01-07-Wave Making Resistance

1
11/9/2021
1. Introduction
➢The second major component of hull resistance is the
resistance due to wave making.
➢The nature of the wave system created by a ship is
similar to that which Kelvin (1887) demonstrated for
the wave field created by a moving pressure point in
deep water.
➢Kelvin showed that the wave pattern has two main
features:
Diverging waves (stationery) on each side of the
pressure point with their inclined crests intersecting the
centerline at 19o28’, regardless the shape of the bow.
Transverse waves (progressive) with curved crests
intersecting the centerline at right angles.
2
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 11/9/2021
1. Introduction
Drops of water fall from a

leaf into a pond. The
disturbance caused by the
falling water causes the
water surface to oscillate.
These oscillations are
associated with waves
moving away from the
point at which the water
is falling.
3
1. Introduction
𝑉𝑠 > 𝑉𝑤
𝑉𝑠 ∙ 𝑡
A representation of a wave produced when a source moves from 𝑆𝑜

to 𝑆𝑛 with a speed 𝑉𝑠 , which is greater than the wave speed 𝑉𝑤 in
the medium. The envelope of the wave fronts forms a cone whose
apex half-angle is given by 𝜃 = sin−1 𝑉𝑤 Τ𝑉𝑠 .
4
1. Introduction
(stationery wave)
(progressive wave)
𝟐𝝅 𝟐
𝑳𝒘𝒗 = ∙ 𝑽𝒘
𝒈
𝟏
𝑬𝒘𝒗 = ∙ 𝝆𝒈 ∙ 𝑳𝒘𝒗 ∙ 𝜻𝟐𝒐 𝒋Τ𝒎
𝟐
5
1. Introduction
Length of transverse wave
𝟐𝝅 𝟐
𝑳𝒘𝒗 = ∙ 𝑽𝒘
𝒈
Crestline of the divergent stern wave Crestline of the divergent bow wave
Transverse waves (progressive waves)
Crestline of the transverse bow wave

Crestline of the transverse stern wave
𝟏
𝑬𝒘𝒗 = ∙ 𝝆𝒈 ∙ 𝑳𝒘𝒗 ∙ 𝜻𝟐𝒐 𝒋Τ𝒎
𝟐
6
1. Introduction
7
1. Introduction
Ship-induced waves
Propulsive energy transferred
to waves.
Wind-induced waves
Wind energy transferred to
waves.
8
1. Introduction
9
2. Transverse Wave System
➢At slow speeds of ships, several wave crests (short
waves) exist along the ship length, as the lengths of the
transverse waves (𝐿𝑤𝑣 ) are smaller than the ship length
(𝐿𝑤𝑙 ).
Short waves Slow Speed
𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉ℎ
at 𝐿𝑤𝑣 < 𝐿𝑤𝑙 𝐿𝑤𝑣 < 𝐿𝑤𝑙
➢As the ship speed (𝑉𝑠 ) increases, the length of the

transverse waves ( 𝐿𝑤𝑣 ) increases, i.e., fewer wave
crests (long waves) exist along the ship length.
Long waves High Speed
𝑉𝑠 ≅ 𝑉ℎ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 ≅ 𝐿𝑤𝑙
at 𝐿𝑤𝑣 ≅ 𝐿𝑤𝑙 10
➢As the length of the transverse wave (𝐿𝑤𝑣 ) approaches
the length of the ship (𝐿𝑤𝑙 ), the ship approaches its hull
speed, i.e., 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉ℎ at 𝐿𝑤𝑣 ≅ 𝐿𝑤𝑙 . The wave-
making resistance (𝑅𝑊 ) of the ship increases very
rapidly, and so its total resistance (𝑅𝑇 ), as the speed of
the ship (𝑉𝑠 ) increases above the hull speed (𝑉ℎ ).
➢The interference between the divergent and transverse

wave systems gives the observed waves their
characteristic shape, and since both systems of waves
move at the same speed, the speed of the vessel (𝑉𝑠 ),
then the wavelength (𝐿𝑤𝑣 ) between successive crests in
2𝜋
both systems of waves is 𝐿𝑤𝑣 = ∙ 𝑉𝑤2 .
𝑔11
➢The height of the wave systems formed decreases fairly
rapidly as they spread out because the energy contained
in the wave is constant and it has to be spread out over
an increasingly greater length. More energy is absorbed
by the transverse waves than by the divergent waves,
and this disparity increases with increasing speed.
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➢The simplest representation of a ship is to place a
moving pressure field (i.e., +ve) near the bow to
simulate the bow Kelvin wave system, together with a
moving suction field (i.e., -ve) near the stern to
represent the stern Kelvin wave system.
➢Representing a ship’s hull by a moving pressure and

suction fields near the bow and stern respectively
𝐿𝑤𝑣
creates a wave crest near the bow (𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = from
4
the bow, based on experimental observations), and
introduces a wave trough near the stern; both waves has
2𝜋
an approximate length of 𝐿𝑤𝑣 = ∙ 𝑉𝑤2 at 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑉𝑠 .
𝑔
13
Waves Travel with Ship !!!
This means wave speed (𝑉𝑤 ) is same as ship speed (𝑉𝑠 ).
➢Hull speed in deep water:
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑔𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ2𝜋 (1)
𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑉𝑠2 Τ𝑔
➢Ratio of the wavelength to ship length:
𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 2 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝑉𝑠2 Τ𝑔𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 2 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝐹𝑛2 (2)
➢Consider a transverse wave generated at the bow:
Short waves If 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 1Τ3  𝐹𝑛 = 1Τ6𝜋 ≈ 0.230
𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉ℎ
If 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 2 Τ3  𝐹𝑛 = 2Τ6𝜋 ≈ 0.326
Slow Speed
If 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 1Τ2  𝐹𝑛 = 1Τ4𝜋 ≈ 0.282
Long waves 𝑉 ≅ 𝑉
𝑠 ℎ If 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 3Τ4  𝐹𝑛 = 3Τ8𝜋 ≈ 0.346
High Speed If 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 =1  𝐹𝑛 = 1Τ2𝜋 ≈ 0.400
➢The bow wave is typically somewhat aft of the bow. 14
3. Interaction of Bow-Stern Transverse Waves
(Two-point Sources Method)
➢ Consider a boat generates two wave trains, a +ve train (crest)
near the bow (𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ4) and a –ve train (trough) near the stern.
Designate the distance between wave trains as 𝐿𝑝𝑠 or length
between pressure source and sink. As the two wave trains are not
generated exactly at the bow/stern, the bow wave is a bit aft of
the bow.
𝐿𝑤𝑙
Detrimental interference 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ4
(wave enhancement)
𝑘 odd
Stern Wave 𝛿 = 𝐿𝑝𝑠 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙
Beneficial interference Bow Wave
0.80 < 𝛿 < 0.95 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ4
(wave cancellation)
𝑘 even
Stern Wave 𝑘= No. of half waves 𝐿𝑤𝑣
Stern (sink) 𝐿𝑝𝑠 Bow (source)
➢ The divergent waves of the bow and stern show weak

interference characteristics; whereas the corresponding
transverse waves exhibit strong interference characteristics.
15
3. Interaction of Bow-Stern Transverse Waves
(Two-point Sources Method)
𝐿𝑤𝑙
Detrimental interference 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ4
(wave enhancement)
𝑘 odd
Stern Wave 𝛿 = 𝐿𝑝𝑠 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙
Beneficial interference Bow Wave
0.80 < 𝛿 < 0.95 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ4
(wave cancellation)
𝑘 even
Stern Wave 𝑘= No. of half waves 𝐿𝑤𝑣
Stern (sink) 𝐿𝑝𝑠 Bow (source)
➢ When a bow trough coincide with stern trough, wave
enhancement occurs, and wave drag is increased associated with
a hump in the wave resistance-speed curve.
𝐿𝑤𝑙 − 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ4 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ2 ; 𝑘 an odd no. of 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ2
𝐿𝑤𝑙 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 𝑘Τ2 + 1Τ4 = 2𝑘 + 1 Τ4; 𝑘 = 1,3,5, … (3)
➢ When a bow crest coincide with a stern trough, wave
cancellation occurs, and wave drag is decreased associated with
a hollow in the wave resistance-speed curve.
𝐿𝑤𝑙 − 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ4 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ2 ; 𝑘 an even no. of 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ2
𝐿𝑤𝑙 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 𝑘Τ2 + 1Τ4 = 2𝑘 + 1 Τ4; 𝑘 = 2,4,6, … (4) 16
4. Critical Froude No. for Humps/Hollows
➢ Wavelength in deep water may be given by
𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑉𝑤2 Τ𝑔 (5)
➢ Divide both sides by 𝐿𝑤𝑙
𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑉𝑤2 Τ𝑔𝐿𝑤𝑙 (6)
➢ Hull speed in deep water means
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑤
➢ Substitute in Eq. (6)
𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑉𝑠2 Τ𝑔𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 2𝜋𝐹𝑛2 ; 𝐹𝑛 = 𝑉𝑠 Τ 𝑔𝐿𝑤𝑙 (7)
➢ Rearranging Eq. (7)
𝐹𝑛 = 1Τ2𝜋 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 ; 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 4Τ 2𝑘 + 1 (8)
➢ Rearranging Eq. (8) and substituting from Eq. (3, 4)
𝐹𝑛 = 2Τ 𝜋 ∙ 2𝑘 + 1 (9)
➢ Notes:
• Eq. (9) is valid regardless 𝑘 is odd or even.
• A basic assumption in this derivation is that 𝐿𝑝𝑠 = 𝐿𝑤𝑙 !!!! 17
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑉𝑠 Τ 𝑔𝐿𝑤𝑙
Maxima in 𝑹𝑾
𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 4Τ 2𝑘 + 1
Reinforcements/Humps (𝒌 is Odd) 𝐹𝑛𝑐𝑟 = 1Τ2𝜋 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙
Main Hump
Prismatic Hump
𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 1.33
1st Hu 2nd Hu 3rd Hu 4th Hu 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 0.5714
𝒌 ODD 1 3 5 7 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 0.3636
𝑳𝒘𝒗 Τ𝑳𝒘𝒍 1.3333 0.5714 0.3636 0.2667

Last Hollow
𝑭𝒏 0.4606 0.3015 0.2405 0.2060 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 0.80
Main Hump Prismatic Hump 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 0.444
A basic assumption in this

Minima in 𝑹𝑾 derivation is that 𝐿𝑝𝑠 = 𝐿𝑤𝑙 ; but
Cancellation/Hollows (𝒌 is Even) practically 𝐿𝑝𝑠 = % 80 ~ 95 𝐿𝑤𝑙
1st Ho 2nd Ho 3rd Ho 4th Ho

𝐹𝑛𝑐𝑟 = 1Τ2𝜋 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙
𝒌 EVEN 2 4 6 8
𝐹𝑛𝑐𝑟 = 2Τ 𝜋 ∙ 2𝑘 + 1
𝑳𝒘𝒗 Τ𝑳𝒘𝒍 0.8000 0.4444 0.3077 0.2353
𝑭𝒏 0.3568 0.2659 0.2213 0.1936 Schematic Wave Profile

Last Hollow 18
➢The aforementioned critical Froude numbers 𝐹𝑛𝑐𝑟 for
humps and hollows in the wave-making resistance
curve relies on the assumptions:
• Single pressure and suction field.
• Bow wave crest at 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ4.
• Stern trough exactly at the stern, i.e., 𝐿𝑝𝑠 = 𝐿𝑤𝑙 and
𝛿 = 1.
➢In the case of warships, the distance between the first
crest of the bow wave and the trough of the stern wave
has been shown to approximate well to 0.9 𝐿𝑤𝑙 , i.e.,
𝐿𝑝𝑠 = %90 𝐿𝑤𝑙 , and hence, different critical Froude
numbers 𝐹𝑛𝑐𝑟 for humps and hollows for this ship type
may be obtained. 19
Maxima / Minima in 𝑹𝑾
Humps / Hollows (𝒌 is Odd / Even)
1st Hu 1st Ho 2nd Hu 2nd Ho 3rd Hu 3rd Ho 4th Hu 4th Ho
𝑳𝒑𝒔
𝜹= 𝒌 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝑳𝒘𝒍
𝑳𝒘𝒗 𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝜹
= 1.0667 0.64 0.4571 0.3556 0.2909 0.2462 0.2133 0.1882
0.80 𝑳𝒘𝒍 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏
𝑭𝒏𝒄𝒓 0.4119 0.3191 0.2697 0.2378 0.2151 0.1979 0.1842 0.1731
𝑳𝒘𝒗 𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝜹
= 0.1333 0.6800 0.4857 0.3778 0.3091 0.2615 0.2267 0.2000
0.85 𝑳𝒘𝒍 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏
𝑭𝒏𝒄𝒓 0.4246 0.3289 0.2780 0.2452 0.2218 0.2040 0.1899 0.1784
𝑳𝒘𝒗 𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝜹
= 1.200 0.7200 0.5143 0.4000 0.3273 0.2769 0.2400 0.2118
0.90 𝑳𝒘𝒍 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏
𝑭𝒏𝒄𝒓 0.4369 0.3385 0.2860 0.2523 0.2282 0.2099 0.1954 0.1836
𝑳𝒘𝒗 𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝜹
= 1.2667 0.7600 0.5429 0.4222 0.3455 0.2923 0.2533 0.2235
0.95 𝑳𝒘𝒍 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏
𝑭𝒏𝒄𝒓 0.4489 0.3477 0.2939 0.2592 0.2344 0.2157 0.2008 0.1886
𝑳𝒘𝒗 𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝜹
= 1.3333 0.8000 0.5714 0.4444 0.3636 0.3077 0.2667 0.2353
1.0 𝑳𝒘𝒍 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏
𝑭𝒏𝒄𝒓 0.4606 0.3568 0.3015 0.2659 0.2405 0.2213 0.2060 0.1935
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5. Realistic Interaction of Bow/Stern Waves
(Solid Body Method)
➢ A more realistic model may be obtained by considering the ship
as a solid body rather than two-point sources.
➢ Position of shoulder waves depends strongly on prismatic

coefficient.
22
7. Resistance-Speed Relationship of a
Displacement Ship
Hump
Hollow
26
8. Resistance-Speed Relationship of
Displacement/Semi-Disp./Planning Ships
27
9. Calculation of Wave-making Resistance
➢The value of the wave-making resistance of a ship is
affected by the wave interference (𝐿𝑝𝑠 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 ), ship speed
(𝑉𝑠 ), dimensional ratios of the ship (𝐿𝑤𝑙 Τ𝐵𝑤𝑙 , 𝐵𝑤𝑙 Τ𝑑𝑤𝑙 ,
𝐿𝑤𝑙 Τ𝛻 1Τ3 ) and coefficients of ship form (Cb , Cp , Cm , Cw ).
➢The calculation of the wave-making resistance coefficient
(𝐶𝑊 ) is far too difficult and inaccurate from any theoretical
or empirical equation.
➢Model test in the towing tank and Froude expansion are
needed to calculate the 𝐶𝑊 of the real ship.
➢Ship generated waves absorb energy from the ship, and as
the ship speed increases, the wave energy increases in the
square of the ship speed; 𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 2 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝑉𝑤2 Τ𝑔.
➢The limiting speed (hull speed) achieved when 𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 𝐿𝑤𝑙 ,
and 𝑉𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 1.2495 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑙 . 28
10. Reduction of Wave-making Resistance
10.1. Increasing ship length to increase the
wavelength
➢The hull speed increases as the ship length increase, i.e.,
the wave-making resistance of a longer ship is small
until the ship reaches its hull speed.
10.2. Attaching Bulbous Bow to reduce the bow wave

➢Bulbous bow generates a second bow waves. Such
waves interact with the bow wave of the original hull
resulting in smaller bow waves.
29
11. Effect of Bulbous Bow
➢Wigley (1936) investigated the basic theoretical work
on the bulbous bow effectiveness.
➢Bulbous bow is designed with non-circular forms so as
to minimize the effects of slamming in rough seas.
30
Conventional Bow-generated Wave
Bulb-generated Wave
Bulbous-Bow resultant Wave
31
32
Conventional Bow-generated Wave Bulb-generated Wave
Bulbous Bow-generated Wave

33
➢Bulbous bow may increase the waterline length, and
hence it has a fundamental influence on some of the
length-dependent resistance components, i.e., 𝑅𝐹 , 𝑅𝑉 .
34
➢The bulbous bow affects the ship resistance as follow:
• It increases the frictional resistance due to the added surface
area of the bulb.
• It changes the propulsion efficiency due to its hydrodynamic
influence on the global hull flow field.
• It changes the associated pattern and magnitude of the wave
breaking resistance.
• It reduces the bow pressure wave due to the bulb-induced
pressure field and the consequent reduction in wave making
resistance.
• The upper part of the bulb and its intersection with the bow
introduces a downward flow component in the vicinity of the
bow.
35
➢A bulb is beneficial above a certain shoulder speed;
whereas it is non-beneficial at low speeds.
➢This is because of the

balance between the
bow pressure wave
reduction effect and the
frictional resistance
increment caused by
the presence of the
bulb on the hull.
36
12. Methods of Calculating Wave Drag
1. Model Test (Froude Decomposition) 3. Thin Ship theory (Michell Integral)
2. (Semi)Empirical Methods
𝐶𝑊 = 𝑓 𝐹𝑛 , 𝐶𝑃 , 𝐶𝐵 , … …
+ Ship series
+ Regression analysis
4. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
37
14. Calculation of Ship-generated Waves,
14.1. Kent Formula
➢Distance of the wave crest from the bow
𝑥 = 0.372 × 𝑉𝑠2 Τ𝑔
Where: 𝑔: Gravitational acceleration 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 , 𝑉𝑠 : Ship
speed in 𝑚Τ𝑠, 𝑥: Distance of the wave crest from the
bow in 𝑚. 𝑥 = 0.372 × 𝑉 Τ𝑔 𝑠
2
Detrimental interference
➢Height of the wave 𝑥 = 0.372 × 𝑉𝑠2 Τ𝑔
ℎ = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐵𝑊𝐿 Τ𝐿𝐸 ∙ 𝑉𝑠2 Beneficial interference

Where: ℎ: Wave height in 𝑚, 𝑘: Kent constant (𝑘 =
0.83), 𝐵𝑊𝐿 : Ship’s waterline breadth in 𝑚, 𝐿𝐸 : Ship’s
entrance length in 𝑚, 𝑉𝑠 : Ship’s speed in 𝑚Τ𝑠.
38
14. Calculation of Wave-Making Resistance,
14.3. Havelock Method
0.1. Low speed range (𝑭𝒏 < 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎)
➢The ship’s wave-making resistance per unit
displacement may be calculated from the formula
𝑚 ∙𝐹 𝑑 +𝑚 ∙cos 𝜆Τ𝐹 2
𝑅𝑊 Τ∆ = 𝐶1 ∙ 𝐶2 ∙ 𝐶3 ∙ 𝑒 1 𝑛 2 𝑛
𝐶1 = 2223105 ∙ 𝐶43.7861 ∙ 𝑇Τ𝐵 1.0796

∙ 90 − 𝑖𝐸 −1.3757
𝐶4 = 0.2296 ∙ 𝐵Τ𝐿 0.3333 ; 𝐵Τ𝐿 < 0.11

𝐶4 = 𝐵Τ𝐿 ; 0.11 ≤ 𝐵Τ𝐿 ≤ 0.25
𝐶4 = 0.5 − 0.0625 ∙ 𝐿Τ𝐵 ; 0.25 < 𝐵Τ𝐿
𝑑 = −0.90
𝑚1 = 0.01404 ∙ 𝐿Τ𝑇 − 1.7525 ∙ 𝛻 1Τ3 Τ𝐿 − 4.7932 ∙ 𝐵 Τ𝐿 − 𝐶5 51

𝐶5 = 8.0798 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 − 13.8673 ∙ 𝐶𝑝2 − 6.9844 ∙ 𝐶𝑝3
; 𝐶𝑝 ≤ 0.80
𝐶5 = 1.7301 − 0.7067 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 ; 0.80 < 𝐶𝑝
−0.034∙𝐹𝑛−3.29
𝑚2 = 0.40 ∙ 𝐶6 ∙ 𝑒
𝐶6 = −1.69385 ; 𝐿3 Τ𝛻 < 512

𝐶6 = −1.69385 + 𝐿Τ𝛻 1Τ3 − 8.0 Τ2.36
; 512 ≤ 𝐿3 Τ𝛻 ≤ 1727
𝐶6 = 0.0 ;1727 < 𝐿3 Τ𝛻
𝜆 = 1.446 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 − 0.03 ∙ 𝐿Τ𝐵 ; 𝐿Τ𝐵 ≤ 12

𝜆 = 1.446 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 − 0.36 ; 𝐿Τ𝐵 > 12 52
𝑖𝐸 = 125.67 ∙ 𝐵Τ𝐿 − 162.25 ∙ 𝐶𝑝2 + 234.32 ∙ 𝐶𝑝3 +
3
0.1551 ∙ 𝐿𝐶𝐵 + 6.8 ∙ 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑓 Τ𝑇
𝐶2 = 1.0 ; bulbous bow not exist

𝐶2 = 𝑒 −1.89 𝐴𝐵𝑇 ∙𝑟𝐵 Τ𝐵𝑇 𝑟𝐵 +𝑇𝑒 ; bulbous bow exist
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑓 − ℎ𝐵 − 0.4464 ∙ 𝑟𝐵
𝐴𝐵𝑇 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑟𝐵2
𝐶3 = 1.0 − 0.8 ∙ 𝐴 𝑇 Τ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝐶𝑚
53
LWL
LR LPB LE
ie
Waterplane
BWL
LCB
𝐴𝐵𝑇
𝑇𝑒
𝑇𝑓
ℎ𝐵
54
0.2. Intermediate speed range (𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 ≤ 𝑭𝒏 < 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓)
➢An interpolation function is suggested as follow:
𝑅𝑊 Τ∆ = 𝑅𝑊𝐹𝑛=0.40 + 10 ∙ 𝐹𝑛 − 4.0 ∙ 𝑅𝑊𝐹 − 𝑅𝑊𝐹𝑛=0.40 Τ1.5 Τ∆
𝑛=0.55
0.3. High speed range (𝑭𝒏 ≥ 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓)

➢Calculate 𝐶1 and 𝑚1 as follow:
−1.3346 ∙ 𝛻 Τ𝐿3
𝐶1 = 6919.30 ∙ 𝐶𝑚 2.0098 ∙ 𝐿Τ𝐵 − 2.0 1.4069
𝑚1 = −7.2035 ∙ 𝐵Τ𝐿 0.3269 ∙ 𝑇 Τ𝐵 0.6054
𝑚1 ∙𝐹𝑛𝑑 +𝑚2 ∙cos 𝜆Τ𝐹𝑛2

𝑅𝑊 Τ∆ = 𝐶1 ∙ 𝐶2 ∙ 𝐶3 ∙ 𝑒
The remaining coefficients are defined as before. 55

𝐴 𝑇 : immersed area of the transom at zero speed, 𝐵:
molded breadth of waterplane in 𝑚 , 𝐶𝑝 : molded
prismatic coefficient, 𝐶𝑚 : molded midship section
coefficient, 𝑖𝐸 : half entrance angle of the waterline in
deg. , 𝐿 : molded waterplane length in 𝑚 , 𝐿𝐶𝐵 :
longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy as
percentage of the molded waterplane length, 𝑟𝐵 :
equivalent radius of bulbous bow in 𝑚, 𝑇𝑎 : molded
draft at the aft perpendicular in 𝑚 , 𝑇𝑒 : effective
submergence of bulbous bow in 𝑚, 𝑇𝑓 : molded draft
at the fore perpendicular in 𝑚, 𝑇: Total molded draft in
𝑚, 𝛻: molded displacement volume in 𝑚3 .
56
15. Examples
15.1. Example No. 1
➢A ship has a waterline
length ( 𝐿𝑤𝑙 ) of 100 𝑚
and moves in calm deep 1
water. The ship generates
2
four transverse wave
system(s) as shown in the 3
figure. Calculate the
length and celerity 4
(velocity) of each wave
component. Given that
𝑉𝑤 = 𝑔 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ2𝜋.
57
15. Examples
15.2. Solution
➢Assume that the no. of full transverse waves per ship
length 𝑁.
➢Length of each transverse wave component may be
calculated by 𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 𝐿𝑤𝑙 Τ𝑁
➢Speed of each transverse wave component may be
calculated by 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑔 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ2𝜋.
Wave System 𝑵 𝑳𝒘𝒗 (𝒎) 𝑽𝒘 (𝒎Τ𝒔)
1 4 25 6.2475
2 3 33.33 7.2139
3 2 50 8.8353
4 1 100 12.249
58
15. Examples
15.3. Example No. 2
➢A ship has a waterline length (𝐿𝑤𝑙 ) of 112.8 𝑚. The
bow/stern transverse waves are presented by a
pressure/suction points situated at the bow/stern
respectively with 90% 𝐿𝑤𝑙 apart as shown. Calculate:
• The transverse bow 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 𝑳𝒘𝒍 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 𝒎
wavelength (𝐿𝑤𝑣 ).
• The velocity (𝑉𝑤 ) at which 𝑳𝒘𝒍 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎
bow, and stern transverse
wave troughs coincide
with each other.
• Froude number ( 𝐹𝑛 )
corresponding to the
coincidence of bow/stern
waves’ troughs. 59
15. Examples
15.4. Solution
➢Length of the transverse bow wave:
𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 0.90 × 𝐿𝑤𝑙 Τ𝑁
𝐿𝑤𝑣 = 0.90 × 112.8Τ0.5 = 203.04 𝑚
➢Velocity of the transverse bow wave:

𝑉𝑤 = 𝑔 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ2𝜋
𝑉𝑤 = 9.81 ∙ 203.04Τ2𝜋 = 17.81 𝑚 = 34.92 𝑘𝑛
➢Froude number corresponding to the coincidence of

bow/stern waves’ troughs:
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑉𝑤 Τ 𝑔 ∙ 𝐿𝑤𝑙
𝐹𝑛 = 17.81Τ 9.81 ∙ 112.8 = 0.54
60
15. Examples
15.5. Example No. 3
➢A hypothetical ship has principal particulars that yield
the following constants: 𝐶1 = 1.3657, 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 = 1.0,
𝑚1 = −2.1267 , 𝑚2 = −0.0.804 , 𝜆 = 0.6512 , 𝑑 =
0.90. Using Havelock formula, calculate wave-making
resistance-to-displacement ratio, then plot the results
for Froude’ number range (0.0 − 0.4).
15.6. Solution
➢Calculate wave-making resistance-to-displacement
ratio using Havelock formula:
𝑚 𝐹 𝑑 +𝑚 ∙cos 𝜆Τ𝐹 2
𝑅𝑊 ΤΔ = 𝐶1 ∙ 𝐶2 ∙ 𝐶3 ∙ 𝑒 1 𝑛 2 𝑛
−2.1267∙𝐹 −0.90 −0.0804∙cos(0.6512Τ𝐹 2 )

𝑅𝑊 ΤΔ = 1.3657 ∙ 𝑒 𝑛 𝑛
61
15. Examples
15.6. Solution-continue
➢Substitute 𝐹𝑛 = 0.10 − 0.40 in Havelock formula, and
then prepare the spreadsheet.
𝑭𝒏 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
𝑹𝑾 Τ∆ 6.99E-08 1.22E-05 1.76E-04 8.88E-04 2.48E-03 5.59E-03 1.14E-02
62

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1

Drops of water fall from a

A representation of a wave produced when a source moves from 𝑆𝑜

Transverse waves (progressive waves)

Crestline of the transverse bow wave

➢As the ship speed (𝑉𝑠 ) increases, the length of the

➢The interference between the divergent and transverse

➢Representing a ship’s hull by a moving pressure and

➢ The divergent waves of the bow and stern show weak

𝒌 ODD 1 3 5 7 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 0.3636

𝑳𝒘𝒗 Τ𝑳𝒘𝒍 1.3333 0.5714 0.3636 0.2667

Main Hump Prismatic Hump 𝐿𝑤𝑣 Τ𝐿𝑤𝑙 = 0.444

A basic assumption in this

1st Ho 2nd Ho 3rd Ho 4th Ho

𝑭𝒏 0.3568 0.2659 0.2213 0.1936 Schematic Wave Profile

➢ Position of shoulder waves depends strongly on prismatic

10.2. Attaching Bulbous Bow to reduce the bow wave

Conventional Bow-generated Wave

Bulbous-Bow resultant Wave

Conventional Bow-generated Wave Bulb-generated Wave

Bulbous Bow-generated Wave

➢This is because of the

1. Model Test (Froude Decomposition) 3. Thin Ship theory (Michell Integral)

4. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

➢Height of the wave 𝑥 = 0.372 × 𝑉𝑠2 Τ𝑔

ℎ = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐵𝑊𝐿 Τ𝐿𝐸 ∙ 𝑉𝑠2 Beneficial interference

𝐶1 = 2223105 ∙ 𝐶43.7861 ∙ 𝑇Τ𝐵 1.0796

𝐶4 = 0.2296 ∙ 𝐵Τ𝐿 0.3333 ; 𝐵Τ𝐿 < 0.11

𝑚1 = 0.01404 ∙ 𝐿Τ𝑇 − 1.7525 ∙ 𝛻 1Τ3 Τ𝐿 − 4.7932 ∙ 𝐵 Τ𝐿 − 𝐶5 51

𝐶6 = −1.69385 ; 𝐿3 Τ𝛻 < 512

𝜆 = 1.446 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 − 0.03 ∙ 𝐿Τ𝐵 ; 𝐿Τ𝐵 ≤ 12

𝐶2 = 1.0 ; bulbous bow not exist

0.3. High speed range (𝑭𝒏 ≥ 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓)

𝑚1 = −7.2035 ∙ 𝐵Τ𝐿 0.3269 ∙ 𝑇 Τ𝐵 0.6054

𝑚1 ∙𝐹𝑛𝑑 +𝑚2 ∙cos 𝜆Τ𝐹𝑛2

The remaining coefficients are defined as before. 55

➢Velocity of the transverse bow wave:

➢Froude number corresponding to the coincidence of

−2.1267∙𝐹 −0.90 −0.0804∙cos(0.6512Τ𝐹 2 )

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