BIOLS380

CH3: Chemical & physical features

of seawater and the world ocean
Done by: Yousif Adel
 The chemistry of water
-Matter consists of elements, each of which naturally occurs as small
units known as atoms
-Atoms can be found alone (such as atoms of helium) or they can bound
to other atoms in molecules
-Molecules are the result of two or more atoms bonded chemically
-In the water molecule (H2O), there are two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen chemically bonded together

Unique nature of water

-Each water molecule has slight positive and negative electrical charges
-The positive charges are near the hydrogen atoms and the negative
charges exist around the oxygen atom

-Due to these slight electrical charges, water molecules are attracted to

one another
-The negative charge of one molecule is attracted to the positive charge
of other molecules
-This attraction of one water molecule to another is known as hydrogen
bonding

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-Hydrogen bonds help keep water molecules as a cohesive group at most
temperatures found on Earth
-This is the reason we have liquid water
-Ice is the solid form of water that is caused by subjecting water
molecules to low temperatures
-The gas form is experienced as water vapor (humidity is the amount of
water vapor in the air)
-Water vapor is formed when molecules of water escape the hydrogen
bonds holding them together and become airborne
-This process called evaporation, increases with increasing
temperatures
-Water is the only substance on earth that naturally exists in all three
states: solid (ice), liquid and gas (water vapor)
-Water molecules move closer to one another with lower temperatures
-In a gallon bucket of seawater at 75 degrees, the molecules are further
apart than when this same gallon of water is at 35 degrees
-When molecules are closer together, the substance is said to have a
greater density
-Substances with higher density are heavier than those with lower
density when the same volume is present
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-Cold water therefore sinks underneath the warmer water
-Colder water also holds more oxygen than the same volume of water, a
crucial factor for organisms living at the ocean floor
-Even though colder water is more dense than warmer water, this
changes when the water gets cold enough to freeze
 Why ice is less dense than liquid water?
 Due to all the air trapped in it. Therefore, ice floats
-This is important for organisms living in areas where freezing
temperatures are common, such as in the Arctic Ocean or around
Antarctica
 What would happen if the ice stayed at the bottom?
 If ice did not float, a body of water would freeze from the bottom
up and eventually the whole body of water would freeze
-Since ice floats, the floating ice creates a barrier between the air
temperature and the water below the ice, keeping it from freezing
-In addition to hydrogen bonds, water has other unique chemical
properties. One is a high latent heat of melting
-Water has a higher latent heat of melting than any other commonly
occurring substance
-This means that ice melts at relatively high temperatures and it absorbs
a great deal of heat as it melts
-Water also absorbs a great deal of heat before its temperature rises
-This property known as heat capacity; the amount of heat required to
raise a substance’s temperature by a given amount
-Water has one of the highest heat capacities of any naturally occurring
substance

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  This high heat capacity is most important for marine organisms.
Why?
 Because it means that they are not subject to the wide temperature
ranges often seen on land. One exception: very shallow water (like
tide pools), which warm up quickly due to the relatively small
volume of water
-A great deal of heat is also required for evaporation to occur
-Latent heat of evaporation: the amount of heat required for a
substance to evaporate
-Water has the highest heat of evaporation of any naturally occurring
substance
-Water also acts as a solvent, which means that substances can dissolve
in water. Water is known as the universal solvent
-Any substance dissolved in water is known as a solute
-Ocean water has solutes dissolved in the water. This level of solutes is
called salinity
-The main solutes dissolved in ocean water are sodium and chloride
(which gives it a salty taste)
-Salinity is measured in parts per thousand (ppt, or 0/00). This means that
for every 1,000 grams of water there are 35 grams of salt

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-The salinity of seawater is normally around 35 0/00, but it can vary by
location
-Ocean water near a location where a river meets the sea can be 15-25
0
/00
-Other areas can be higher if evaporation is high and no rivers are
bringing freshwater
-Water is also relatively transparent (one can see through it)
-This means that sunlight shining on the surface can penetrate the
surface (crucial for the photosynthetic organisms living underwater)
-This level of penetration varies greatly depending on the amount of
solutes in the water

Adding water & solutes to the oceans

Water comes from Solutes come from
1.Rivers 1.Weathering of rocks
2.Precipitation such as rain and snow 2.Hydrothermal vents
3.Melting of polar ice 3.Solutes that were delivered in
rivers from land runoff

Gases in seawater
-Many gases are dissolved in seawater:
-Oxygen -Carbon dioxide -Nitrogen
-Gases from the atmosphere dissolve at the sea surface. Occasionally,
the reverse happens
-Many organisms in the ocean utilize oxygen and release carbon dioxide

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 Conditions are not the same at all depths
-Conditions at the ocean floor, in the water column and at the surface
can vary greatly
 Mention some of the factors that can vary from one depth to
another?
 1.Oxygen content
2.Temperature
3.Salinity
4.Pressure. Pressure also increases with depth. Water at the bottom
has the weight of the water above it pushing down on it (which
means that organisms living there also experience this pressure)

Ocean circulation
-Some of the differences seen in different parts of the ocean are due to
circulation patterns
 Mention circulation forms.
 waves, tides, currents and gyres
-Oceanic circulation is significantly driven by wind patterns
-Winds are ultimately driven by sunlight energy
 Write the movement that is the source of winds.
 1.As sunlight heats air, air rises
2.Cooler air rushes in to take the place of air that has risen
-Winds at the coast are stronger during the day than at night as a result
of the presence (or absence) of solar energy
-Trade winds: winds that are continuously created in this manner at the
Equator
-The westerlies in mid latitude and the easterlies closer to the poles are
less consistent than the trade winds

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 Wind patterns
 What creates the major wind patterns on earth?
 The rising of sun-warmed air & the sinking of cold air
-The trade winds lies between about 30˚ north and south latitude and are
the steadiest of all winds
-The westerlies are found from about 30-60˚ and above 60˚ lie the most
variable winds, the polar easterlies

Ocean circulation
-Waves are the result of wind blowing over the water’s surface
 What determines the wave size?
 1.How long and fast the wind blows (longer & faster equals a
larger wave)
2.The size of waves is also larger when the fetch (the amount of
open water a wind blows over) is larger
-Crest: the highest point of a wave
-Trough: the lowest point of a wave
-Wavelength: the distance between 2 crests (or 2 troughs)
-Wave period: the time is takes for a wave to pass by a set point

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-As waves near the shore (shallower water), the bottom of the wave
“drags” the bottom
-This forces the waves to slow and move closer together (shorter
wavelength)
-Eventually, the drag causes the wave crest to fall over (wave break).
The surf caused from breaking waves can displace a lot of sand, which
affects the organisms living there
-Surface currents are also a product of the wind
-Both winds and currents are affected by the Coriolis Effect
 Why anything that passes over the earth is deflected?
 Because the Earth spins continuously

Coriolis effect
 Why anything that moves over its surface tends to turn a little
rather than moving in a straight line?
 Because the Earth is round and rotating
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Winds & Deflected to the right Deflected to the left
currents

-This deflection is called the Coriolis Effect. Since the Earth is

spinning, it causes this deflection of winds and currents
-This deflection often causes currents to travel in circular patterns
(gyres)

Surface currents
-Friction on the ocean surface from the major wind fields of the
atmosphere causes the sea surface to move, creating currents

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-All surface currents are driven by the wind and ultimately by heat
energy from the sun
-When pushed by the wind, uppermost layer of surface water begins to
move
-Instead of going in the same direction as the wind, the surface current
moves off at an angle of 45˚ due to Coriolis effect
-This top layer pushes on the layer of the water below, and again the
Coriolis effect comes into play, the second layer moves slightly to the
right and slower
-This process passes down through the water column, each layer pushed
by the layer above and pushing the one below, in a pattern called
Ekman spiral
-The effect of the wind decreases with depth
-Eventually, at a depth of few hundred meters at most, the wind is not
felt at all
-Ekman layer: the upper part of the water column that is affected by the
wind
-Though each microlayer moves in a different direction, taken as a
whole the Ekman layer moves 90˚ from the wind direction. This process
is known as Ekman transport

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 Surface currents & gyres
 Why the equatorial currents move parallel to the equator?
 Due to Coriolis Effect and Ekman Transport
-Under the influence of the Coriolis effect, the wind driven surface
currents combine into huge, more or less circular systems called gyres

Gyres
-Global wind patterns and the Coriolis effect produce gyres (large
circular systems of surface currents)
-These currents regulate the earth climate by transporting heat from
tropical to polar regions and greatly affect the geographic distribution of
organisms in the ocean

Ocean circulation
-Despite repeated mixing by winds and surface currents, the ocean is
stratified into three layers:
 Surface layer: from surface to about 200 meters; this layer stays
well mixed most of the year
 Intermediate layer: from 200-1500 m; a sharp temperature
change (thermocline) is located here. Less mixing occurs here
 Bottom layer: below 1500 m; low mixing and normally uniformly
cold

Ocean circulation
Stability & overturn
-In some locations, large volumes of water may sink or rise
-Water sinks due to changes in temperature and salinity (downwelling)
-Downwelling brings gases from the surface to deeper layers
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-Overturn occurs in polar areas and temperate regions during winter
when the surface water cools
-Areas of upwelling come from currents that push deeper waters toward
the surface
-Nutrients are much more plentiful in the deeper layers, so areas of
upwelling are beneficial for surface organisms

Thermohaline circulation
-The type of circulation driven by changes in density, which is
determined by temperature and salinity
-The great ocean conveyor: when the water sinks all the way to the
bottom of the ocean (surface water becomes very dense). This occur
only in few places (Atlantic ocean, south of Greenland and north of
Antarctica)
-This global thermohaline circulation is called the great ocean conveyor
-It mixes the oceans on a time scale of about 1000 years
-It is important to regulate the earth climate, the fluctuations in the
conveyor have produced rapid climate changes, even ice ages, in the past
-The conveyor also brings dissolved oxygen to the deep sea
-This effect is enhanced because oxygen dissolves best in cold water

Tides
-Circulation is also driven by tides, the rhythmic rising and falling of
sea-surface levels
-The tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon on the ocean
waters (and to a lesser degree by the sun)
-Waters on the side of the earth closer to the moon are pulled towards
the moon, causing a high tide
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-Waters on the far side of the earth are pushed away from the moon,
causing a high tide
-Most locations have 2 high tides and 2 low tides each day, known as
semidiurnal tides
-Normally, tides at night are higher and lower than daytime tides
-Number and size of tides varies geographically and can be affected by
bottom features and geographic features such as islands, canyons and
reefs
-The amount of difference between the high and low tide (tidal range) is
also affected by the bottom features
-When the sun and the moon (both of which affect tides) are in line at
times of the new and full moon, the tidal range is even greater
-These are called spring tides; they happen each month
-Neap tides occur between the spring tides when the sun and moon are
not in alignment
Spring tides Neap tides
the tides with the large tidal range the tides with the least tidal range
they occur around the time of full they occur when the moon is in
or new moon quarter

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 Organisms are affected by tides
-Organisms that live in areas exposed during a low tide are especially
affected during spring tides
-Movement of water during tidal changes results in significant mixing of
water, which also affects organisms
-Many organisms time their reproduction according to the tides

Types of tides
Semidiurnal Diurnal Mixed Semidiurnal
2 high tides & 2 low 1 high tide & 1 low 2 successive high
tides a day tide everyday tides of different
heights

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