Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2014: Turbine Technical Conference and Exposition

GT2014
June 16 – 20, 2014, Düsseldorf, Germany

GT2014-26228

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THE EFFECTS OF ROTATION AND MASS FLOW ON LOCAL HEAT TRANSFER IN
ROTATING CAVITIES WITH AXIAL THROUGHFLOW

André Günther, Wieland Uffrecht, Stefan Odenbach

Chair of Magnetofluiddynamics
Institute of Fluid Mechanics
Technische Universität Dresden
01062 Dresden, Germany
andre.guenther@tu-dresden.de

ABSTRACT
This paper discusses experimental results from a two cavity
test rig representative of the internal air system of a high
pressure compressor. Thermal steady state measurements of the
time-averaged, local heat fluxes based on surface temperatures
on both sides of the mid disc are presented for the case of axial
throughflow of cooling air. Additionally, measurements of the
air temperature and the static pressure inside the cavities are
given. Tests were carried out for a wide range of rotational
Reynolds numbers up to 107 and axial Reynolds numbers up to
2x105 with a uniformly heated shroud. The method of heat flux
determination and the approach to calculating the uncertainties
are described and discussed. The local heat flux results from
different rotational frequencies, and mass flows are compared
and interpreted in terms of assumed flow structures. Using the
results of air temperature and static pressure measurements,
simple theoretical models of the density gradient and the mixing
mass flow which radially enters the cavity, deliver deeper
insight into the flow structure and its influence on the heat
transfer.
The results show that the heat flux increases with
increasing mass flow. The influence of rotation on the heat flux
is weaker and more complex than the effect of mass flow. The
flow can be separated into four parts, the existence and strength
of which depend on the test conditions: rotating cavity flow,
impinged flow and resultant secondary flow, instabilities due to
a negative radial density gradient respective to the buoyancy-
induced flow, and instabilities of the incoming jet. For the
geometry with a small inlet gap tested here, the flow and heat
transfer are dominated by the throughflow or rather by the
secondary flow for Rossby numbers Roz > 1.5. The buoyancy-
induced flow is negligible. For Rossby numbers Roz < 1.5, the
rotation dominates the flow structure. Buoyancy- induced flow
can increase radial mixing between the throughflow and the
cavity flow as well as the heat transfer to and from the disc.
However, at high rotational frequencies, the density gradient
becomes positive due to the increase in pressure induced by the
centrifugal force which reduces mixing and heat transfer
to/from the disc. Therefore, the highest heat transfer at the disc
is measured at medium rotational frequencies.
Figure 1: Scheme of high-pressure compressor
cavities with axial throughflow or radial inflow
NOMENCLATURE
a, b [m] Inner / outer radius of cavity
c [m/s] Flow velocity
C Uncertainty coefficient of heat flux
dh = 2 (a – ris) [m] Hydraulic diameter of inlet/outlet
G=s/b Gap ratio
Grr = Reφ2 ∆ρ/ρ Grashof number
k [W/(mK)] Thermal conductivity
m [kg/s] Mass flow
M Mixing rate
qax [W/m²] Axial heat flux

1 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

r [m] Radial coordinate secondary flow, 3, instabilities due to a negative density
ris [m] Outer radius of inner shaft gradient respectively the buoyancy-induced flow, and
Reφ = ρin Ω b2 / µin Rotational Reynolds number 4, instabilities of the incoming jet. All these flow parts can
Rez = ρin w dh / µin influence the heat transfer at the disc.

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Axial Reynolds number
Roz = w / Ω a Axial Rossby number In a closed cylinder without a temperature gradient, the
s [m] Axial distance between discs cavity flow, the first of the four flow parts, rotates as a solid
sd [m] Thickness of disc body, i.e. β = 1, in the steady state condition. It can be
T [°C] Temperature characterized by the swirl ratio β, which is the ratio of the
T0 [K] Parameter of temp. distribution circumferential flow velocity to the speed at the wall. For the
T f = σ(T ) / T Temperature fluctuation case studied here with axial throughflow and radial temperature
gradient, Farthing [1] and Long [2] found from LDA
w [m/s] Mean axial velocity at inlet
measurements that the swirl ratio satisfies 0.8 < β < 1.0 and is
x=r/b Nondimensional radial coordinate
constant over the radius. Only in the inner part of the cavity
z [m] Axial coordinate
does β differ from the constant value, depending on the inlet
β = cφ / Ω r Swirl ratio
gap size.
∆q [W/m²] Uncertainty of heat flux
∆T [K] Bias error of surface temperature
∆Ts = Ts – Tin [K] Temperature difference
∆Tmax = Ts,max – Tin [K] Maximum temperature difference
µ [Pa s] Dynamic viscosity
Θ = ∆Ts / ∆Tmax Nondimensional surface temperature
ρ [kg/m³] Density
Ω [1/s] Angular speed of cavity
Subscripts
ax Axial direction
C Cavity
in, out Air inlet, air outlet
is Inner shaft
M Mixing (radial) Figure 2: Flow structures for an isothermal non-
max, prob Maximum, probable rotating cavity (G = 0.27, r-z-plane, left) and a heated
s Surface of disc rotating cavity (r-φ
φ-plane, right) with axial throughflow
sh Shoud from Farthing et al. [3, 4].

INTRODUCTION The left side of Figure 2 shows a non-rotating, isothermal

Inside a turbomachinery, the important cooling and sealing
air is branched off the high pressure compressor flow, as shown
in Figure 1. On the way to the rotating hot gas parts in the
turbine, the internal air passes rotating cavities. These are
formed by the compressor discs, the rotor shroud and the low
pressure shaft. Usually, the air enters and leaves the cavity
axially through annular gaps at the inlet and outlet. The walls of
the cavity are fast rotating, approx. 20,000 rpm, whereas the
inner shaft rotates slower than the walls.
The heat transfer at the discs depends on the flow inside the
cavity, the heat transport mechanism on the disc, i.e.,
convection, conduction, or radiation, and the heat transfer from
the main gas flow across the shroud. Therefore, in general, the
temperature of the disc increases radially and the static pressure
of the air inside the cavity rises due to the rotation. These
conditions form a complex flow field which has been the topic
of a number of experimental and numerical investigations. Heat
transfer on the shroud is not part of this paper.
The flow inside a rotating cavity with axial throughflow
and a temperature gradient can be divided into four parts:
1, rotating cavity flow, 2, impinged flow and resultant
cavity studied by Farthing [1]. Depending on the gap ratio, here
G = 0.31, two toroidal vortices are formed in the cavity due to
the throughflow and the impingement on the downstream disc.
This impingement and the resultant secondary flow, the second
of the four flow parts, decreases with higher rotational
frequencies, but strongly influences heat transfer.
The third flow part, buoyancy-induced instabilities, is
shown on the right side of Figure 2. The flow structure of a pair
of counter-rotating vortices with a radial arm was first described
by Farthing [1], and further studied experimentally by Bohn [3]
and Owen [4]. A characteristic number of pairs are observed
which depends on the test conditions and particularly on the
density gradient. These instabilities are assumed to increase the
radial mixing between throughflow and rotating cavity flow, as
well as the heat transfer at the discs.
The instabilities of a circular jet with low inlet velocity
have been studied by Farthing [1], who observed both
symmetric and non-symmetric modes. In this case, it is
supposed that this last flow part is insignificant due to the
higher inlet velocities and an annular gap (height 6 mm).

2 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

 Investigations of local disc heat transfer from Farthing [5],
Long [6], Bohn [3] and Burkhardt [7] show increased heat
transfer with increasing radius, higher throughflow and faster
rotational frequencies. In the study presented here, the highest
heat transfer on the disc is observed at high mass flow and
medium rotational frequencies. A potential explanation of this
behavior is given below, after the experimental setup and the
measurement method are presented.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Figure 3: Scheme of the two-cavity test rig
Figure 4: Scheme of the core components with the
locations of the measuring points relevant in this
study and the modeled area of the mid disc for heat
flux determination (colored dark)
Figure 3 shows a scheme of the two-cavity test rig at TU
Dresden. Three steel discs with a diameter of 400 mm form the
two cavities, C1 and C2, in the figure. The pressurized air (max.
5 bar) enters and leaves through a non-rotating hollow shaft.
3 Copyright © 2014 by ASME
The shroud temperature is set to 100°C by electric heaters. The
drum can be rotated up to 10,000 rpm. Two in-house developed
telemetry units allow instrumentation in the rotating parts which
is shown in Figure 4. For more details see Günther et al. [8, 11].
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HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE
To determine the heat transfer for both sides of the mid disc
independently, 9 thermocouples on the left side (LS) and 10
thermocouples on the right side (RS) are used to measure
surface temperatures. In addition, a pyrometer recorded the
shroud temperature, see Tsh in Figure 4. The temperatures are
averaged over 100 data points, approx. 33 minutes, measured at
thermal steady state condition. The local values are interpolated
first by a spline and then by a fourth-order polynomial to get a
closed boundary condition for a rotation-symmetric calculation
model of the mid disc, colored dark in Figure 4. Fourier’s law
allows determining the temperature gradients inside the disc
and, from that, the axial heat flux on both sides as well as a
radial heat flux in the mid plane of the disc. Further details can
be found in Günther et al. [8].
As Schlichting [9] described for a flate plate, it is not useful
to calculate heat transfer coefficients or Nusselt numbers for a
case with strong variation in the wall temperature and changes
in the direction of heat flow. Therefore, only the surface
temperature and heat fluxes are presented here.
HEAT FLUX UNCERTAINTY
The heat flux values presented here represent the total heat
flux including radiation. Due to similar surface temperatures on
both sides of the cavity, the fraction of radiation is negligible.
The absolute value of the surface temperature is not relevant for
the heat flux determination. A temperature offset is measured at
room temperature, assuming homogenous temperature in the
rotor and zero heat flux. Later, all measured values refer to this
offset measurement. Therefore, the absolute value is not
relevant, and the uncertainty at room temperature is zero.
However, the differences in the thermocouple characteristics at
higher temperatures (bias error) must be taken into account. A
second offset measurement at, for example, 100°C, could
calibrate this bias error, but a homogenous temperature of
100°C is not possible due to heat losses.
The bias error is estimated by a separate test of ten
identical manufactured thermocouples in a temperature
calibrator (∆T = ±0.1 K) up to 120°C. The maximum bias error
is ∆Tmax = ±0.5 K, and the probable one is ∆Tprob = ±0.33 K.
The uncertainty in the heat flux calculated by 1D heat
conduction through a wall, thickness sd = 10 - 20 mm and
thermal conductivity k = 15 W/(mK), is given by Equation 1
with Cmax = 2 and Cprob = 2 . The results are shown as
maximum uncertainty, the red dashed line in Figure 5, and
probable uncertainty, the blue dashed line in Figure 5. This
method does not include the influences of interpolation and
different density of the measuring points.
 k point measured three times at the same conditions. Tests V1 and
∆q = C ∆T (1)
V2 were measured on the same day with one other point
sd
between. Test V3 was measured on another day with a colder
1,1
. inlet temperature (∆Tin = 8 K) than V1 and V2. The

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1,0
. reproducibility amounts to ∆qax,LS < ±121 W/m².
If the results are compared to correlations or other
0,9
. measurements, an uncertainty of ∆qax,LS = ±890 W/m² must be
0,8
. taken into account. On the right, not impinged side, the
uncertainty is similar except for the inner part, where the
.

Radius x
0,7
additional measuring point at x = 0.37 decreases the uncertainty
.
0,6 about 20%.
.
0,5
TEST CONDITIONS AND MEASURED PARAMETERS
Referenz
Reference .
0,4 All tests are performed with constant rotational frequency
0.
±0,33K Variation .
0,3 at thermal steady state condition, which means a drift of all
0.
±0,33K Cax,LS temperatures lower than 1 K in 100 data sets, approx. 33
0.
±0,50K Cmax .
0,2
minutes. The mass flow and static pressure are set by throttles
0.
±0,33K Cwahr
prob
.
0,1 in the inlet and outlet pipes. The air inlet temperature was
3000 0 -3000 -6000 approx. 30°C. The mean shroud temperature was set to approx.
axialeAxial heat flux qax,LS (W/m²)
Wärmestromdichte q ax,LS (W/m²) 100°C by three electric heaters. An overview of all measured
parameters is given in Table 1.
Figure 5: Calculated uncertainty of the axial heat flux
on the left, impinged side with different methods Unit Axial throughflow Uncertainty
(variation / 1D) and bias errors Rotational speed n rpm 100 - 10,000 ± 0.1%
Mass flow m kg/s 0.05 - 0.27 ± 3%
A second method is used to take into account the missing Air inlet temperature Tin °C 26 - 37 ± 0.2K
Air inlet pressure pin bar 1.1 - 5.0 ± 0.1%
points of the first method. The probable temperature bias error
Mean shroud temp. Tsh °C 93 - 113 ± 0.2K
is added to all measured values before calculating the heat Re,φ 2.7x104 - 1.1x107
fluxes. The sign of the bias error was randomly distributed. The Re,z 2.1x104 - 1.2x105
result of 100 computations is shown as “Variation” in Figure 5. Ro,z 0.2 - 136
The boundary values of this variation are calculated by a Gr,r 1.2x108 – 2.5x1013
sensitivity analysis and are shown as “Cax, LS” in Figure 5. The Table 1: Range of experimental parameters
uncertainty in the heat flux measurement is large with this
method, but there is no better alternative. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
1.1 The results of six testing points, the parameters of which
1.0 are given in Table 2, are used to discuss the effects of rotation
0.9
(V1 to V4) and mass flow (V5, V2, V6).
0.8
Unit V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6
0.7 n rpm 3,000 6,000 8,500 10,000 6000 6000
0.6 m kg/s 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.05 0.27
x

Tin °C 29.7 31.5 32.1 33.1 34.7 31.0

0.5 pin bar 4.83 4.82 4.83 4.83 4.98 4.00
0.4 Tsh °C 92.9 99.5 96.5 102.0 98.7 99.0
V1
0.3 Re,φ 3.5x106 6.9x106 9.7x106 1.1x107 7.0x106 5.8x106
V2 Re,z 5.4x104 5.5x104 5.5x104 5.5x104 2.2x104 1.2x105
0.2 Ro,z 1.22 0.63 0.45 0.38 0.25 1.66
V3
0.1 Gr,r 4.7x1011 7.5x1012 3.0x1013 4.6x1013 7.6x1012 5.0x1012
2400 1800 1200 600 0 -600 Table 2: Experimental parameters of V1 to V6
q ax,LS (W/m²)
Figure 6: Reproducibility of heat flux determination Surface temperature
on the left, impinged side Figure 7 shows the radial distribution of the surface
temperature on the left, impinged side versus rotational
The uncertainty is not relevant to the comparison of the frequency and mass flow. The values are given as non-
heat flux results with each other, but it is significant for dimensional surface temperatures, see Equation 2, to adjust for
reproducibility. Figure 6 shows the reproducibility for a testing small differences in the temperatures of the air inlet and shroud.

4 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

 1 1

right, not impinged side (RS)

4th order polynomial

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0.9 V1 0.9

left, impinged side (LS)

V2
0.8 V3
0.8
V4
V5
0.7 Measuring points 0.7
V6
V1 V4
0.6 0.6

x
x

V2 V5
0.5 V3 V6 0.5

mid plane (M)

0.4 0.4

0.3 impinged side 0.3

mid plane
0.2 0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 +qrad 0 -10000 -20000
x
ΘLS +qax, z q rad,M (W/m²)
Figure 7: Radial distribution of surface temperatures Figure 8: Radial distribution of radial heat flux in the
on the left, impinged side against rotational frequency mid plane against rotational frequency (V1-V4) and
(V1-V4) and mass flow (V5, V2, V6) mass flow (V5, V2, V6), negative values correspond to
heat flow from shroud to hub

1.0 1
right, not impinged side (RS)

Measuring points
0.9 V1 V4 0.9
left, impinged side (LS)

V2 V5
0.8 V3 0.8
V6
Measuring points
0.7 V1 0.7
V4
V2 Heating Cooling
0.6 V5 0.6
x

x
V3 V6
0.5 0.5
mid plane (M)

0.4 impinged side 0.4

Heating
Cooling

not impinged
0.3 side 0.3

0.2 0.2
3500 2500 1500 500 -500 +qrad 4000 2000 0 -2000 -4000
q ax,LS (W/m²) x
+qax, z q ax,RS (W/m²)
Figure 9: Radial distribution of axial heat flux on the Figure 10: Radial distribution of axial heat flux on the
left, impinged side against rotational frequency right, not impinged side against rotational frequency
(V1-V4) and mass flow (V5, V2, V6), positive values (V1-V4) and mass flow (V5, V2, V6), positive values
correspond to disc cooling correspond to disc heating

5 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

Symbols correspond to the measured values, and the lines
conform to the 4th order polynomials which are boundary
conditions of the heat flux determination. The surface
temperatures increase radially due to the heating of the shroud.
T − Tin
Θ= s (2)
Ts ,max − Tin
The effect of mass flow can be seen in the curves of V5,
V2, and V6. The axial throughflow increases in this order from
0.05 kg/s to 0.27 kg/s, which corresponds to axial Reynolds
numbers from 2.2x104 to 1.2x105. The surface temperatures
decrease with increasing mass flow due to the higher heat
transfer from the disc to the fluid, which is shown in Figure 9.
The effect of rotation on the surface temperatures is weaker
than the influence of mass flow. The rotational frequency
increases from 3,000 rpm, V1 in Figure 7, to 10,000 rpm, V4 in
Figure 7, which corresponds to rotational Reynolds numbers
from 3.5x106 to 1.1x107. The values increase with increasing
rotational frequency due to friction, while the curves of V1 and
V2 are similar, except in the inner hub zone. This behavior will
be discussed below.
Radial heat flux in the mid plane
Figure 8 shows the distribution of the radial heat flux, that
gives information about the radial heat conduction in the mid
plane of the disc. Due to the fixed shroud temperature of
approx. 100°C, the power of the heaters or rather the heat input
from the shroud had to be adapted. All values are negative,
meaning that heat flows from the shroud to the hub. The radial
heat flux is relatively constant for x < 0.7 and increases to the
shroud. There are three zones. The impingement zone (x < 0.35)
shows a complex behavior. In the cavity flow zone (0.35 < x <
0.8), the radial heat flux increases with rotational frequency and
mass flow. The heat input zone (x > 0.8) depends on the power
of the electric heaters.
Axial heat flux on the left, impinged side
Figure 9 indicates the radial distribution of the axial heat
flux on the left, impinged side. Positive values correspond to
heat flow from the disc to the fluid as the disc cools. The
discontinuity at x = 0.38 corresponds to a change in disc
thickness. All curves have a maximum in the impingement area
(x < 0.3) and a minimum between 0.5 < x < 0.7 depending on
the test conditions. In tests close to Roz = 1, the minimum value
can become negative, which means that one area heat up
unexpectedly. A detailed discussion of the extreme positions is
given in Günther et al. [8, 11].
The axial heat flux increases with increasing mass flow.
The effects due to rotation are complex. The curves V1 to V4
are similar except in the areas close to the hub and near the
shroud. In both zones, the values of V2, a medium rotational
frequency, are the highest. That was unexpected. Normally, the
impingement flow and the resultant secondary vortex flow
decrease with increasing rotational frequency, which leads to a
decrease of the axial heat flux. This behavior can be observed in
6 Copyright © 2014 by ASME
the values of V3 and V4. It is assumed that buoyancy-induced
instabilities are responsible for that unexpected behavior. It will
be discussed below with the help of theoretical models based on
temperature and pressure measurements in the cavities.
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Axial heat flux on the right, not impinged side
Figure 10 shows the radial distribution of the axial heat
flux on the right, not impinged side. The positive direction of
heat flow is from the fluid to the disc as the disc heats up. All
curves have a zero-crossing in the interval 0.3 < x < 0.7,
depending on the test conditions that correspond to a change in
heat flow direction. Details are given in Günther [8, 11]. A
heating area is observed in the inner zone due to recirculated
fluid, while the outer region of the disc is cooled by the flow.
The values of heat flux increase with higher mass flow. The
effect of the rotation is weaker than that of throughflow. In the
inner zone the values decrease with increasing rotational
frequency which matches to the damping of the impingement-
induced secondary flow. In the outer cooling area, the highest
values are measured for V2 at medium rotational frequency.
The assumption that buoyancy-induced instabilities cause this
behavior will be demonstrated in the following section using
simple models based on temperature and pressure
measurements in the cavities.
CORE SWIRL RATIO
The rotating cavity flow is characterized by the swirl ratio
due to small radial and axial velocities. It is defined as the ratio
of circumferential velocity of flow to the speed on the wall.
Static pressure measurements at different radii, corrected as
described in Uffrecht et al. [12], can be used to calculate an
integral core swirl ratio with the specific gas constant R, a
cavity core temperature TC, which is the mean of the measured
air temperatures at x = 0.36 and x = 0.82, and the angular speed
of the cavity Ω as in Equation 3:
2 R TC ln ( p 2 / p1 )
β= (3)
(
Ω 2 r22 − r12 )
The results of the determined integral core swirl ratio are
independent of mass flow and rotational frequency. Therefore,
this cannot be the reason for the effects of the rotation on the
heat flux results described above. βC1 = 0.83 in cavity C1, and
βC 2 = 0.90 in cavity C2. The geometry of both cavities is
similar. Therefore, it is assumed that the difference in the values
originates from differences in inlet preswirl or inlet temperature.
MIXING RATE
The mixing rate M is the percentage of the mass flow which
radially enters the cavity. It is calculated from a balance
between heat flow across the inlet gap and the outlet gap as well
as the heat transfer from/to the cavity. The heat flow from/to the
inner shaft is estimated to be negligible. It is also assumed that
the heat capacity of the air is constant. The total mass flow of
air m axially enters the gap with the measured inlet temperature
Tin and leaves the gap axially with the outlet temperature Tout, rate of V2. The value increases about 10 % compared to the
which is also measured. On the border to the cavity, the mixing results from another rotational frequency at the same mass flow
mass flow mM leaves the gap radially with the inlet temperature (V1, V3 and V4). With increasing mass flow (see in the order
Tin and returns radially with a cavity core temperature TC, which V5, V2, V6), the mixing rate decreases, but the absolute mixing

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is determined as above for the core swirl ratio. The outlet mass flow increases, which is in agreement with the heat flux
temperature of cavity C1 is the inlet temperature of cavity C2. results.
The simple model is given by Equation 4.
100
m T − Tin V1 V4 C1 Ro z < 0.7
M = M = out (4) 90
m TC − Tin V2 V5 C1 0.7 < Ro z < 1.5
V3 V6 C1 Ro z > 1.5
A full mixing, M = 1, occurs if TC = Tout and no mixing, 80
C2 Ro z < 0.7
M = 0, results in TC = Tin. With this simple model, it is possible 70 C2 0.7 < Ro z < 1.5
to estimate the mixing rate that is assumed to be important for C2 Ro z > 1.5
the heat transfer on the discs. 60

M (%)
Figure 11 shows a comparison of the determined mixing 50
rate M of both cavities (C1 and C2) with results from Long [6],
who also computed a heat balance, and Black [10], who used a 40
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (CARS) method. 30
The investigated gap ratios G = s / b are similar to this study.
20
The values are presented against Rossby number Roz, which is
proportional to the ratio Rez / Reφ. The results from the testing 10
points V1 to V6, see Table 2 and chapter experimental results,
0
are indicated in color.
1010
1.0E+10 1011
1.0E+11 1012
1.0E+12 1013
1.0E+13 1014
1.0E+14
100 2
Gr r = Re φ ∆ρ/ρ
ρi
V1 V4 C1: G = 0.26-0.31
90 V2 V5 C2: G = 0.26-0.31 Figure 12: Effects of Grashof number Grr and Rossby
V3 V6 Long [6]: G = 0.36 number Roz on the mixing rate M in both cavities
80
Long [6]: G = 0.13 (C1, C2), V1-V6 colored
70 Black [10]: G = 0.35
60 Figure 12 illustrates the effects of Grashof number, which
M (%)

indicates buoyancy forces on the mixing rate. The typical term

50
40
30
20
10
error bar at Roz=0.18 correlates to ∆TC1=±10K
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Ro z
Figure 11: Comparison of mixing rate M of both
cavities (C1, C2) against Rossby number Roz with
results from Long [6] and Black [10], V1-V6 colored
The calculated mixing rate, shown in Figure 11, increases
with decreasing Rossby number as also found by Long [6] and
Black [10]. The values are lower than the results in the
literature. Probably, it results from a smaller inlet gap at a
higher inlet velocity in this study. The effect of rotation can be
studied by the results from V1 to V4, where the rotational
frequency increases from 3,000 rpm to 10,000 rpm. The
unexpected high measured axial heat flux at medium speed, see
V2 at x < 0.35 in Figure 9, can also be observed in the mixing
β∆T, often calculated as ∆T/T in the definition of the Grashof
number, is replaced by the term ∆ρ/ρ to take the compressible
character of the flow into account. The results are classified in
three regimes according to their Rossby number; these regimes
are displayed with dashed trend lines in Figure 12. For Roz >
1.5, see points in Figure 12, the mixing rate is constant over the
measured range of Grashof numbers. However, the mixing rate
decreases for approx. Grr > 5x1012 and Roz < 1.5, represented
by the triangles and diamonds in Figure 12. This behavior
implies that the mixing resulting from the impingement-induced
secondary flow and the buoyancy-induced flow decreases,
although the temperature gradient respectively the density
gradient increases. The density gradient will be estimated by a
theoretical model described in the next chapter.
DENSITY GRADIENT
The density gradient is calculated by an integral
examination of forces in the cavity core between the radii of the
static pressure measurements, the yellow points in Figure 4 at
x = 0.26 (p1) and x = 0.82 (p2). The results of the air
temperature measurements at x = 0.36 (T1) and x = 0.82 (T2) are
also used. It is assumed that the core swirl ratio, calculated as
above, is constant. The radial air temperature distribution is
assumed to be linear between T1 and T2 and is fitted with the

7 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

parameters T0 and C0 as defined in Equation 5. From that, the increase radial mixing, and at high speed, it is damped by stable
radial distribution of static pressure can be calculated by density stratification. This assumption will be supported by the
Equation 6. The radial distribution of density follows from the results of the measured air temperature fluctuations inside the
ideal gas law, see Equation 7. The density gradient is cavity. If the radial mixing increases, the temperature

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determined then from the total differential in Equation 8. fluctuations must rise as well.
T0
T (r ) = (5) MEASURED TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS
1 + C0 r
The air temperature Tair is measured at two radii (x = 0.36
 β 2 Ω2
p (r ) = p1 exp 
 2
( 2 2 C0 3
)
 r − r1 + 3 r − r1
3
( ) (6) and x = 0.82) in both cavities (C1 and C2), and at the air
 2 R T0   inlet Tin and outlet Tout in the inner shaft, represented by the
p(r ) blue points in Figure 4. For the measurements, open spot-
ρ(r ) = (7) welded thermocouples (K-type, diameter 0.1 mm) are used. The
R T (r )
results of these six measurement positions for the six testing
(r ) = p(r ) β Ω2 r (21 + C0 r ) + C0 p(r )
2 2 2
dρ points V1 to V6 are presented as bars from left to right in the
(8) order given by the legend in Figure 14. The first testing point is
dr R T0 R T0
measured without rotation, flow or heating after a long testing
0.9
unstable stable density stratification
break of at least 48 hours. The values are given as the
temperature fluctuation Tf calculated from the standard
0.8
deviation σ and the time-averaged value using Equation 9.
0.7 σ(T )
Tf = (9)
T
0.6
For a comparison with the temperature fluctuations, the
x

0.5 second ordinate on the right side of Figure 14 and the symbols
Cavity C1:
in the diagram display the mixing rate of both cavities (C1 and
0.4
C2) described above. The order of the measuring points from
V1 V2 V3
0.3
the left legend is illustrated on the x-axis, as well as the testing
V4 V5 V6 points with the associated Rossby and Grashof numbers.
0.2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 bars (from left) symbols
0.6 60
ρ/dr (kg/m4)
dρ 1) shaft: T,in C1: M
2) C1: T,air x = 0.36 C2: M
Figure 13: Radial distribution of calculated local 0.5 3) C1: T,air x = 0.82 50
4) C2: T,air x = 0.36
density gradient of V1 to V6, positive values conform 5) C2: T,air x = 0.82
0.4 40
to stable density stratification that damps buoyancy- 6) shaft: T,out
T f (%)

M (%)
induced flow
0.3 30

Figure 13 shows the calculated radial distributions of the 0.2 20

density gradient in cavity C1 for the testing points V1 to V6.
The results of cavity C2 are similar and thus not displayed. 0.1 10

Positive values for stable density stratification indicate that the

0.0 0
density gradient increases in the direction of centrifugal forces. 123456
0
123456 123456 123456 123456 123456 123456
3.3E+11 4.2E+11 7.5E+12 7.6E+12 3E+13 3.2E+13
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6
It is assumed that stable density stratification damps buoyancy- Ro z = ∞ 1.22 0.63 0.45 0.38 0.25 1.66
induced instabilities and, therefore, the radial mixing. The Gr r = 0 4.7x1011 7.5x1012 3.0x1013 4.6x1013 7.6x1012 5.0x1012
change in mass flow, see V5, V2 and V6 in Figure 13, has Figure 14: Comparison of measured air temperatures
nearly no effect on the density gradient. An increase in fluctuation Tf at six positions (bars 1-6) with the
rotational frequency, as in the curves V1 to V4 in Figure 13, calculated mixing rates M (symbols) for V1 to V6, grey
modifies the density gradient significantly due to the radial, values measured without rotation, flow and heating
centrifugal force-induced, pressure rise. At high rotational
frequencies, i.e. Grr > 5x1012, the density gradient changed its The results of V1 to V4 in Figure 14 show that the
direction from the shroud inwards. At 10,000 rpm, V4 in Figure temperature fluctuations measured inside the cavity correlate to
13, only the inner area x < 0.3 shows unstable density the computed mixing rates. The highest fluctuations are
stratification. The buoyancy force and the resultant flow measured at medium speed (V2). This validates the assumptions
increase with rotational frequency, which may explain why the of the simple theoretical model to determine the mixing rate.
highest heat transfer occurs at medium rotational frequencies, as Together with the results of the density gradients in Figure 13,
shown above. At low speed, the buoyancy force is too weak to the values in Figure 14 confirms that the mixing rate and the

8 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

heat transfer on the discs at medium rotational frequencies
increases due to buoyancy-induced instabilities.
The effect of increasing mass flow on the measured
temperature fluctuations can be studied by the results of V5, V2
and V6, in this order. The absolute mixing mass flow of V2 and
V6 is similar, but at Roz > 1.5, which is the case in V6,
buoyancy-induced instabilities are smaller than in a flow with
Roz < 1.5, as in V2. Therefore, the temperature fluctuations of
V6 are less than the ones of V2. Despite the highest mixing rate,
the measured fluctuations of V5 are smaller than for V2 due to
the lower absolute mixing mass flow.
CONCLUSIONS
The effects of rotation and mass flow on the time-averaged,
circumferential-averaged local heat flux on both sides of the
mid disc in a two-cavity test rig have been studied with axial
throughflow at rotational Reynolds numbers similar to a real
engine. The experimental setup, the instrumentation and the
measured parameters are described and discussed, as well as the
method of heat flux determination and the uncertainties.
The main result of this study is the difference in the heat
flux distribution of the impinged side to the one of the not-
impinged side. Due to the strong radial temperature gradient
and a change in the heat flow direction, working with Nusselt
numbers or heat transfer coefficients make no sense. Rather,
surface temperatures and heat fluxes are presented to interpret
the heat transfer on the disc. With respect to the boundary
conditions and geometries, the results are used to validate CFD
simulations in the design process.
The results show that the heat flux increases with
increasing mass flow. The influence of rotation on the heat flux
is weaker and more complex than the effect of mass flow. The
highest heat flux is measured at medium rotational frequency.
After presenting the surface temperatures and the heat flux
results, reasons for this rotational effect are discussed with the
help of simple theoretical models for the core swirl ratio, the
radial mixing rate, and the density gradient.
It is assumed that the flow can be separated into four parts,
the existence and strength of which depend on the test
conditions: 1, the rotating cavity flow characterized by the
constant swirl ratio, 2, the impinged flow and resultant
secondary flow which decreases with increasing rotation, 3, the
instabilities due to a negative density gradient in the buoyancy-
induced flow and 4, the instabilities of the incoming jet which
are assumed to be insignificant for high inlet velocities.
For the geometry with a small inlet gap tested here, the
flow and the heat transfer are dominated by the throughflow or
rather by the secondary flow for Rossby numbers Roz > 1.5. The
buoyancy-induced flow is insignificant. For a flow with Rossby
numbers Roz < 1.5, the rotation dominates the flow structure.
Buoyancy-induced flow can increase radial mixing between the
throughflow and the cavity flow, as well as the heat transfer on
the disc. But for high rotational frequencies, the density
gradient becomes positive due to the centrifugal force-induced
pressure increase which damps the buoyancy-induced flow and
9 Copyright © 2014 by ASME
decreases the mixing rate and the heat transfer on the disc.
Therefore, the highest heat transfer on the disc is measured for
medium rotational frequencies.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The investigations were conducted as part of the joint
research program COOREFF-T in the frame of AG Turbo. The
work was supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft
und Technologie (BMWi) as per resolution of the German
Federal Parliament under grant number 0327713J. The authors
gratefully acknowledge AG Turbo and MTU Aero Engines for
their support and permission to publish this paper. The
responsibility for the content lies solely with its authors.
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