International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmecsci

3D finite element investigations on textured tools with different

geometrical shapes for dry machining of titanium alloys
Sarvesh Kumar Mishra, Sudarsan Ghosh, Sivanandam Aravindan∗
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology–Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Effect of texture shapes and texture area density for machining applications is a potential topic of investigation.
Textured tools However, it is difficult to fabricate perfect dimensions by using available micromachining techniques. Finite
Titanium machining element simulations can be an effective way to understand the effect of texture density, texture depth and different
3D FEM simulation
geometric shapes on machining performances. The present study deals with the 3D finite element investigations
Area density
of different texture shapes to predict cutting forces during machining of titanium alloy under dry condition.
Texture shape effect
Contact length modeling Available Johnson–Cook material model parameters have been investigated to select suitable parameters for
3D finite element studies in titanium machining. Different geometrical shapes (circular, square, triangular and
elliptical shape) with the constant area are modeled at the rake face of cutting tools to incorporate textures. The
effects of texture shape are studied for variation in cutting forces with different texture area density and depth.
The effect of texture shape is found to be less influential for dry cutting however area density is found to have
the most dominant effect on cutting forces. Further, the linear regression model for tool–chip contact length
has been developed for the textured and untextured tools under different machining parameters. The developed
model has incorporated the chip serration effect (serration peak and valley heights) in the contact length model.
The contact length model for the textured tool has been developed for the first time, and the contact length
variation has been compared with the plain tools. The results reveal that textured tools have limited applicability
for dry cutting of titanium alloys. Further, the associated mechanism of contact area reduction for textured tools
has been found to be not applicable at increased feed and cutting speeds due to chip embedment into textured
space.

1. Introduction
With the recent advancement in micromanufacturing techniques,
functional surfaces generated on molds, dies and cutting tools are find-
ing applications in major manufacturing processes. In metal cutting
processes, the patterned or textured cutting tools are being investigated
rigorously in order to incorporate their inherent tribological advantages.
Textured surfaces have reduced contact interaction with the mating sur-
faces, and this facilitates a reduction in local asperity contact and de-
creases the real area of contact. During machining, heat is generated
due to plastic deformation in shear zone and frictional stresses at tool–
chip contact zone. The friction generated in the secondary cutting zone
depends largely on normal pressure or chip load, thermal properties of
tool and workpiece, real contact area and chemical interaction of tool-
work combination at elevated temperature. Textured rake surfaces are
helpful in reducing the actual contact area between tool and chip during
cutting, and hence frictional heat can be reduced.
The textured tools are used in dry and near dry machining processes
with or without application of cutting fluids. When textured tools are
used with solid lubricants (MoS2 , WS2 , CaF2 , and graphite) impreg-
nated or dispersed on the textures, the lubricants normally form thin
low shear strength films which reduce friction and adhesion of chip ma-
terial over the tools [1–4]. In case of lubricant or coolant application,
the formation of micro-pool reservoir [5,6] and micro-hydrodynamic
effects [7–9] are found to be effective in reducing cutting forces, fric-
tion and surface damages [6]. In the majority of the studies, the reduc-
tion of tool–chip contact length mechanism is found to be the signifi-
cant factor that reduces the friction and heat [2,6,10–13]. The textures
also can provide space for debris entrapment and thereby reduce abra-
sion wear. The different mechanisms associated with textured tools help
in lowering adhesion, abrasion, ploughing and sticking over the tool
surfaces.
In case of flood cooling, microtextures can provide hydrodynamic
effect due to asymmetric pressure distribution around the textured zone
and this results in reduced friction. This mechanism is investigated in
detail by study on a single asperity in fluid film regime under slid-
ing conditions [14]. It is suggested that load capacity and fluid pres-
sure increases due to the resistance provided by micropits against the
moving fluid. When applied in lubrication regime, local hydrodynamic

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aravindan@mech.iitd.ac.in (S. Aravindan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2018.04.011
Received 12 October 2017; Received in revised form 9 March 2018; Accepted 6 April 2018
Available online 9 April 2018
0020-7403/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Fig. 1. Stress–strain curve of different J-C models for strain hardening factor at T = 700 °C and 𝜀̇ = 105 s−1 .

Fig. 2. Stress–strain curve of different J-C models for combined strain hardening and strain rate factor at T = 700 °C and 𝜀̇ = 105 s−1 .

effects are effective in load carrying and friction reduction. It is also
analytically proposed that in lubrication regime, the depth and diameter
of microtextures are more significant than the fraction of the textured
area [15]. Deep dimples up to 20 μm become microtraps for starved
lubrication as lubricant gets trapped and thereby lubricant availability
gets reduced finally leading to an increase in friction and wear within the
piston cylinder contact [16]. Qui and Khonsari [17] conducted experi-
mental investigations on the effect of dimple area density with respect to
the coefficient of friction. When area density is in the range of 40–58%
at constant diameter and depth, the coefficient of friction decreases for
mechanical seals. The potential of textures can also be seen for low fluid
or minimum fluid application in machining as it also reduces friction in
boundary lubrication regime. The thermal expansion of entrapped lu-
bricants helps in the movement of the fluid towards the contact zone
and thus acts as a source of secondary lubrication [18]. Kligerman et al.
[19] have studied the effect of texture area density in the range 5–66%
with the help of numerical simulations. In order to achieve reduction in
friction, area density is reported to be at its highest level.
Debris entrapment is considered to be one of the mechanisms to re-
duce rubbing and abrasion. The worn out particles and chip fragments
may get entrapped inside the textured space. The agglomeration of wear
debris finally fills the textured depressions and provides local heating
and adhesion sites to the counterpart. Distribution of dimples also af-
fects the performance of textured surfaces as reported by Zhan et al.

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Fig. 3. Stress–strain curve of different J-C models (neglecting M8) combining strain hardening, strain rate and thermal softening factors at T = 700 °C and
𝜀̇ = 105 s−1 .
[20]. The dimples formed at 0°–75° angles were studied for starved lu-
brication between piston cylinder pair. At a distribution angle of 60°,
enhanced ability of wear debris collection and reduced wear was found.
Also, wear scar depth was reduced by 21.7% in case of distribution an-
gle 60°. In one of the studies, microgrooves of 4.5 μm width and 7.5 μm
depth were fabricated over rake face of milling cutter by using FIB
milling in three different orientations (0°, 45° and 90°) to the cutting
edge [21]. Slot milling was performed on NAK80 specimen with tex-
tured end mills, and texture orientation of 90° has resulted in the least
cutting force compared to the other orientations.
The factors such as texture shape, size of patterns, texture area den-
sity/coverage ratio, aspect ratio, continuity of features, the direction of
operations and orientation of different textures to sliding/rubbing di-
rections are affecting the performance of textured surfaces [22]. The
shape of the textures is found to affect the basic tribological mecha-
nisms and thereby results in improved the performance of the contact
surfaces. Siripuram and Stephens [23] have studied the effects of dif-
ferent deterministic microasperities of circular, square, oriented square,
hexagonal, oriented hexagonal, triangle and oriented triangle shapes on
friction and oil leakage using numerical simulations. The friction coef-
ficient is largely dependent on asperity shape and orientation, but it is
very sensitive to the texture area density. Experimental studies on ma-
chining with microholes [6,12,24], grooves or channels over rake face
[25–27] and combined micropit and micro-grooved tools [4,5,25] are
conducted. Kawasegi et al. [28] have developed micro/nano-textured
tools for face milling of aluminum alloy. Three different textured tools
having parallel, perpendicular and square hatched grooves were fab-
ricated. Texture orientation is vital in reducing cutting forces and least
force is reported in the case of perpendicular direction. In another study,
microstriped textures were fabricated parallel and perpendicular to the
cutting direction to understand the crater and flank wear mechanisms
[26]. Percentage of the concave area of different patterns was investi-
gated for crater, and flank wear resistance and a strong correlation was
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
suggested with the percentage of concave area. Sun et al. [5] have used
laser fabricated microgrooves, micropits, and combination structured
tools filled with MoS2 for machining AISI 1045. It was reported that hy-
brid textured (microgrooves+micropits) tools had resulted in improved
performance by reducing cutting forces, temperature and surface rough-
ness. In the past, experimental and simulation studies were conducted
for the optimization of the groove textured tools for machining steels.
Fatima et al. [29] have studied the optimization of microgrooves to un-
derstand the effect of the textured area overlapping with contact area
in case of AISI 4140 steel. The effect of groove width, depth, pitch of
grooves and distance of grooves was studied, and distance from the cut-
ting edge was reported to be the most significant factor. Ma et al. have
studied the effect of texture parameters for micro-grooved [30] and mi-
crohole textured tools [31] by using finite element analysis for machin-
ing of Ti6Al4V.
In most of the studies, contact area reduction is suggested as the
most basic and inherent mechanism associated with textured surfaces.
This mechanism is considered to be working alone and/or in tandem
with different other mechanisms, e.g., microhydrodynamic, micropool
reservoir, debris entrapment, thin shear film formation depending upon
the type of lubricant applied. In dry cutting, shear film formation seems
to be the only factor responsible for the improved performance of the
textured tools. The reduced contact area is the phenomenon that is pri-
mordial to the textured surfaces however individually its contribution
has not yet been investigated in details. Extensive research has been
conducted on machining of steels and aluminum alloys with linear con-
tinuous and intermittent pit or dot textured tools. However, there re-
mains a dearth of investigation on different texture shapes for machin-
ing of titanium alloys under dry cutting. The effect of various shapes
on machining performance can be studied experimentally as well as by
using numerical simulations. The shape effect using numerical simula-
tions are more useful as it becomes difficult to fabricate complex shapes
at desired parameters using manufacturing techniques. Also, the perfect
S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Fig. 4. Flow stress evolution of different J-C models covering strain rate range 𝜀̇ =103 s−1 –107 s−1 at 700 °C (i–iv) and 300 ° C to 1000 °C at 105 s−1 (v–viii).

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Fig. 5. (a) 3D simulation set up for nose turning, FE simulation results for (b) main cutting force, (c) feed force, and (d) thrust force for different sets of J-C model
parameters (M1–M10).

dimensions are difficult to obtain due to the inherent disadvantages of Table 1

laser beam machining, microEDM, and other thermal methods. In case Mechanical and thermal input parameters for workpiece and tool
of focused ion beam machining, near accurate microfeatures can be fab- materials [31].
ricated, but that involves a lot of time and high fabrication cost. High Properties Workpiece Tool
precision, ease of modeling and freedom in choice of shapes make finite 3
Density (kg/m ) 4430 14,900
element method extremely helpful in investigating the shape effect and Coefficient of thermal expansion (°C−1 ) 9.1E−6 4.8E−6
its effectiveness for textured tools. Young’s modulus (Pa) 1.13∗ E11 6.45∗ E11
Poisson ratio 0.34 0.24
Thermal conductivity (W m−1 C−1 ) K(T) 91
2. 3D Finite element simulation studies Specific heat (J kg−1 C−1 ) Cp (T) 206

AdvantEdge® 3D FEM simulation package (Version 7.3, Third Wave

Systems, USA) has been used for the present study on Precision Tower
12 degrees of freedom tetrahedral elements were used to model tool
7810 Workstation. Machining processes undergo large strain and strain
and workpiece. The maximum number of nodes generated was 24,000
rates that cause element distortion for FE simulations. Element dis-
with fine mesh grading and the minimum element size of 10 μm whereas
tortion leads to inaccurate FE predictions during machining simula-
2 μm minimum edge length is provided for fine meshing of textures over
tions. AdvantEdge uses Lagrangian explicit dynamic code with adaptive
the rake face.
remeshing. Adaptive meshing and remeshing can be executed by the
Complete simulation studies have been organized into five parts:
code during the cutting operation in the highly deformed area to avoid
loss of solution accuracy. Mesh refinement could be done in FE codes by
adding more nodes during deformation satisfying plastic work rate crite- (i) Evaluation of available J-C model parameters with temperature de-
ria. Mesh density can be changed by coarsening/refining using adaptive pendent material properties for 3D simulations of machining (turn-
remeshing that is helpful in reducing simulation time. Default 4-node, ing) of Ti6Al4V.

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Fig. 6. Laser textured tool and CAD model of the textured tool (all dimensions in mm).

Table 2
Temperature dependent properties of Ti6Al4V alloy [30].

Properties/temperature(°C) 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

K(T) (W m−1 C−1 ) 6.651 6.996 8.591 11.436 15.031 19.106 22.286
Cp (T) (J kg−1 C−1 ) 483.3 535.8 588.3 640.8 600.19 645.2 690.2

Table 3
Tool insert geometry and mesh parameters.

Tool insert geometry Textured tool dimensions Workpiece meshing

Tool nose radius 0.8 mm Type of texture Microhole Minimum element size (chip bulk) 39.7 μm
Tool edge radius (re ) 15 μm Distance from cutting edge 70 μm Minimum element size (cutter edge) 30.3 μm
Rake angle (𝛾 0 ) −6° Diameter of 70 μm Mesh refinement factor 1
Relief angle 6° microhole Mesh coarsening factor 5
Lead angle −5° Depth of microhole 30 μm Maximum number of nodes 24,000
Friction coefficient 0.2 Pitch 120 μm Step healing tolerance 0.5 μm

Table 4
Different J-C model parameters available for Ti6Al4V.

Hardening Thermal
Yield stress MPa modulus MPa Strain rate Hardening softening Reference strain
Model (A) (B) sensitivity (C) coefficient (n) coefficient (m) rate s−1 (𝜀̇ 0 ) Source of data

M1 [44] 782.7 498.4 0.028 0.28 1 10−5 SPHB

M2 [38] 997.9 653.1 0.0198 0.45 0.7 1 SPHB
M3 [45] 862.5 331.2 0.012 0.34 0.8 1 SPHB
M4 [46] 881 468 0.039 0.122 0.7 1 SPHB
M5 [39] 984 520.3 0.015 0.510 0.824 1 Torsional SPHB
M6 [47] 968 380 0.0197 0.421 0.577 0.1 SPHB
M7 [41] 896 656 0.00128 0.5 0.8 1 SPHB
M8 [42] 988 762 0.015 0.414 1.51 0.1 Numerical
M9 [43] 983 348 0.024 0.32 0.69 0.1 Inverse
identification
M10 [42] 804 545 0.05 0.362 1.04 1 Numerical
method

(ii) Experimental validation of the simulation results for sensitivity anal-
ysis of selected models and validation for plain and microhole tex-
tured tools.
(iii) Evaluation of different basic shaped (square, circular, triangular, and
elliptical) textured tools with varying texture area density and depth.
(iv) Modeling of tool–chip contact length for plain and textured tools
under different machining parameters.
(v) Final experimental validation of texture shape effect with simulation
results
2.1. Selection of available J-C model parameters for 3D simulations of
Ti6Al4V
There is a number of factors that affect the reliability of finite ele-
ment predictions of machining process outputs, e.g., cutting forces, chip
serration and residual stresses. Apart from thermo-physical and mechan-
ical parameters, the prediction accuracy also depends upon constitutive
models, tool–chip interaction phenomenon and finite element parame-
ters like mesh grading, maximum and minimum element size, type of
mesh, etc. Amongst the available FE models for machining, Johnson
Cook model has been widely used. It uses three distinct aspects, namely
flow stress factor, strain hardening factor and thermal softening terms as
mentioned in Eq. (1). In case of 2D simulations, chip segmentation ratio,
chip thickness, and chip curling can also be predicted by using FE codes.

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Fig. 7. Variation of machining forces for different set of material parameters and comparison with experimental forces.

Fig. 8. Variation of simulated cutting forces at different cutting speed (50 m/min–110 m/min).

Some of the further modified J-C models enjoy incorporation of damage 3D simulations of titanium alloys in the present study. Based on the ex-
criteria and temperature dependent flow softening for chip segmenta- perimental validation, suitable parameter values have been selected and
tion and serration studies especially for machining of low conductivity used for further simulations.
alloys [32,33]. It is important to mention here that the model parameters have
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
been evaluated on the basis of output cutting forces (main cutting, axial
𝑇 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇 𝑒𝑟𝑚 ⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞ ⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞ thrust, and radial thrust forces) only. Chip studies have not been per-
⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞ ( )
𝜀̇ 𝑇 − 𝑇0 formed in the present study as it is difficult to devise an FE method
𝜎= [𝐴 + 𝐵.𝜀𝑛 ] ∗ [1 + 𝐶.ln ]∗ [1 − ( )𝑚] (1)
𝜀̇ 0 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇0 for chip formation mechanism in 3D finite element simulations. Chip
studies with the help of FE methods have been found to be well studied
where A, B, n, C, and m are yield strength, hardening modulus, harden-
mostly for 2D finite element simulations [34–36].
ing coefficient, strain rate sensitivity, and thermal softening coefficient,
respectively.
The influence of constitutive material model parameter has been 2.2. Workpiece/tool modeling and thermo-physical properties
studied for strain rate and temperature sensitivity analysis for machin-
ing results in 3D finite element predictions. Split Hopkinson pressure bar Mechanical and thermo-physical properties the tool and the work
(SPHB) test, inverse model identification, and analytical prediction from material should be provided for user-defined yield surface as a constitu-
machining trials are a few most widely used source of material model pa- tive model. The workpiece is modeled as a translating workpiece in nose
rameters used in FE simulations. A total of ten different material model turning mode with dimensions 5 × 1 × 2 mm3 . Tables 1 and 2 present the
parameters available from various sources has been evaluated for the properties of Ti6Al4V alloy and tool material. Due to the low thermal

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Fig. 9. Experimental validation of machining forces with plain and microhole textured tools.
Fig. 10. CAD model of different texture shapes on tool rake face with constant
unit area.
diffusivity of titanium alloys, the thermal softening phenomenon is very
significant in reducing cutting forces. For better assessment of thermal
softening nature of Ti6Al4V, temperature-dependent specific heat and
thermal conductivity are provided as simulation inputs (Table 2). Trial
simulations with different length of cut (3 mm, 5 mm and 10 mm) have
been carried out, and the differences in main cutting forces are limited
to a maximum of 5 N only. It suggests that, after initial fluctuations in
the force, steady state has been obtained. So, the final length of cut for
each simulation has been kept as 3 mm to minimize the computational
time. The workpiece is translated against a fixed cutting tool with a
specified cutting velocity to provide relative cutting motion. Tungsten
carbide (WC/Co) with geometry CNMA120408 is selected for the tool
material. CAD models for the tools have been created using SolidWorks
2013 as given in Table 3.
Tool insert in conjunction with tool holder PCLNL-2020-K12 result
in tool rake angle and relief angle of −6° and 6°, respectively. Am-
bient and melting temperature are taken as 25 °C and 1660 °C, re-
spectively. Coulomb friction model defined by F=μ∗ FN has been used
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
in the simulation, where F, μ, and FN are frictional force, the coef-
ficient of friction and normal force between tool and chip interface,
respectively.
2.3. Evaluation of different sets of J-C parameters for 3D FE simulations
Constitutive models and friction interaction at the tool–chip inter-
face are considered to be important factors for accurate and successful
prediction of cutting forces. There lies significant difference in cutting
forces and feed forces amongst different model parameters and their
frictional interface conditions. There is no single material model and pa-
rameters that can predict the different forces (cutting force, feed force)
accurately as investigated by Filice et al. [37] in case of 2D simula-
tions of AISI1045 steel. The present study aims to investigate different
model parameter values for evaluation in 3D FE simulations of Ti6Al4V
alloy with constant Coulomb friction model. Different material model
parameters (M1–M10) listed in Table 4 are taken from experimental
and numerical sources at strain rates from 10−5 s−1 to 1 s−1 . Model
parameters M1 have been obtained by SPHB test conducted at varying
temperature provided by induction coil within range 700–1100 °C at a
high strain rate of 2000 s−1 . Parameters A, B, n, C, and m have been
determined by regression analysis of the test results and flow stress–
strain response of the material was predicted. Seo et al. [38] conducted
SPHB test to predict the model values at strain 1400 s−1 and tempera-
ture range 200–1000 °C. Developed model values were used in J-C equa-
tion and modified J-C equation with a separate parameter corresponding
to phase transformation induced stresses. In this case, during machin-
ing temperature T >995 °C corresponds to recrystallization temperature
(Tc ) of Ti6Al4V alloys, so two different sets of J-C model parameters
were suggested for T <Tc and T >Tc to take care of induced stresses
due to phase transformation. Macdougall and Harding [39] conducted
torsional SPHB test at strain rates 300–1000 s−1 at 100 °C in conjunc-
tion with tensile tests. Model values from the tests were used as material
constants in dislocation mechanics based Zerrilli–Armstrong (ZA) con-
stitutive equation to run FE codes. The results were plotted for stress–
strain variation and reported elsewhere [40] for the machining process
according to Johnson–Cook constitutive model. Meyer et al. [41] eval-
uated J-C and ZA model parameters for ballistic impact simulations at
different strain rates (10−4 s−1 , 0.1 s−1 , and 2150 s−1 ). Hopkinson pres-
sure bar test is conducted at room temperature, and this is considered as
a possible source of error at high strain rates. Ozel and Karpat [42] pro-
posed determination of flow stress based on particle swarm optimization
(PSO), PSO with constriction factor and cooperative PSO using SPHB
S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Fig. 11. Variation of cutting forces for textured tools with different area density (Shape: circular, depth of texture: 10 μm).

Fig. 12. Variation in percentage area density for microhole textured tools and fine meshing of cutting tools.

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Fig. 13. Variation of von Mises stresses on differently shaped texture at constant area density and depth.

Fig. 14. (a) Method of slicing for stress evaluation and (b, c) extraction of secondary zone for textured tools.

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S.K. Mishra et al.
Fig. 15. von Mises stress distribution for circular textured tools with tools with (a) no texture, (b) Sp = 26.7%, (c) Sp = 31.8%, (d) Sp = 38.5% and (e) Sp = 47.5%.
data obtained from Meyer et al. [41]. These evolutionary algorithms
were used to compute flow stresses of AISI1045, AISI4340, AA6082 and
Ti6Al4V and resulting model parameters were in close fit with original
Johnson–Cook parameters for each alloy except for Ti6Al4V. Bouchnak
and Etude [43] have also conducted tensile test to find initial values
of A, B, and n for Ti6Al4V and Ti5553 alloys. Other values of C and m
were computed with the help of simulations and machining trials using
inverse identification approach.
Ten sets of material models (M1–M10) available from literature
considering different methods of computation/prediction/experiments
have been used (Table 4) in the present study. The model parameters
were evaluated for variation of flow stresses at varying strains, strain
rates, and temperatures. 3D FE simulations are further carried with these
model parameter values and validated through turning trials conducted
on Ti6Al4V. Different sets of J-C parameters were investigated for the
flow stress distribution at varying strains using codes in Matlab. Strain
rates in machining are usually 104 s−1 –107 s−1 and strain ranges up to 6,
hence it is difficult for experimental methods to conduct material tests
at such high strain and strain rates [33].
So, it becomes necessary to evaluate the models to evaluate over
the range of strain and strain rate by using numerical methods. The
range of flow stress of the available models depends on three differ-
ent factors: strain hardening term, strain rate or viscosity factor and
thermal softening factor. The individual and combined effect of these
terms are helpful in deciding the dominant factor for flow stress be-
fore actually using it for finite element codes. The effects of differ-
ent model parameters on flow stresses are plotted for mentioned fac-
tors separately. As far as strain hardening term is involved (Fig. 1),
the model parameters for M8 and M3 is having the highest and least
value of flow stresses, respectively. Highest flow stress value obtained
for M8 is due to the high value of yield stress (A) and hardening mod-
ulus (B). The low values of yield stress and lowest hardening mod-
ulus for M3 result in the lowest flow stresses. The strain hardening
term alone cannot justify the suitability of the model for finite element
simulations.
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
M7, M8 and M2, M5 have a similar slope over the range of strain and
the flow stresses for these sets cover the high range of stresses. Stress plot
for M4 set becomes parallel to strain axis after initial increase up to yield
stress. The flow stress for M1, M6, M9 and M10 clusters in the interme-
diate and low range due to the lower value of hardening modulus. The
viscosity factor has been incorporated, and new plots for flow stress and
strain are given in Fig. 2. The model set M8 achieves 4–6 times higher
value than the available model. This is because the strain rate factor
for M8 multiplies the stress value by 2.72 times at the constant strain
rate of 105 s−1 . The viscosity factor multiplies the flow stress by 1.01 to
1.56 times in all other cases hence maintain a comparable range from
1500 to 2000 MPa. The parameter of set M8 is exempted for flow stress
analysis when the thermal sensitivity factor is included. It is seen from
Fig. 3 that the lowest flow stress distribution occurs for set M6 and M3
which is nearly similar in slope and has almost similar maximum stress
value at strain greater than 1.5. At a constant temperature of T = 700 °C,
the thermal sensitivity factor varies from 0.337 to 0.658 for different pa-
rameter sets. The variation in the flow stress with different constituent
factors and its analysis can be helpful for understanding the effects of
material parameters on machining process and the output forces.
Fig. 4 shows a variation of flow stress at varying strain rates and tem-
perature for different material models. It is seen from Figs. 2 and 3 that
M1, M8, and M10 remain outside the domain of comparable model en-
velope. Hence further analysis is carried for the rest of the models. For
machining, strain rate ranges from 103 s−1 to 107 s−1 , so it becomes
necessary to analyze the various models for its applicability over this
mentioned strain range. Effect of thermal softening on flow stress is also
plotted for temperature between 300 °C and 1000 °C.
From Fig. 4(i)–(iv), it is seen that for strain values greater than
𝜀 = 2.5, M3 and M6 nearly become similar at 𝜀̇ = 103 s−1 . M3 follows
and intersects M6 at 𝜀 = 2.25 and 𝜀 = 1.25 for 𝜀̇ = 104 s−1 and 𝜀̇ = 106 s−1 ,
respectively. M2 and M5 stress curve follows each other for 𝜀̇ = 103 s−1
and 104 s−1 but at 𝜀̇ = 106 s−1 , slope of M5 becomes lower than M2 and
the variation in flow curve is seen after 𝜀 = 0.25. The flow curve for M4
does not seem to differ much at varying strain rates, hence its response
S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Fig. 16. Variation of von Mises stresses on different shaped texture at constant area density and depth.

Fig. 17. Variation of main cutting force for different texture shapes with varying area density (d =10 μm).

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S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Fig. 18. Variation of apparent coefficient of friction for different texture shape and area density (d =10 μm).

Fig. 19. Variation of von-Mises’ stresses for plain and textured tools with varying depth (Sp = 26.7%).

436
S.K. Mishra et al.
Fig. 20. Variation of main cutting force for varying texture depth with square textured tools.
can be considered as independent of strain rate. In the comparable stress
range, M7 and M9 have different slopes and their intersection shifts at
higher strain value with increasing strain rates. This suggests that at
some range of machining parameters, predicted values of M7 and M9
will be the same. However, the chances for same cutting force values
are rare due to singular intersection of M7 and M9 flow stress curves
over the range of strain.
Fig. 4(v)–(viii) analyzes the flow stress at 𝜀̇ = 105 s−1 with varying
temperature for thermal sensitivity analysis of the models. This analy-
sis shows a clear distinction between flow stress curves for all models
except M4, which still remains monotonous over the range of tempera-
ture. At T = 300 °C, the slope of M2 and M5 is nearly same after 𝜀 = 1.0,
and the stress variation for M3 and M6 increases after 𝜀 = 1.0 .With in-
crease in temperature, similar stress value for M3 and M6 shifts towards
higher strain values. This suggests the difference between M3 and M6 at
increasing machining temperature will be low as the process undergoes
high strain values. For M2 and M5, there remains no difference in the
flow curve at higher temperature and both coincides at T = 1000 °C. All
sets of J-C parameters have been used to run 3D simulations for speed,
80 m/min, feed, 0.1 mm/rev, and depth of cut, 1 mm. The simulation is
shown in Fig. 5(a) with the developed chip after cutting a length of 3 mm
in standard cutting mode with no coolant. The results for main cutting
force, radial thrust force, and axial thrust (feed) forces are shown as Fx ,
Fy and Fz , respectively, and averaged over the length of cut. The results
are plotted on radar diagram [Fig. 5(b–d)] for all the three machining
forces obtained from FE simulations.
2.4. Experimental validation with plain and micro-hole textured tools
The FEM models are evaluated with experimental results conducted
on Leadwell T6-CNC turning center. Ti6Al4V bar of 90 mm diame-
ter and 300 mm length has been selected for turning with plain and
textured tungsten carbide tools. Nanosecond pulsed laser (Nd: YAG
fiber laser, Make: Lee Laser, TQ9005, USA) has been used for rake
face texturing. Laser pulses have been generated at 1064 nm wave-
length, 20 s pulse duration, and frequency 20 kHz. Texture fabrication
has been performed at 25 mJ pulse energy and 50 mm/sec scanning
rate. Fig. 6 shows an optical image and measured textured dimension
of micro-hole textured tools. Texture patterns are fabricated at a dis-
tance of 70 μm from the principal cutting edge to avoid any catas-
trophic tool fracture. Laser ablation creates surface tension gradient
between the molten pool and surrounding surfaces. The molten metal
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
amasses around the pool edge/boundaries and creates recast and re-
deposited layers. The loose particles from recast and redeposited lay-
ers may act as a source of abrasion during machining. Hence, the
textured tools are diamond polished before machining experiments
by using 7 μm, 3 μm, and 1 μm diamond particles on a photographic
plate.
Trial experiments with plain and textured tools were performed, and
cutting forces were recorded using 3-component dynamometer (Kistler:
9129AA) connected with charge amplifier (Model: 5070A). Experiments
were replicated four times for cutting force measurement in all cases. In
Fig. 7, none of the models were found to be in complete agreement with
all the cutting forces (Fx , Fy , and Fz ). Comparison of main cutting forces
for different FE models shows M3, M4, M5, M6 and M9 were within
20% of experimental force values. The models overestimate the main
cutting force (Fx ) while the thrust force (Fy ) and the feed force (Fz ) have
been under predicted in all cases except a few (M8 and M10). Selection
of model parameter has been done on the basis of lowest deviation of
main cutting force and thrust force from experimental forces. M6 shows
least deviation of Fx , (6.5%), Fy (13.5%) from experimental value and
hence it is selected for further simulations.
The analysis of ten different models has been completed on a sin-
gle machining parameters to compare the cutting forces with exper-
imental results. However, to confirm the applicability of the selected
material model (M6), it becomes necessary to conduct sensitivity anal-
ysis of the selected model over the range of machining parameters. One
machining factor that can control the strain, strain rate, and temper-
ature is cutting speed. To focus this aspect, different cutting speeds
(vc = 50 m/min – 110 m/min), considering the machining speed range
specified for WC/Co tools, have been selected for machining keeping
other parameters constant. The main cutting force is compared with
simulation results in Fig. 8 to show variation of main cutting force with
speed. The close agreement of the simulation results suggests the appli-
cability and responsiveness of the selected material model for further
simulations. The model is also capable to respond to thermal softening
phenomenon as forces are decreasing at increasing speeds due to tem-
perature dependent input properties K(t) and Cp (T).
Further, with the selected model, simulations were performed for
plain and textured tools. The experimental and simulation values of cut-
ting forces for plain and textured tools are shown in Fig. 9. The simu-
lated and experimental forces for plain and microhole tools differ by
9.5% and 10.7%, respectively, for main cutting force (Fx ). Simulated
Fy and Fz forces were found to be varying within 11–17% with the ex-
S.K. Mishra et al.
Fig. 21. (a) 2D FE simulation scheme for contact length measurement in 3 different zones at step 10–step 30 and (b) measurement of chip serration thickness (ℎ+2 ,
ℎ−2 ) and contact length (Lc ).
perimental forces. Machining forces are found to be in good agreement
with the simulated results for both plain and textured tools. So, the se-
lected model can be used further for the evaluation of different texture
shapes.
3. Evaluation of different basic shaped textured tools with
varying texture area density and depth
Four different types of basic shapes have been modeled on tool rake
face with varying texture area density and depth. Texture area density is
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
considered to be a major factor influencing the effectiveness of patterned
surfaces in reducing friction and wear. Area density for all differently
shaped textures has been kept constant and obtained by the equations
mentioned in Table 5. Pitch and depth of all the textures have been
kept within 90–120 μm and 10–30 μm, respectively, with a variation of
around 10 μm. The variation of pitch for all the shapes results in texture
area density variation from 25% to 50% (26.7%, 31.8%, 38.5%, and
47.5%). Area of all the textures has been kept constant irrespective of
the shape of textures. The CAD models for different shaped cutting tools
are shown in Fig. 10.
S.K. Mishra et al.
Fig. 22. Variation of contact length at varying feed and speed for plain cutting tools.
Fig. 23. Statistical plot for test of normality testing of simulated results for contact length data.
3.1. Effect of texture area density
The variation of cutting forces with texture area density for circu-
lar shape textured tools is shown in Fig. 11. The depth of texture for
all cases has been selected as 10 μm, and simulation results are plotted
for varying texture area density. The cutting force for different texture
area density (Sp ) follows a decreasing trend with increasing area density
and minimum force was achieved for Sp = 38.5%. The variation remains
nominal and nowhere very high reduction in cutting forces has been
observed for circular textured tools.
From simulation results, it can be predicted that increasing area den-
sity have a positive impact on reducing cutting forces and the main cut-
ting force reduces by 2.1%, 3.6%, 7.8% and 5.43% compared to plain
cutting tools. The forces decrease monotonically till an optimum texture
area density, and the trend does not continue for area density higher
than 47.5%. The frictional force between contact interfaces decreases
as texture area density increases [48] and friction between chip–tool is
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
considered to be deciding factor for evaluation of machining forces as
given by Eqs. (2)–(4) [12]. Increasing area density decreases tool–chip
contact area per unit length, as more textured holes will be providing
void space to avoid contact with chip underside (Fig. 12). This is ben-
eficial in reducing the contact length which in consequence decreases
the frictional forces and cutting forces.
𝐹 = 𝑎𝑤 𝐿𝑐 𝜏𝑐 (2)
( )
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑎𝑤 𝐿𝑐 𝜏𝑐 cos 𝛽 − 𝛾0 ∕sin𝛽 (3)
( )
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑎𝑤 𝐿𝑐 𝜏𝑐 sin 𝛽 − 𝛾0 ∕sin𝛽 (4)
where F is frictional force, Fx is main cutting force and Fy is thrust force.
aw , 𝜏 c , 𝛽 and 𝛾 0 are width of cut, tool– chip interface shear strength,
friction angle and orthogonal rake angle, respectively. von-Mises’ prin-
cipal stresses on rake face for different area density tools is shown in
S.K. Mishra et al.
Fig. 24. Statistical plots for examining residuals for (a) independence and (c) constant variance of the model (The response is Lc in all the plots).
Fig. 13 separated from chip and workpiece. The 2-D cross-section of the
3D machining zone is extracted for a better understanding of chip flow
over the rake face. A slice of the 3D-cutting zone is cut across Y-axis
using ‘slice from plane and surface zone’ features in Tecplot as shown
in Fig. 14. The maximum stress in case of plain (untextured) tool is
high as compared to textured tools and mostly concentrated on the tool
nose and the chip-tool contact interface. The 2D cross section of sliced
cutting zone shows the penetration or effect of maximum von Mises’
stresses in the plain tool is deeper on the rake face which implies that
high interfacial stresses occur in case of plain tools (Fig. 15). However,
the penetration is limited to shallow layers on rake surface in case of
textured tools.
The least concentration of maximum principal stress is seen in
the case of texture density Sp = 38.5% (microhole diameter = 70 μm,
pitch = 100 μm). Increasing area density is effective for cutting titanium
alloy, but thermal methods of texture fabrication will not be useful to
pattern a tool with high texture area density. Adjacent textures will be
affected by reheating of patterns due to thermal methods of texture fab-
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
rication (Laser, EDM patterning, etc.). To avoid this, non-thermal meth-
ods (FIB milling, electrochemical patterning, etc.) needs to be adopted
for texture fabrication over cutting tools to impart high area density.
3.2. Effect of texture shape
Texture shape influences the tribological performances of mating
surfaces under extreme operating conditions. Machining performance
of tools with different texture shapes (circular, rectangular, triangular
and elliptical) are simulated, and the same is compared with titanium
machining. It is aimed to investigate the effect of basic texture shapes
on machining forces and stresses generated on the textured tools. The
geometrical design study will help in deciding the most basic texture
shape to ascertain the performance of textured tools in dry cutting.
The simulations are conducted to model and simulate the textured tools
without actually fabricating them and thus help in reducing efforts and
associated costs involved in manufacturing such textured tools. Varia-
tion of induced stresses during machining with different shaped textures
S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Fig. 25. Simulation results for contact length for textured tools under varying machining parameters.

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S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Fig. 26. Variation of tool–chip contact length for plain and textured tools with cutting velocity at feed (a) f = 0.1 mm/rev, (b) f = 0.15 mm/rev, and (c) f = 0.2 mm/rev.

442
S.K. Mishra et al.
Fig. 27. Statistical plots for examining residuals for (a) normality (b) of the model (The response is Lc in all the plots) for textured tools.
are shown in Fig. 16 at constant area density and depth. The elliptical
textured tool shows highest stresses over the rake face and around prin-
ciple cutting edge. The main cutting forces are plotted in Fig. 17 for
different area density and texture shapes. For all shapes, textures with
Sp = 38.5% results in the least force while other area densities are show-
ing decreased forces except Sp = 47.5%. However, the decrease in forces
for area density other than Sp = 38.5% is insignificant.
The least forces are obtained for circular and elliptical textures for a
fixed texture density. In case of triangular and elliptical textures, cutting
forces increase for Sp = 31.8% and Sp = 47.5% and hence the use of such
textured tools in machining is not justified. One of the possible mech-
anisms for improved performance of textured tools is the reduction in
tool–chip contact area that minimizes friction between surfaces.
Fig. 18 shows a variation of apparent coefficient of friction as de-
rived from Eq. (5) for different texture shapes at varying area density. It
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
can be noted that except triangular textured tools, other textured tools
reduce friction coefficient and the maximum reduction is possible in the
case of circular textures. The possible reason for this behavior cannot be
predicted by the simulation results, and a deeper understanding is re-
quired by conducting experiments and characterizing the cutting tools
after the machining process.
However, it may be assumed that due to the converging shape of
triangular textures in the direction of chip sliding, chip embedding is
prominent in case of triangular textured tools. Rectangular textures have
very little or no effect on the main cutting force for all area density,
however, the reduced friction coefficient is evident compared to plain
tools.
√{( )2 ( )2 }
𝐹𝑦 + 𝐹𝑧
μ𝑎𝑝𝑝 = (5)
𝐹𝑥
S.K. Mishra et al.
Fig. 28. Machining set up for metal cutting experiments with textured tools.
3.3. Effect of depth
The effect of texture depth on von Mises stresses and cutting force
is shown in Figs. 19 and 20, respectively, with different area density.
Compared to plain tools (d = 0 μm), the stresses generated on different
textured tools are reduced. This shows that the textured tools are help-
ful in reducing the contact stresses at selected machining parameters.
The stress concentration is maximum around the principle cutting edge
on tool nose for plain cutting tools and the same is reduced for textured
tools. The forces are reduced for different texture depth at different area
density. The effect of depth is not much convincing in case of textured
tools for titanium machining as very little, or no reduction in cutting
forces are observed. The possible reason for this outcome is attributed
to the depth of the textures that only offer the space for chip embed-
ment and debris entrapment. The chip embedding becomes a dominant
mechanism in machining of titanium alloys with textured tools. In the
case of dry cutting, texture depth does not seem an important factor
for improving machining of Ti6Al4V. The effect of textures needs fur-
ther detailed experimental investigation for machining with coolants. It
becomes essential to understand the chip embedding in case of machin-
ing simulations. Hence the further effect of cutting speeds and feed on
tool–chip contact length is studied using 2D FE simulations.
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
4. Modeling of tool–chip contact length for plain and textured
tools under different machining parameters
4.1. Need of contact length model for the case of serrated chips
Chip morphology and tool–chip contact area are important factors
related to machinability of Ti-alloys. The interaction between chip un-
derside and tool surface generates heat that activates thermally sensitive
wear modes namely adhesion and diffusion. Experimentally, tool–chip
contact length (Lc ) can be measured by the rubbing marks over the cut-
ting tools by using optical microscopy after a certain length of cut. Con-
tact length changes during machining due to dynamic nature of chip tool
interaction, and it is difficult to measure contact length exactly. Experi-
mental fluctuations of contact length cannot be predicted due to contin-
uous rubbing and breaking of the chips hence, approximate values are
measured after machining experiments. During machining of Ti-alloys,
chip segmentation occurs due to adiabatic shear banding, crack forma-
tion or combination of both [49]. Chip tool contact length is modeled
mainly as a function of uncut chip thickness or feed (h1 ) and chip thick-
ness (hc ) as can be found in the various available contact length models
provided in Table 6. Approximate measurement of chip thickness can
be performed by using a micrometer that nowhere can incorporate the
S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Fig. 29. Different textured shapes tools fabricated by laser micromachining.

Fig. 30. Variation of cutting force with different texture shaped cutting tools.

chip geometry produced as a result of chip segmentation. Experimen-
tal methods have the aforementioned shortcomings that make analyti-
cal and simulation techniques very useful tool for prediction of contact
length variation in machining by considering the serrated chip thickness
and fluctuation in contact length over a defined length of cut.
A new model for contact length considering contact length fluctua-
tions and chip thickness variation due to serrations is developed. The
effectiveness of textured tools is compared with the plain tools in reduc-
ing the contact length under varying machining parameters. Further,
a linear regression equation is developed for tool–chip contact length
with textured tools. To the best of author’s knowledge, there is no avail-
able tool–chip contact length model for machining with textured tools
although this is considered to be the primary mechanism of improved
cutting performance exhibited by the textured tools.

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S.K. Mishra et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449

Table 5 lation step-10, step-20 and step-30 to exactly compare the effect of con-
Different texture shapes, texture area density, and corresponding tact length fluctuations for all simulation cases [Fig. 21(a)]. The output
schematic diagram. from AdvantEdge® 2D FEM is obtained in Tecplot and chip geometry
Shape Texture area density Schematic diagram namely contact length (Lc ), serration peak (ℎ+2
) and serration valley (ℎ−
2
)
are measured as shown in Fig. 21(b). Serration peak, valleys and contact
length measured over the three contact zones are averaged out and used
for the regression analysis of contact length equation. The simulation
𝜋𝑑 2
Circular 𝑆𝑝 = 4𝑝2 results for contact length with plain tools are compared with the experi-
mental model (Eq. (6)) developed by Iqbal et al. [50]. The contact length
model developed by Iqbal et al. is selected due to the close matching
of the machining range (vc = 60 − 300 m/minand f = 0.1 − 0.3 mm/rev)
and workpiece (Ti6Al4V) and tool materials (WC/Co) with the present
work.
The results are compared for experimental contact length with chip
thickness as h2 = hav g and h2 = ℎ+ 2
at varying speeds and feeds in case
of plain tools only. The comparison from experimental values remains
𝑎2
Square 𝑆𝑝 = 𝑝2
inconclusive due to inability to incorporate the chip thickness in case
of serrations (Table 7). For lower speeds and low feeds, the simulated
contact length shows agreement with model Lc values, however, at in-
creased speed mismatch exists.
The reason for this behavior is due to the generation of adiabatic
shear banding at increased speed and feed values for titanium machin-
ing. The thermo-mechanical instability becomes more dominant at in-
creased speeds in the range of 100–250 m/min [51]. The serration effect
at different speeds and feeds is difficult to be incorporated by experimen-
√
3𝑙 2
tal measurements.
Triangular 𝑆𝑝 = 4𝑝2

𝐿𝑐 = 1.015 ℎ2 + 0.7 ℎ1 (6)

From the results, it can be said that there exists a need to develop
contact length model that incorporates chip serration parameters along
with uncut chip thickness. The function relating contact length with
serration peak, serration valley, and uncut chip thickness is given in
equation below.

𝐿𝑐 = 𝜙(ℎ+
2
, ℎ−
2
, ℎ1 ) (7)

𝜋𝑥𝑦 where 𝐿𝑐 , ℎ+ , ℎ− , ℎ1 are contact length, serration peak, serration valley,

Elliptical 𝑆𝑝 = 𝑝2
2 2
and uncut chip thickness, respectively (Fig. 22).
The contact length is correlated with correlation coefficients of
0.802, 0.748, and 0.638 for ℎ+ ℎ− , and ℎ1 , respectively. Pearson coef-
2, 2
ficients show that there is a fair positive correlation for contact length
with serrated peak, serrated valley and uncut chip thickness. The mul-
tiple linear regression equation for contact length in case of machining
with plain tools is shown in the below equation with ℎ+ ℎ− , and ℎ1 as
2, 2
independent variables.
Table 6
𝐿𝑐 = 0.0776 − 1.727 ℎ1 + 2.881 ℎ+
2
− 1.106 ℎ−
2
(8)
Available tool–chip contact length models for machining of
different materials [50].
The equation shows that serration peak has the most significant ef-
Model Contact length model Workpiece material fect on contact length compared to uncut chip thickness and serration
valley. The serration peak has an additive effect on the contact length
Poletika Lc = 2.05h2 − 0.55h1 Steel, copper
Kato Lc = 2h2 Aluminum and ℎ+ 2
has a greater effect than ℎ− 2
. The first order model has R2 -value
Stephenson Lc = 0.00280 vc + 0.485 AISI 1018 of 82.76% and the corresponding normal probability plot against the
Marinov Lc = 1.61h2 − 0.28h1 AISI 1018 residual is shown. Fig. 23 shows model fitness of the developed equa-
Sutter Lc = 1.92h2 − 0.09h1 XC 18
tion as the central value of the plot is more emphasized than on extremes
Iqbal Lc = 1.15h2 + 0.7h1 Ti6Al4V
and it also provides a linear plot.
This proves the normal distribution of the simulated results are sat-
isfied and qualifies for regression analysis. Fig. 24(a) plots the residuals
4.2. FE simulations for chip tool contact length model in machining with in time order, and the model fitness is only satisfied if the residual dis-
plain tools tribution remains structureless. The pattern of the plot remains not so
obvious, and it can be suggested that the residuals of the simulated val-
2D FE simulations have been carried at different cutting speeds ues are independent and involve less interaction. The independence of
(vc = 50 − 250 m/min) and feeds (f = 0.1 − 0.2 mm/rev). Machining sim- the residuals can also be predicted by using the plot of residuals versus
ulations are run for cutting length of 10 mm with Ti6Al4V work material predicted values. The plot in Fig. 24(b) will be independent and struc-
and tungsten carbide tool (K-grade) available in AdvantEdge® material tureless by the residuals versus fitted value plot. It shows the constancy
library. Tool chip contact is analyzed in three different zones after simu- of variance and supports the independence of residual plot.

446
S.K. Mishra et al.
Table 7
Simulated results of tool–chip contact length at varying machining parameters and comparison with existing model.
Speed (m/min) Feed (mm/rev) Simulated Lc (μm)
0.1 289.3
50 0.15 374.54
0.2 412.37
0.1 234.14
100 0.15 274.83
0.2 357.39
0.1 188.27
150 0.15 254.48
0.2 451.3
0.1 226.15
200 0.15 281.21
0.2 434.17
0.1 204.53
250 0.15 198.72
0.2 311.51
4.3. Comparison of contact length for plain and textured tools and
regression model for textured tools
Due to texturing over the surfaces, the contact area of the mating
surfaces reduces which in turn favors a decrease in frictional stresses be-
tween the surfaces under high load. In machining, high contact stresses
and the cutting temperature is generated in tool–chip contact zone due
to continuous rubbing of chips over the rake face. In previously con-
ducted studies [2,27,31], contact length reduction is considered as one
of the major mechanisms of machinability improvement for machin-
ing with textured tools. For steels and aluminum, reduction in contact
length can be considered as a possible mechanism for reduced fric-
tion and adhesion. The validity of this mechanism for dry cutting of
Ti-alloys is however debatable mainly due to the poor thermal proper-
ties and high chemical reactivity of Ti6Al4V. In case of Ti6Al4V ma-
chining, intense heat is generated over tool–chip contact area due to a
combined effect of shearing and interfacial friction. The textured tools
are not only helpful in reducing the contact area but also addition-
ally, the textures will be providing the space for chip embedment. The
nascent chip surface on the chip undersides can be additionally sheared
by the sharp edges of the textures and the debris so generated may fill
up the void spaces of the textures when machining has been contin-
ued for the sizeable length of cut. This will also cause the formation
of the built-up layer and increased friction between chip and adhered
layers.
In order to know the efficacy of textured tools for dry cutting of tita-
nium alloys, it is essential to investigate the validity of the underlying
mechanism. Also, it is important to understand the role of machining
parameters on the effectiveness of textured tools considering the con-
tact length reduction mechanism. Chip serrations are measured in three
different zones similarly as mentioned in Fig. 21 and contact length vari-
ation for the plain tool is compared to that of the textured tools. The sim-
ulation results are shown in Fig. 25 and chips are seen embedded in the
textures at higher feeds. In case of vc = 200 m/min and vc = 250 m/min,
chips completely embed the textures in the contact zone. Also, under-
cut, and broken chips are visible from the simulation results. Hence it
can be proposed that textured tools lose their effectiveness at increased
feed and speed due to high chip embedding and undercutting. Higher
von Mises’ stresses in flank and contact zone are visible from the sim-
ulation results. The contact stresses where chips are embedded in the
textures are comparatively higher than the unfilled textures suggesting
dulling or wearing out of the textures due to higher stresses. The hot
chips embedded in the textures will be acting as a heat source and will
cause thermal damage to the tools and finally breakage of the patterns
due to high stresses.
In case of plain tools, maximum principal stress is confined to the
rake face, some distance away from the cutting tool tip. The high me-
chanical stresses are created by the contact stresses at the interface, and
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 141 (2018) 424–449
Experimental Lc with h2 = hav g (μm) Experimental Lc with h2 = ℎ+2 (μm)
234.70 276.07
318.70 373.05
418.25 472.51
209.05 251.33
308.93 348.63
391.89 457.19
205.16 232.38
295.5 336.38
386.88 439.72
195.03 224.41
281.9 326.05
381.3 441.21
190.02 220.63
284.82 322.90
372.06 429.79
the resultant is the total mechanical load on the tool. The maximum
stress occurs at the rake face and has a direct influence on the crack
formation, chipping, flaking, edge breakage or fracture [52].
The contact length variations for plain and textured tools are shown
in Fig. 26. The plot shows that at lower feeds the reduction in contact
length is considerable and 32–40% reduction in contact length is achiev-
able in case of 0.1 mm/rev feed. The percentage reduction decreases to
only 6–10% at increased feed and contact length increases for textured
tools as compared to plain tools at 0.2 mm/rev. Hence, the mechanism
of contact length reduction is not favorable for machining of titanium
alloys under dry conditions. However, it remains valid at certain ma-
chining parameters such as lower speed and feeds, but with increased
machining parameters, the mechanism no longer remains valid.
The single order regression model for textured tools is given in
Eq. 9 with R2 -value and adjusted R2 -value as 93.94% and 92.29%, re-
spectively. Also, the fitness of the model and independence of the vari-
ables is shown with the help of normal probability plot and structureless
residual distribution (Fig. 27).
𝐿𝑐 = 2.103 ℎ1 − 2.33 ℎ+ + 3.35 ℎ− − 0.0737 (9)
2 2
5. Final validation of shape effect with different texture shaped
tools for machining of Ti6Al4V
To see the shape effect offered by textured tools under dry cutting,
three different texture shape (circular, square and triangular) were fab-
ricated by nanosecond fiber laser micromachining. The machining pa-
rameters are speed (vc ) = 80 m/min, feed (f) = 0.1 mm/rev, depth of cut
(ap ) = 1 mm and length of cut 25 mm and repeated three times for each
experiments. The machining set up in Fig. 28 shows the steps from laser
texturing on plain cutting tools to final machining experiments. Final
textured tools are shown in Fig. 29 showing the capability of nanosec-
ond laser machining to fabricate different shapes on cutting tools.
The cutting forces recorded for machining of Ti6Al4V with these
textured tools are shown in Fig. 30 in terms of Fx , (Fy ) and (Fz ). The
results shows nearly constant cutting forces for the three texture shapes.
The values for forces amongst these textured tools are nearly constant.
Based on the experiments, the shape effect cannot be effective for dry
cutting of titanium speed.
Regarding the effectiveness of textured tools for reduced contact
length and contact area, the limits are imposed at increasing speeds and
feeds. The mechanism responsible for reducing the texture effectiveness
is a generation of interface multi-point microcutting (IMP-μC) or deriva-
tive cutting induced by textured tools [53]. At increasing speeds, high
heat generated at the interface softens the chip material and textures
start to cut chip underside. Over the range of cutting length, the under-
cut chips get adhered or filled into the textures and increases contact
friction. Increased friction and adhesion overrides the contact length
reduction mechanism.
447
S.K. Mishra et al.
6. Conclusions
3D finite element for machining simulations has been performed for
different available material models. The ability to simulate cutting force
responses was analyzed and related to flow stress variation at different
strain rates and temperature. The effect of factors involved in Johnson–
Cook equation is also evaluated for different models. The selected model
is used to simulate machining with rake face textured tools possessing
different geometric shapes and area density. Analysis for tool–chip con-
tact length is performed at varying machining parameters, and contact
length model for textured tools is developed. The results of this study
are presented below:
• doi:10.1080/10402009908982248.
The significant difference amongst different available material pa-
rameters has been noted for J-C equation. Various material parame-
ters exhibit a significant difference in flow stress variation.
• Cutting force is considered as a response for evaluation of model pa-
rameters. M6 gives force values closer to experimental results within
6.5% and is considered to be the preferred model for 3D finite ele-
ment simulation in the case of titanium machining.
• A direct relationship exists between the flow stress variation and sim-
ulation results for material models with varying strain, strain rate,
and temperature. The ability of the material models to respond at
increased strain rate and temperature is suggested as a possible in-
terpretation of the observed cutting forces.
• The shape of texture patterns over cutting tools affect cutting forces,
but texture area density is considered as the most influencing pa-
rameter for textured tools in case of dry machining.
• There is little or no effect of depth of texture on cutting forces in dry
cutting as there is no fluid involved.
• Tool-chip contact length reduction is an important mechanism for
the effectiveness of textured tools. The contact length is studied us-
ing 2D simulations, and the linear regression model is developed for
plain and textured tools by incorporating serration peak and serra-
tion valley parameters.
• The phenomenon of reduction in contact length in case of textured
tools gets nullified at the increased feed. This is due to the intense
heat and chip embedding in the dry cutting of Ti6Al4V.
• The present study suggests that textured tools can be used for ma-
chining titanium under dry cutting, but it no longer remains effective
at higher feed and speeds.
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