. The charged particles must be free to move throughout the substance.

Applied to ionic solids…

• In solid-state ionic compounds, the first thing is true: ions are
charged particles. BUT, they are fixed in positions in the lattice by
strong ionic bond. This means ionic compounds do not conduct in solid
state.
• In molten state, or in solution, the ions are free to move. So the
solution containing the ions, e.g. salt water (NaCl in H2O), will
conduct. If the ionic compound is on its own, but molten, it will
conduct electricity too.

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Solubility
- Ionic compounds are polar molecules, this means they tend to dissolve
in polar solvents, such as water (this is true for any solute / solvent
pairing, you learn it in the chromatography section)
- When moving water molecules hit an ionic lattice, they can knock ions
off the outer layers.
- The water molecules then surround the ions, causing the substance to
break up and dissolve.
- However, for some ionic substances (like aluminium oxide) the
electrostatic forces of attraction are so strong that water cannot
break up the lattice—There’s not enough energy. This means the compound
is insoluble in water.

Covalent and Dative Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonding: The electrostatic attraction between a
bonding pair of electrons and the nuclei of the 2 atoms
involved in the bond.
• Atoms make 1 covalent bond for each electron that it
needs to get a ‘full’ shell.

A normal covalent bond contains a shared pair of electrons with one

electron coming from each atom. However, a coordinate (also called a
dative covalent) bond is a shared pair of electrons with both electrons
supplied by one atom. Coordinate bonds form when a lone pair on one of
the atoms is donated to another atom (which doesn’t have any electrons
available to share).

E.g. Ammonium

E.g. Hydroxium

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Molecular (Simple Covalent) Structure

There’s two types of covalent structure you need to know about, molecular
and macromolecular. First, Molecular:

1) Particles of the 3-D lattice are covalent molecules.

2) The forces between the molecules are weak van der Waals forces.

E.g. Iodine (I2)

Lattice of iodine van der Waals forces (much weaker

molecules than electrostatic in ionic
compounds)

Hardness
Relatively soft as they do not have strong intermolecular forces.

Melting / Boiling Points

Relatively low because the van der Waals forces between the molecules are
weak. This means it only takes a little energy required to overcome them.

Electrical Conductivity
Covalent things do not conduct electricity; covalent things don’t contain
any charged particles which are free to move. (the criteria discussed
before!)

Solubility
They’ll dissolve in non-polar solvents, because they themselves are not
polar. This means they will not dissolve in water. Your typical solvent
will be some non-polar organic substances.

Electrical Conductivity
Does not conduct electricity as it does not contain any charged particles which are free to
move.

Solubility
Dissolves in non-polar solvents ∴ will not dissolve in water but dissolves in organic
substances.

Macromolecular (Giant Covalent) Structure

Time for the second type, Macromolecular
1) The atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds in a giant
network. You’ll recall these examples from GCSE, I guarantee It.

E.g. Diamond
• Hardest naturally occurring substance; it’s used
for drill tips and cutting glass. (more
properties below)
• Every carbon atom makes 4 bonds to other carbon
atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. The bond
angles are 109.5° (more on this later!)

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E.g. 2 Graphite
• Lubricant and used in pencils:
- The individual sheets of graphite are strong due to covalent bonds.
- But forces between the sheet (van der Waals forces) are very weak.
- So sheets slide over each other easily.
- Given graphite’s lubricant properties allowing it to work in pencils.
• Electrical Conductivity:
- Carbon has 4 valence (outer) electrons…
- So it normally makes 4 covalent
bonds.
- In graphite each carbon is bonded
to only 3 others.
- The remaining valence electron on
each atom is delocalised and can
move freely within the sheet.
- This means that graphite conducts
electricity! (magic)

Properties of Macromolecular (Giant Covalent) Structures:

Hardness
Very hard due to many strong covalent bonds + rigid 3-D structure holding
surface atoms in place.

Melting + Boiling Points

You need very high temperatures to melt and boil giant covalent things.
This is because ALL the strong covalent bonds holding the giant lattice
have to be broken which needs a lot of energy. Compare this to simple
covalent structures, where only VDW’s or Dipole-Dipole IMF’s have to be
broken and you quickly see why the M.P./B.P’s are so different

Electrical Conductivity
There are no charged particles, since the lattice particles are atoms, so
giant covalent crystals are insulators. Graphite is an exception to this
rule because it has a ‘spare electron’. It doesn’t really break the rule
as an electron IS a charged particle and in graphites case, it can move!

Solubility
These lot are insoluble. All the strong covalent bonds of the giant
covalent structure need to be broken to free the atoms and let them move
through the solvent. That’s not happening…

Metallic Bonding
Next up, metallic bonding: it’s the electrostatic attraction between
metal cations (metal positive ions, cat means +) delocalised electrons in
a lattice. You’ll hear the word ‘delocalised sea of electrons’ a lot from
the GCSE days. That’s sea and some positive ions is what’s going on here.

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Metallic Structure
1) Particles of the 3-D lattice are positive ions surrounded by a ‘sea’
of delocalised electrons.
2) The positive ions are held together by metallic bonding; metallic
bonding literally is the electrostatic attraction between metal
cations and the associated delocalised electrons. EASY

E.g. Magnesium

Hardness
Metals are typically hard, due to strong electrostatic attraction between
metal cations and delocalised electrons. (this seems to be the answer to
a lot of things)

Melting + Boiling Points

Metals have relatively high M.P./B.P. because there are strong forces of
attraction between cations and delocalised electrons (again!) These
strong electrostatic attractions must be overcome in order for the metal
to melt/boil so that’s why there’s a large amount of energy (i.e. heat)
required.

Something to note:
• The greater the number of delocalised electrons per atom, the
stronger the metallic bond so therefore the higher the m.p./ b.p.
• The smaller the ions in the metallic lattice, the stronger the
attraction between the delocalised electrons + the cations therefore
the higher the m.p./b.p.
• Transition metals have much higher m.p./b.p. than the main group
metals (group 1 and 2) due to the large number of d sub-shell
electrons. These bad boys may become delocalised, creating an even
stronger metallic bond.
• This principle (smaller ion + more charge = stronger bond is the
same as the ionic bonding principle)

Conductivity
• Metals have delocalised electrons in their structures, these can move.
As we’ve said a trillion times, an electric current = the movement of
charged particles.
• Heat is conducted when particles can move and are close enough together
(think friction when you rub your hands together) to pass the heat
energy from one to another. The delocalised electrons enable heat
energy to be passed through the metal because they’re nice and close.
So metals are good conductor of heat.

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Solubility
(I tried to get this on the same page, sorry) Metals are Insoluble,
except in other liquid metals. This is, again, because of the
strength of metallic bonds. (Chemistry really does have all the
answers)

Malleable + Ductile
Because of the layered structure of the lattice, metallic layers
can slide over each other without disrupting the bonding. This
makes metals malleable (this means they can be shaped, try
hitting your mums car with a hammer… actually don’t) they’re
also ductile (this means you can draw them out into a wire, like
the copper wires that are powering the computer you’re reading
this on… unless you printed it out, wierdo).

ALSO: An Alloy is simply a mixture of metals.

Alloy’s aren’t malleable because different metals are different in size
(in terms of the particles / atoms they are made of) This makes the
structure of an Alloy irregular, so it is much more difficult for layers
to slide.

Shapes of Simple Molecules and Ions

The shapes of a covalent molecule or ion (how these molecules we waffle
on about look in space) depends on the repulsion of the electrons around
a central atom. The electron pairs are charge clouds (areas where you
have a big chance of finding an electron (some quantum mechanics for you)
around an atom that repel each other. There are 2 types of electron
pairs:

• Bonding pairs: pairs of electrons which are shared in covalent bonds.

• Lone (non-bonding) pairs: pairs of electrons which are unshared.

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory

✴ Pairs of electrons in the outer shell of atoms arrange themselves as
far apart as possible to minimise repulsion.
✴ Lone pairs are held closer to the central atom so they have a greater
repulsive effect on the other pairs of electrons. This means lp–lp
repulsion is greater than lp–bp repulsion, which is greater than bp–bp
repulsion. Remember that underlined bit, it’s worth 2 marks.

Shapes of Molecules
The molecule or ion will take up a shape which minimises electron pair
repulsions. The shape of the molecule is determined from:
• The total amount of electron pairs around a central atom.
• The amount of (sets of) bonding pairs of electrons.
• The amount of lone pairs of electrons.

A molecular diagram
showing the shape of
methane:

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Central atoms with 2 electron pairs

2 bonding pairs + 0 lone pairs:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because the bps
repel each other equally, they have a linear shape + a bond
angle of 180° to minimise the effect of the repulsions. E.g.
Beryllium chloride, BeCl2

Central atoms with 3 electron pairs

3 bonding pairs + 0 lone pairs:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because the bps
repel each other equally, they have a trigonal planar shape +
bond angles are all 120° to minimise the effect of repulsions.
E.g. Boron trifluoride, BF3

2 bonding pairs + 1 lone pair:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because lp/bp
repulsion will be greater than bp/bp repulsions, the greater
repulsion from the lp squeezes the bonds closer together giving
a bent (or non-linear) shape + bond angle is 118° to minimise
repulsions. E.g. Sulfur dioxide, SO2
• NOTE: although the molecule has multiple bonds, you treat
each multiple bond as if it was one single bond (i.e. = set
of bonding pairs) when you’re working out the shape.

Central atoms with 4 electron pairs

4 bonding pairs + 0 lone pairs:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because the bps
repel each other equally, they have a tetrahedral shape + bond
angles are all 109.5° to minimise the effect of repulsions. E.g.
Ammonium ion, NH4+

3 bonding pairs + 1 lone pair:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because lp/bp
repulsion will be greater than bp/bp repulsions, the greater
repulsion from the lp squeezes the bonds closer together giving
a trigonal pyramidal shape + bond angles are 107° to minimise
repulsions. E.g. Ammonia, NH3

2 bonding pairs + 2 lone pairs:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because lp/bp
repulsion will be greater than bp/bp repulsions, the greater
repulsions from the lps squeeze the bonds even closer together
giving a bent (or non-linear) shape + bond angle is around 104.5°
to minimise repulsions. E.g.Water, H2O

Central atoms with 5 electron pairs

5 bonding pairs + 0 lone pairs:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because the bps
repel each other equally, they have a trigonal bipyramidal shape
+ bond angles are 120° + 90° to minimise the effect of
repulsions. E.g. Phosphorus pentachloride, PCl5

4 bonding pairs + 1 lone pair:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because lp/bp
repulsion will be greater than bp/bp repulsions, the greater
repulsion from the lp squeezes the bonds closer together giving a

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seesaw shape (where the lone pair is always positioned where one of the
trigonal planar atoms would be in a trigonal bipyramidal molecule) + bond
angles are 102° + 89° to minimise repulsions. E.g. Sulfur tetrafluoride,
SF4

3 bonding pairs + 2 lone pairs:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because lp/bp
repulsion will be greater than bp/bp repulsions, the greater
repulsions from the lps squeeze the bonds even closer together
giving a T-shape + bond angles are around 89° to minimise
repulsions. E.g. Chlorine trifluoride, ClF3

Central atoms with 6 electron pairs

6 bonding pairs + 0 lone pairs:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because the bps
repel each other equally, they have an octahedral shape + bond
angles are all 90° to minimise the effect of repulsions. E.g.
Sulfur hexafluoride, SF6

5 bonding pairs + 1 lone pair:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because lp/bp
repulsion will be greater than bp/bp repulsions, the greater
repulsion from the lp squeezes the bonds closer together giving a
square pyramidal shape + bond angles are 89° to minimise
repulsions. E.g. Chlorine pentafluoride, ClF5

4 bonding pairs + 2 lone pairs:

e- pairs repel each other as far as possible. Because lp/bp
repulsion will be greater than bp/bp repulsions, the lps take up
positions above + below the central atom giving a square planar
shape + bond angles are 90° to minimise repulsions. E.g. Xenon
tetrafluoride, XeF4

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Intermolecular Forces
These are forces that DON’T require the exchange of an electron. They
exist because of bonds, they aren’t bonds themselves. They exist (as the
name implies) between molecule. After reading this section, it’ll all
make sense.

Bond Polarity
Electronegativity: the power of an atom to attract the pair of electrons
in a covalent bond.

• Electronegativity is measured on the Pauling Electronegativity Scale

(named after Linus Pauling, the guy who figured this stuff out). A
higher number on the scale means an element is better able to attract
the bonding electrons in a covalent bonds; a higher number means it
likes electrons more.
• F is the most electronegative element and Cs the least. The further you
get from Fluorine (so the closer you get to Caesium, as they’re in
opposite corners) the lower the number gets.

Electronegativity is dependent upon 3 factors…

1) The distance of the bonding electrons from the attractive power of the
nucleus (i.e. atomic radius).
2) The size of the nuclear charge (i.e. atomic no.).
3) The attractive power of the nucleus being shielded by inner electrons.

Trends in Electronegativity
In the periodic table, the following trends in electronegativity are
observed (they make sense really)
1) Electronegativity goes up across a period. This is because…
• atomic radius goes down across a period, giving a progressively
stronger attraction between the positive nucleus and the 2 electrons
in the covalent bond.
• nuclear charge goes up across a period. This will cause a greater
attraction for the electrons in the covalent bond.

2) Electronegativity goes down down a group. This is because:

• atomic radius goes up down a group, giving a progressively weaker
attraction between the positive nucleus and the electrons in the
covalent bond.
• shielding of the nuclear charge increases down a group as there are
more electrons in inner energy levels.

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Non-polar covalent bond

The electronegativities of the 2 atoms in the covalent
bond are the same. This means that the bonding pair of
electrons are shared equally, i.e. electron
distribution is symmetrical. E.g. H-H, O=O etc.

Polar covalent bond

One atom is more electronegative
than the other. The electrons in
the covalent bond will therefore be
closer to one atom than the other,
i.e. electron distribution is
unsymmetrical. This means one atom
will be slightly positive and the
other slightly negative. E.g. H-Cl,
C-Cl, Be-Cl, C=O and the reset.

Permanent Dipoles
Dipole: a difference in electronegativity between 2 atoms caused by a
shift in electron density in the bond. That sounds fancy, just read
below:

• In a polar bond, the difference in electronegativity between the 2

atoms causes a dipole.

• If charge is distributed
unevenly over a whole
molecule, then the molecule
will have a permanent
dipole. Molecules that have
permanent dipoles = polar
molecules. Whether or not a
molecule is polar depends
on whether it has any polar bonds + its overall shape.

• In simple molecules, e.g. H-Cl, the one polar bond means charge is
distributed unevenly across the whole molecule, so it has a permanent
dipole.
• In complicated molecules, the shape of the molecule will decide whether
or not it has an overall permanent dipole.
- If the polar bonds are arranged symmetrically so that dipoles cancel
each other out, then the molecule has no permanent dipole + is non-
polar. This is generally the case for equal polar bonds arranged in
linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral or octahedral arrangements.

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- If the polar bonds are arranged so that they all point roughly in the
same direction + they don’t cancel each other out, then charge will
be arranged unevenly across the whole molecule = molecule has a
permanent dipole + is polar.

Forces Between Covalent Molecules

Induced dipole–dipole (van der Waals/London/dispersion) forces
These are attractive forces between all molecules and atoms caused by
induced dipoles, which are temporary and constantly shifting.
• Electrons in charge clouds are always in rapid motion + at any one time
they may be distributed more on one side of the molecule than the
other. Another molecule approaching this side of the molecule will have
its electrons repelled - this creates a temporary or induced dipole.
The 2 dipoles are then attracted to each other, and the 2nd dipole can
cause yet another dipole in a 3rd atom.
• These induced dipoles act one way then another, continually forming +
disappearing as a result of electron movt. Even though the dipoles keep
changing, the overall effect is for the atoms to be attracted to each
other.

larger the molecule ➜ higher the Mr ➜ greater the no. of electrons ➜

greater the induced dipoles ➜ greater the van der Waals forces between
atoms

Permanent dipole–dipole forces

These are weak electrostatic forces of attraction between the δ+ end of
the dipole on one molecule and the δ- end of the dipole on another
neighbouring molecule.
• The permanent dipole-dipole forces are
responsible for holding together the
molecules in polar substance, but there
are also VDW’s forces between these polar
molecules as well.

If you put an electrostatically charged rod next to a jet of a polar

liquid (e.g. water), the liquid will move towards the rod - this is
because polar liquids contain molecules w/ permanent dipoles.
• The more polar the liquid, the stronger the electrostatic attraction
between rod + jet, so the greater the deflection will be.
• By contrast, liquids made up of non-polar molecules (e.g. hexane) will
not be affected at all when placed near a charged rod. (see figure
below)

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Hydrogen bonding
Stronger than induced + permanent dipole-dipole forces. Hydrogen bonds
occur between a δ+ H atom which is covalently bonded to O, N or F of one
molecule + the lone pair of electrons of an O, N or F atom of another
molecule.
• O, N + F are very electronegative, so they draw the bonding electrons
away from the hydrogen atom.
• This causes the bond to be very polarised, + because hydrogen has such
a high charge density due to its small size, the hydrogen atoms form
weak bonds w/ lps on F, N or O atoms of other molecules.
• Only O-H and N-H groups are found in covalent molecules as H-F is only
found in hydrogen fluoride.

E.g. Water and Ammonia

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The hydrogen bonds between water molecules explain many of its
physical properties…

Higher boiling point + melting point than would be expected for group 6
hydrides:
• The ↑ seen from H2S ➜ H2Se ➜ H2Te is caused by an ↑ in the van der
Waals forces of attraction. As you descend group 6, each atom has more
electrons so the induced dipoles increases. Hence van der Waals forces
between molecules increase.
• It would be expected based on the other hydrides that water should have
a very low b.p. - this would be the case if the only intermolecular
forces between water molecules were van der Waals forces of attraction
+ permanent dipole-dipole forces.
• However, the hydrogen bonds between water molecules mean that it
requires much more energy to break the bonds, hence giving it a higher
b.p. + m.p.

The pattern repeats for the group 5 + 7 hydrides but not for the group 4
hydrides, as CH4 = non-polar.

Ice has a lower density than water:

Water molecules in ice
As liquid water cools to form
ice, the molecules make more
hydrogen bonds and arrange
themselves into a more open,
regular 3-D lattice structure.

Since hydrogen bonds are

relatively long, the average
distance between water
molecules is greater in ice Water
than in liquid water - so ice molecules in
is less dense than liquid liquid water
water.

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