1

10/27/2021
 1. Fluid Dynamic Forces
Viscous Fluid Viscous Fluid
Separation
Limits

Attached Flow

High Kinetic Energy

𝑽

Low Pressure
Free ∞
stream

Attached Flow Attached Flow

Turbulent Wake
Eddies / Vertices
Separated Flow
Detached Flow
Viscous Fluid Viscous Fluid

2
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 1. Fluid Dynamic Forces
➢Fluid dynamic forces are
due to pressure and friction
forces acting on the body
surface.
Free 𝑽∞
stream

➢Friction force: Component

of forces parallel to the flow
Plan view
direction.
Potential Flow
Inviscid Region
𝑽∞ 𝑽∞ 𝑽∞
➢Pressure force: Component 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝑽∞

of forces normal to the flow Viscous Region

𝒗 𝒙, 𝒚
𝑽∞
direction. Free
stream
𝝏𝒗 𝒙, 𝒚
Plan view 𝝉𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝝁 ∙
𝝏𝒚 3
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 1. Fluid Dynamic Forces
Free stream

𝑉∙𝐿
𝑅𝑛 ≤ 105 105 < 𝑅𝑛 < 106 𝑅𝑛 ≥ 106 𝑽∞ 𝑅𝑛 =
𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 𝑽∞
𝜈
𝑽∞

𝑽∞

𝒗 𝒙, 𝒚
𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 𝑽∞

v 𝒙, 𝒚 𝜕𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦
𝜏𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜇 ∙
𝜕𝑦
Plan view
4
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 1. Fluid Dynamic Forces
➢Drag and lift forces can be found by integrating the
appropriate components of pressure 𝑃 and wall-shear
stress 𝜏𝑊 .

𝐹𝐷 = ‫ = 𝐷𝐹𝑑 𝐴׬‬− ‫ ∙ 𝑃 𝐴׬‬cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑊 ∙ sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

𝐹𝐿 = Flow 𝑑𝐹𝐿 to=Flat
‫ 𝐴׬‬Parallel −Plate
‫ ∙ 𝑃 𝐴׬‬sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑊 ∙ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
Flow Perpendicular to Flat Plate
Potential Flow Potential Flow
Inviscid Region Turbulent Wake
𝑽∞ 𝑽∞ 𝑽∞ Eddies / Vertices
𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝑽∞ Separated Flow
Detached Flow
𝒗 𝒙, 𝒚
Viscous Region
𝑽∞ Effect:
Free High Kinetic Energy
stream
𝝏𝒗 𝒙, 𝒚 Low Pressure
Plan view 𝝉𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝝁 ∙ Plan view
𝝏𝒚 5
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 1. Fluid Dynamic Forces
➢Fluid dynamic forces are comprised
of friction and pressure effects.

Friction drag
Friction drag
➢Often useful to decompose,
• 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐷𝐹 + 𝐹𝐷𝑃
• 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝐹 + 𝐶𝐷𝑃
Pressure drag
Pressure drag

➢This forms the basis of ship model

testing where it is assumed that
• 𝐶𝐷𝑃 = 𝑓𝑛 𝐹𝑛
Friction & pressure drag
• 𝐶𝐷𝐹 = 𝑓𝑛 𝑅𝑛
6
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 2. Streamlining of Shapes and Flow
➢It reduces the total drag 𝐹𝐷
by reducing 𝐹𝐷𝑃 , at the cost
of increasing wetted surface
area and 𝐹𝐷𝐹 .

➢It eliminates flow separation

and minimize total drag 𝐹𝐷 .

➢It improves structural

acoustics since separation
and vortex shedding can
excite natural modes of
Plan view structure.
7
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 2. Streamlining of Shapes and Flow
Effect of Shapes on Stream-lined Flow (Plan View)
𝑳
Effect of Increased Longitudinal Horizontal Wetted Aspect Ratio
𝑩
Low pressure, Turbulent wake, High kinetic energy

Attached flow
Pressure

Pressure
Separated flow
Backward-pushing pressure force
Low pressure, Turbulent wake, High kinetic energy
Pressure
Pressure

Pressure recovery with attached flow

Forward-pushing pressure force

8
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
➢In an inviscid fluid the flow along any streamline is
governed by Bernoulli’s equation and the flow around
an arbitrary body is predictable in terms of the changes
between pressure and velocity over the surface.
➢The net axial force in the direction of motion is zero.

Inviscid, Potential, Ideal

Fluid flow is symmetric ford and aft

12
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
➢For a ship moving in a real viscous fluid, a turbulent
boundary layer is created over its surface and is also
likely to separate at some point in the after body.
➢The presence of the boundary layer and its growth
along the surface of the hull modifies the pressure
distribution acting on the ship from that of the potential
or inviscid case.

Viscous, Realistic
Fluid flow is asymmetric ford and aft

13
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
➢Due to the viscosity, the pressure change will cause
flow separation from the surface and generates eddies.
➢As a consequence, the net axial force in the direction of
ship motion is not zero and a viscous form drag arises
for the 3D case of a ship hull moving steadily in a
viscous fluid.

Viscous, Realistic
Fluid flow is asymmetric ford and aft

14
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations

15
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations

19
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations

20
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations

21
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
➢Energy is fed into eddies, and the resulting resistance is
called eddy-making resistance.
➢The curvature of a hull changes the local fluid velocity
along its length. As the path along a streamline running
from bow to stern is longer on a ship-shaped body than
on a flat plate, then:
𝑉𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 > 𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝟏
𝑅𝐹𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 > 𝑅𝐹𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 ; 𝑹𝑭 = 𝑪𝑭 ∙ ∙ 𝝆 ∙ 𝑺 ∙ 𝑽𝟐
𝟐

Where:
𝑅𝐹𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 : frictional resistance of the flat plate, 𝑁.
𝑅𝐹𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 : frictional resistance of the ship, 𝑁.
22
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 : fluid velocity along the flat plate, 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠.
𝑉𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 : average fluid velocity along a ship, 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠.

➢ The complicated interaction between viscous and

wave-making resistances makes it a research topic in
marine hydrodynamics and ship-model testing.
➢The increase / decrease of resistance due to such
interaction is classified into form drag. Sometimes,
some items may be directly classified into wave-
making resistance.
➢It is understood now that why the difference between
the total resistance and frictional resistance is called the
residual resistance. 23
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
➢Generally, Viscous flow around 3D immersed body,
e.g., ship hull, consists of two principal regions:
• Attached flow
- Boundary layer (effects of the fluid viscosity).
- Potential flow (inviscid, unsteady, Irrotational, and
incompressible flow).
• Detached (separated) flow
- Wake (rotational, vertices, or eddies)

24
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
Boundary Layer
Potential Flow 2D Flat Plate
Attached Flow

Free stream
Attached Flow

Velocity profile
Boundary Layer Potential Flow
Attached Flow
3D Geometry

Free stream
Detached Flow (Wake)

Separation
Limits
Attached Flow 25
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
𝑹𝑽 = 𝑹𝑭 + 𝑹𝑽𝑷
𝑹𝑭 = ර 𝛍 ∙ 𝑨 ∙ 𝝏 𝒖Τ𝝏𝒏 ∙ 𝒅𝒔
𝑹𝑭 𝑻
Attached Flow

Shear stress 𝝉
𝝉 = 𝛍 ∙ 𝝏 𝒖Τ𝝏𝒏

𝑹𝑬
or Detached Flow

𝑹𝑭𝑴

Velocity profile

𝑹𝑽𝑷 = ර 𝒑 ∙ 𝑨 ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 ∙ 𝒅𝒔 Viscous Pressure

𝑹𝑽𝑷 𝑵

26
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
➢W. E. Froude decomposition of the still water ship
resistance may be as follow
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑅
➢Substituting from the figures.
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑉𝑃 + 𝑅𝑊
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑅𝑊
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐹𝑀 + 𝑅𝑊
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑘 ∙ 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑊 ; 𝑅𝐹𝑀 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑅𝐹 experimental
𝑅𝑇 = 1 + 𝑘 ∙ 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝑊
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑉 + 𝑅𝑊
➢In the form of hydrodynamic coefficients,
𝐶𝑇 = 1 + 𝑘 ∙ 𝐶𝐹 + 𝐶𝑊 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑊 27
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
3. 3D Viscous Resistance Formulations
0.020 Rv = RF + RForm
Rv = RF + kRF
Rv = (1 + k )RF
0.016

0.012
Cv = (1 + k )CF
CF

0.008

0.004

0.000
1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8 1E+9 1E+10 1E+11
Reynolds number

28
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
4. Effect of 3D Viscous Resistance on the
Ship’s Total Resistance

29
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
5. Effect of Form Factor on the Ship’s
Resistance
➢Form factor can increase accuracy where no bulbous
bow and no immersed transom stern is present.
➢Deciding a suitable form factor is sensitive to modern
hull form features, e.g., modern bulbous bows, off-
design conditions (smaller draughts, etc.), wetted
transom sterns, and typical Ro-Ro stern shapes with
flat low overhang.
➢Usually obtained from a low speed or Prohaska test
(largest errors seen in low speed tests in the worldwide
campaign).
➢May be larger source of error than any friction line.
30
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
6. Experimental Determination of Form
Factor Hughes–Prohaska method
➢𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑊 ; 𝐶𝑇 = 1 + 𝑘 ∙ 𝐶𝐹𝑜 + 𝐶𝑊
𝐶𝑇 𝐶𝑊
➢ = 1+𝑘 +
𝐶𝐹 𝑜 𝐶 𝐹𝑜
𝐶𝑇 𝐹𝑛4
➢ = 1+𝑘 +𝛼∙
𝐶𝐹 𝑜 𝐶 𝐹𝑜
𝐶𝑇
➢ 1+𝑘 = lim
𝐶𝑊 →0 𝐶𝐹𝑜
𝐶𝑇
➢ 1+𝑘 = lim
𝐹𝑛 →0 𝐶𝐹𝑜
➢The form factor 1 + 𝑘 is assumed to be independent of 𝐹𝑛
and 𝑅𝑛 , the same for full scaled ship and its geosims. The
form factor 1 + 𝑘 may be determined at several model
test results at low 𝐹𝑛 , e.g., 0.12 ≤ 𝐹𝑛 ≤ 0.24. 𝛼 may be
determined in a regression analysis. 31
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
6. Experimental Determination of Form
Factor Hughes–Prohaska method
➢ The form factor 1 + 𝑘 is assumed to be:
• Independent of 𝐹𝑛 and 𝑅𝑛 .
• The same for full scaled ship and its geosims.
• Determined at several model test results at low 𝐹𝑛 , e.g., 0.12 ≤ 𝐹𝑛 ≤ 0.24
𝜶 may be determined in a regression analysis.

𝟏+𝒌

32
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
7. Calculation of Form Factor based on
Statistical Method Holtrop et al. (1984)
➢Holtrop et al. (1984) derived a statistically-based form
factor of the naked hull. The formula that they deduced
1 + 𝑘𝑁 = 0.93 + 0.4871 ∙ 𝑐 ∙ 𝛼 1.0681 ∙ 𝛽0.4611 ∙
𝛾 0.1216 ∙ 𝛿 0.3649 ∙ 1 − 𝐶𝑃 −0.6042
1 𝐿𝐶𝐵
= 1 − 𝐶𝑃 + 0.06 𝐶𝑃 ∙
𝛾 4 𝐶𝑃 −1.0

Where:
𝛼: breadth to length ratio, 𝛼 = 𝐵Τ𝐿.
𝛽: draft to length ratio, 𝛽 = 𝑇Τ𝐿.
𝛾: ship length to run length ratio, 𝛾 = 𝐿Τ𝐿𝑅 .
𝛿 : cubic length to displacement volume ratio, 𝛿 =
𝐿3 Τ𝛻. 33
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
7. Calculation of Form Factor based on
Statistical Method Holtrop et al. (1984)
𝑐: stern shape factor, 𝑐 = 1.00, 1.11, 0.89 for normal
stern shape, U-shaped section, v-shaped section
respectively.
𝐿𝐶𝐵 : location of longitudinal center of buoyancy
expressed as percentage of ship length.
LWL

LR LPB LE

ie
Waterplane
BWL

LCB

34
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
8. Form Factors for Different Appendages

𝒊 Appendage 𝟏 + 𝒌𝒊
1 Rudder of single screw ship 1.3 to 1.5
2 Spade type rudder 2.8
3 Shaft bracket 3.0
4 Bossing 2.0
5 Bilge keel 1.4
6 Shaft 2.0
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑆𝑖 × 1+𝑘𝑖
For more than one appendage: 1 + 𝑘𝑆 = σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑆𝑖
Where i refers to the ith appendage.
35
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
8. Form Factors for Different Appendages

Rudder of single screw ship Spade rudder Shaft bracket

Bossing Bilge keel Shaft

36
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
9. Equivalent Form Effect (including
Appendages)
= + +
Bare hull Rudder Bulbous Bow
Ship =
➢𝑅𝑉𝑆 = 𝑅𝑉𝑁 + 𝑅𝑉𝑅 + 𝑅𝑉𝐵 + ⋯
1 1
➢ ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑉2 ∙ 𝐶𝐹 ∙ 1 + 𝑘𝑆 = ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑆𝑁 ∙ 𝑉 2 ∙ 𝐶𝐹 ∙
2 2
1 2 1
1 + 𝑘𝑁 + ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑆𝑅 ∙ 𝑉 ∙ 𝐶𝐹 ∙ 1 + 𝑘𝑅 + ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑆𝐵 ∙
2 2
𝑉 2 ∙ 𝐶𝐹 ∙ 1 + 𝑘𝐵 + ⋯
➢Divide both sides by 𝑆𝑆
➢Noting that 𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑁 + 𝑆𝑅 + 𝑆𝐵
➢ 1 + 𝑘𝑆 =
𝑆𝑁 ∙ 1 + 𝑘𝑁 + 𝑆𝑅 ∙ 1 + 𝑘𝑅 + 𝑆𝐵 ∙ 1 + 𝑘𝐵 Τ𝑆𝑆 37
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 10. Examples
10.1. Example 1:
A ship has a length (𝐿) of 260 𝑚, draft (𝑑) of 10.64 𝑚,
wetted surface area (𝑆) of 12898 𝑚2 , and form factor
(1 + 𝑘) of 1.249. The ship navigates in salt water of
mass density (𝜌) 1025 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 and kinematic viscosity
(𝜈) 1.1883 × 10−06 𝑚2 Τ𝑠 at a speed of 14 𝑘𝑛. Calculate
the viscous resistance of the ship.
𝐶𝐹 = 0.075Τ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑅𝑛 − 2.0 2 .

10.2. Solution:
𝑉 = 14.0 × 0.5144 = 7.2016 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑅𝑛 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐿Τ𝜈
𝑅𝑛 = 7.2016 × 260Τ1.1883 × 10−06 = 1.576 × 1009
39
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 10. Examples
10.2. Solution-continue:
𝐶𝐹 = 0.075Τ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑅𝑛 − 2.0 2

𝐶𝐹 = 0.075Τ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1.576 × 1009 − 2.0 2

= 1.448 × 10−03
𝐶𝑉 = 1 + 𝑘 ∙ 𝐶𝐹
𝐶𝑉 = 1.249 × 1.448 × 10−03 = 1.808 × 10−03
𝑅𝑉 = 1Τ2 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝑉 2 ∙ 𝐶𝑉
𝑅𝑉 = 1Τ2 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝑉 2 ∙ 1 + 𝑘 ∙ 𝐶𝐹
𝑅𝑉 = 1Τ2 × 1025 × 12898 × 7.201602 × 1.808 × 10−03 =
619.909 𝑘𝑁
40
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021
 10. Examples
10.3. Example 2:
The hull of a merchant ship has a naked wetted surface area
(𝑆𝐻 ) of 7380 𝑚2 , and a bare form factor 1 + 𝑘𝐻 of 1.15.
The ship is fitted with a rudder has a wetted surface area
(𝑆𝑅 ) of 16 𝑚2 , a form factor 1 + 𝑘𝑅 of 1.5 and a bilge
keel has a wetted surface area (𝑆𝐵 ) of 30 𝑚2 , a form factor
1 + 𝑘𝐵 of 1.4. Calculate the effect of the rudder on the
overall form factor of the ship.

10.4. Solution:
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝐻 + 𝑆𝑅 + 𝑆𝐵
𝑆𝑆 = 7380 + 16 + 30 = 7426𝑚2
1 + 𝑘𝑆 = 1 + 𝑘𝐻 ∙ 𝑆𝐻 + 1 + 𝑘𝑅 ∙ 𝑆𝑅 + 1 + 𝑘𝐵 ∙ 𝑆𝐵 Τ𝑆𝑆
1 + 𝑘𝑆 = 1.15 × 7380 + 1.5 × 16 + 1.4 × 30 Τ7426 = 1.15177 41
Prof. Khaled Ali Hafez, EM: khaled.hafez@alexu.edu.eg, Ph.: +201271190633 10/27/2021