SOCIOLOGY – THE DISCIPLINE

Culture:

The classic definition of culture, framed by E.B. Tylor in his book Primitive Culture (1871) reads,
“Culture…. is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” Stated more simply, culture is
everything which is socially learned and shared by the members of a society. In other words, culture is
the totality of learned and socially transmitted behaviour from one generation to the next. It includes
symbols signs and languages, besides religion, rituals, beliefs and artifacts. In fact, culture is a guiding
force in everyday life. It is the culture that distinguishes one society from the other. Each society has a
culture of its own that is historically derived and passed on from one generation to another and
constantly enriched by those who live it.

Some of the important definitions of culture are as follows:

“Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our thinking, intercourse, in our
literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyment.” - MacIver

Culture is “the super-organic environment as distinguished from the organic or physical, the world of
plants and animals.” - Spencer

Real and ideal culture:

The ideal culture includes the formally approved folkways and mores which people are supposed to
follow (the cultural norms); the real culture consists of those which they actually practice. In most
societies some behaviour patterns are generally condemned yet widely practiced. In some places these
illicit behaviour patterns have existed for centuries side by side with the cultural norms which are
supposed to outlaw them. Malinowski cites as an example of this type of behaviour among Trobriand
Islanders, a group whose incest taboos extend to third and fourth cousins. Similarly, selling cigarettes
and other tobacco products to children may be banned and declared illegal as a norm but yet widely
practiced in reality.

Acculturation: The modification of the culture of a group or an individual through contact with one or
more other cultures and the acquiring or exchanging of culture traits. In other words, it refers to the
process whereby an individual or a group acquires the cultural characteristics of another through direct
contact and interaction. From an individual point of view this is a process of social learning. From a
social point of view acculturation implies the diffusion of particular values, techniques and institutions
and their modification under different conditions. It may give rise to culture conflict and to adaptation
leading to a modification of group identity. Some scholars defined acculturation as ‘those phenomena
which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into first hand contact, with
subsequent change in the original cultural patterns of both groups.
Culture shock: The often rather severe psychological and social maladjustment many individuals
experience when they visit or live in a society different from their own. Culture shock involves
bewilderment due to new customs, unknown expectations, a feeling of being conspicuous, “different,”
and foreign, and often a foreign language.

Ethnocentrism: An attitude of regarding one’s own culture or group as inherently superior. The
ethnocentric attitude judge the worth of other cultures in terms of its own cultural, and since other
cultures are, of course, different, they are held to be inferior, Ethnocentrism reflects an inability to
appreciate the viewpoint of others whose cultures have, for example, a different morality, religion, or
language. The term was introduced by William G. Summer in his work Folkways. Ethnocentric view is
seen as a threat to the inter-group solidarity and communal harmony in a complex society where diverse
groups belonging to different-different cultural backgrounds live together. However, for an individual
ethnocentrism may be appealing because it reaffirms the individual’s “belongingness” to the group. It is
also considered functional for intra-group solidarity. It is argued that ethnocentric groups seem to
survive better than tolerant groups because ethnocentrism reinforces nationalism and patriotism.
Without ethnocentrism, a vigorous national consciousness is probable impossible. Nationalism is but
another level of group loyalty.

Xenocentrism: This word means a preference for the foreign. It is exact opposite of ethnocentrism. It is
the belief that our own products, styles, or ideas are necessarily inferior to those which originate else-
where. For example, there are many occasions when people seem happy to pay more for imported
goods on the assumption that anything from abroad is better.

Cultural relativism: Cultural relativism refers to the view that the values, ideas and behaviour patterns
of a people are not to be evaluated and judged in terms of our own values and ideas but must be
understood and appreciated in their cultural context. For example, premarital pregnancy is bad in our
society, where the mores do not approve it and where there are no entirely comfortable arrangements
for the care of illegitimate children. Premarital pregnancy is good in a society such as that of the Bontocs
of the Philippines, who consider a woman more marriageable when her fertility has been established
and who have a set of customs and values which make a secure place for the children. Similarly,
adolescent girls in the United States are advised that they will improve their marital bargaining power by
avoiding pregnancy until marriage, while adolescent girls in New Guinea are given the opposite advice,
and in each setting the advice is probably correct.

Subculture: The culture of an identifiable segment of a society. A sub-culture is part of the total culture
of society but it differs from the larger culture in certain respects-for example, in language, customs,
values, or social norms. It is agreed that ethnic groups have subcultures, but writers also refer to the
subcultures of occupations, adolescents, criminals, social classes, etc.

Contraculture: A subculture that stands in opposition to important aspects of the dominant culture of
the society. The term was introduced by J. Milton Yinger to designate a particular type of subculture, in
which certain values and social norms of the dominant culture are specifically rejected, and contrary
values and norms deliberately accepted. In fact, the value and normative system of the contraculture
can really by understood only in terms of its theme of opposition to the dominant culture. However, it
should be remembered that a contraculture rejects some, but not all, of the norms of the dominant
culture. For example, delinquency and drug addiction often have a contracultural aspect. The terms
contraculture and counterculture are often used interchangeably in sociological literature.

Culture lag: This concept was introduced by William F. Ogburn, who applied it especially to modern
industrial societies in which the material culture, through rapid advances in technology and science, has
developed at a much faster rate than that part of the non-material culture (ideas, values, norms, etc.)
which regulates man’s adjustment to the material culture. Cultural lag as a concept and theory was
developed by Ogburn as part of a wider theory of technological evolutionism. It suggests that there is a
gap between the technical development of a society and its moral and legal institutions. The failure of
the latter to keep pace with the former in certain societies, is cited as the basic factor to explain (at least
some) social conflict and problems.

MODERNITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN EUROPE AND EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY:

Sociology is a scientific attempt to study society. The origin of sociology dates back to early 19th & late
18th century. Reasons can be understood by looking into conditions in which sociology emerged. It
emerged in Western & Central Europe.

Factors responsible for rise of sociology

1. Europe was undergoing a process of transformation, i.e. modernization. These changes created a
situation of hope & despair- hope of a new era of progress but creating despair & disharmony. Sociology
emerged as an attempt to understand these changes.

2. With the growth of science such beliefs like god created world were collapsed. The new world was
being created by human enterprise. To make sense of this newly emerging world,sociology emerged as a
discipline.

3. Problems of emerging capitalistsociety created the need for the rise of this discipline.

4. Intellectual developments alongside the socio-economic changes provided the means for the
development of sociology. Confluence of social & intellectual conditions produced sociology.

Changes that were taking place:

1. Traditional society of medieval Europe was referred to as dark ages. It was a feudal society.

It emerged around 7th-8th century A.D, after collapse of Roman Empire. Various

warriors conquered territories & they were parceled to their follower in view of loyalty &

in return of land they rendered service. They worked on lord‘s estate & rendered

military service when called upon. It was a subsistence agrarian economy. Primary objective

was to satisfy needs of those dependent on it.

2. Politically, It was decentralized system. Feudal lord enjoyed all powers in estate i.e. was

autonomous & the biggest feudal lord was king who addressed to residuary matters.

3. Socially, It was a rigidly stratified society in form of estates. Each estate was governed

by its own laws. The produce was very little for trade. Neither was there enough trade nor

were the conditionsfertile for trade.

By the start of 14th century, this systemwas on decline because of:

SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT OF SOCIOLOGY:

SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES:

SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON SENSE: