PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

ATOMS, MOLECULES AND

STOICHIOMETRY

1
Overview
◼ The name and the formulae of compounds
◼ Relative masses of atoms and molecules
◼ Amount of substance
◼ Mole and mass
◼ Mole and number of particles
◼ Mole and volume of gas
◼ Determination of Relative Atomic Mass by Mass Spectrometry
◼ The calculation of empirical formula molecular formula
◼ Calculations about masses and percentage
◼ Chemical equation
◼ Balancing equations
◼ Reacting masses and volumes (of solution and gases)
◼ Concentration of solution (molarity)
◼ Dilution of solutions
◼ Calculation involving gas volumes
◼ Stoichiometry calculation
◼ Limiting and excess reactants
◼ Volumetric Chemistry
◼ Acid-base titrations
◼ Redox titration
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 The name and the formula
of the compounds
◼ Many compounds contain just 2 elements.
Rules of naming the compound:
▪ Compound contains a metal and a non-metal:
▪ The name of the metal is given first
▪ And then the name of the non-metal, but ending with –ide
▪ Example:-

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 The name and the formula
of the compounds
▪ Compound is made of 2 non-metals:
▪ If one is hydrogen, that is named first.
▪ Otherwise the one with the lower group number comes first
▪ And then the name of other non-metal, ending with –ide
▪ Example:-

4
 The name and the formula
of the compounds
◼ Some compound have “everyday” names that give
you no clue about the element in them. You just
need to remember their formulae.
▪ Example:-

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 The name and the formula
of the compounds
◼ Writing formulae using valencies
▪ The valency of an element is the number of electrons its
atom lose, gain or share, to form a compound

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7
 The name and the formula
of the compounds
◼ To write the chemical formulae:-
◼ Step 1: Write down the valencies of the 2 elements
◼ Step 2: Write down their symbols, in the same order as the
elements in name
◼ Step 3: Add numbers after the symbols if you need to, to
balance the valencies

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 The name and the formula
of the compounds
◼ Example:
◼ Hydrogen sulphide ◼ Aluminium oxide

◼ Calcium chloride ◼ Silicon dioxide

◼ Magnesium nitride ◼ Sodium iodide

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 The name and the formula
of the compounds
◼ Writing formulae by balancing charges
◼ In an ionic compound, the total charge is zero. So you can
work out the formula of an ionic compound by balancing the
charges on its ions.

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Formula of cations
Charge of cation Cation (positive ion) Formula of cation
+1 Sodium ion Na+
Potassium ion K+
Silver ion Ag+
Hydrogen ion H+
Ammonium ion NH4+
Copper (I) ion Cu+
+2 Calcium ion Ca2+
Magnesium ion Mg2+
Zinc ion Zn2+
Barium ion Ba2+
Iron (II) ion Fe2+
Tin (II) ion Sn2+
Copper (II) ion Cu2+
Lead (II) ion Pb2+
+3 Iron (III) ion Fe3+
Aluminium ion Al3+
Chromium (III) ion Cr3+

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Formula of anions
Charge of anion anion (negative ion) Formula of anion
-1 Fluoride ion F-
Chloride ion Cl-
Bromide ion Br-
Iodide ion I-
Hydroxide ion OH-
Nitrate ion NO3-
Nitrite ion NO2-
Hydride ion H-
Ethanoate ion CH3COO-
Manganate (VII) ion MnO4-
-2 Oxide ion O2-
Carbonate ion CO32-
Sulphide ion S2-
Sulphite ion SO32-
Sulphate ion SO42-
Thiosulphate ion S2O32-
Chromate (VI) ion CrO42-
Dichromate (VI) ion Cr2O72-
-3 Phosphate ion PO43- 12
 The name and the formula
of the compounds
◼ Write the formula for these compounds
◼ potassium sulfite ◼ Calcium hydroxide

◼ sodium nitrite ◼ Potassium manganate (VII)

◼ Ammonium phosphate ◼ Sodium dichromate (VI)

◼ Chromium (III) nitrate ◼ Magnesium sulfate

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 Relative masses of atoms
and molecules
◼ It is very difficult to determine directly the actual masses of individual
atoms.

◼ It is relatively simple to compare the mass of one atom of a chemical

element with the mass of other elements.

◼ Relative mass of a particle

- the mass of an particle when compared to a standard atom.
- It has no unit because it is not the actual mass of an atom. It is
only a comparison value.

◼ The relative masses of atoms are determined by the use of a mass

spectrometer.

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 Relative masses of atoms
and molecules
◼ Carbon-12 isotope was chosen as standard atom. The mass of one
carbon-12 atom was assigned exactly 12 units.

◼ Carbon-12 was chosen because:

(a) Carbon-12 was used as the reference standard in mass
spectrometers.
(b) Many elements can combine with carbon-12.
(c) Carbon-12 exists as solid at room temperature and can be handled
easily.
(d) Carbon-12 is the most abundant carbon isotope, and the mass of
exactly 12 unit is an accurate value.

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Relative masses of atoms
and molecules

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 Relative Isotopic Mass
◼ Relative isotopic mass of an isotope –The mass of a particular
isotope of an element on a scale in which an atom of the carbon-12
isotope has a mass of exactly 12 units
◼ Almost the same as its nucleon number.
Exp: 21Ne = 20.994 ≈ 21
◼ Nucleon number of an isotope can be used as approximate relative
isotopic mass for calculation.
◼ One atomic mass unit (1 a.m.u) is defined as a mass exactly equal
to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

Mass of one atom of an isotope x 12

Relative isotopic mass =
Mass of one atom of 12C

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 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
◼ Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element
– average mass of one atom of the element
relative to one twelfth of the mass of a
carbon-12 atom.

Average mass of one atom of the element

Relative atomic mass =
1
X Mass of one atom of 12C
12

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 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
◼ The weighted average mass is used since majority of
elements exist as mixtures of isotopes whose masses
vary slightly

◼ If an element consists of two isotopes, Y, and Z, the

relative atomic mass of the element is:

Relative atomic mass =

[ No. of atom Y x
] [
relative isotopic mass of Y +
No. of atom Z x
]
relative isotopic mass of Z

Total number of atoms Y and Z

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Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
Question:
The element rhenium consist of two isotopes 185Re and 187Re, in
atomic ratio of 2:3. Calculate the relative atomic mass of
rhenium to three significant figures.

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 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
◼ The abundance of an isotope is the percentage of the
isotope found in the naturally occurring element.
◼ The Ar can be calculated from the abundances of the
isotopes. If an element consist of 2 isotopes, Y and
Z, the Ar of the element:

Relative atomic mass =

[ abundance of Y x
] [
relative isotopic mass of Y +
Abundance of Z x
]
relative isotopic mass of Z

100

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Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
Question:
Deduce the relative atomic masses of the following elements.
(a) Silicon (28Si 92.21%, 29Si 4.70%, 30Si 3.09%)
(b) Silver (107Ag 51.88%, 109Ag 48.12%)
(c) Boron (10B 18.7%, 11B 81.3%)
(d) Gallium (69Ga 60.2%, 71Ga 39.8%)
(e) Chlorine (35Cl 75.53%, 37Cl 24.47%)

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 Relative Molecular Mass
(Mr)
◼ Relative molecular mass (Mr) of a
molecular substance – average mass
a molecule of the substance when
compared with one twelfth of the mass
of a carbon-12 atom.
Average mass of one molecule of the substance
Relative molecular mass =
1
X Mass of one atom of 12C
12

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Relative Molecular Mass
(Mr)
◼ RMM = sum of the relative atomic masses of all the
atoms shown in the molecular formula.
◼ Example:
Find the relative molecular mass of the following molecule:
(a) water
(b) ammonia
(c) butene
(d) ethanol
(e) ethanoic acid
(f) trichloromethane
(g) C31H46O2

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 Relative Formula Mass
◼ Relative formula mass of a
substance = sum of the relative
atomic masses of all the atoms shown
in the formula.

Average mass of all atoms in the formula

Relative molecular mass =
1
X Mass of one atom of 12C
12

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Relative Formula Mass
◼ Example:
Find the relative formula mass of the following substance:
(a) Na2S2O3
(b) sodium phosphate
(c) magnesium nitrate
(d) potassium sulfite
(e) CuSO4.5H2O
(f) dichromate (VI) ion
(g) Aluminium sulfate
(h) [Cu(NH3)4]2+

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The Mole and Avogadro
Constant and mass
◼ One mole of a substance is defined as the amount of
substance that contains as many particles as the number of
atoms exactly 12g of carbon-12, which is 6.02 x 1023
particles. Symbol is mol.

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Mole and mass
◼ The mass of one mole of atoms of an element = relative atomic
mass of the element in grams (Ar)
◼ The mass of one mole of atoms of a substance = relative
molecular mass of the substance in grams (Mr)
◼ Molar mass, unit gmol-1

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 Mole and mass
◼ Questions:
1. Calculate the mass for:-
a) 2/3 mole of aluminium atoms
b) 0.08 mole of C6H8O6 molecules
c) 0.125 mole Mg(OH)2

2. Calculate the moles

a) 23.5g of copper(II)nitrate, Cu(NO3)2
b) 0.97g of caffeine C8H10N4O2 molecules
c) 5.2 g of PbO2
d) 12.8g of copper atoms, Cu

3. Piperazine is used to kill worms. Molecular formula is C4H6N2. A pill contain 0.82g of
piperazine. Determine the number of moles in pill.

4. Which mass of urea, CO(NH2)2, contains the same mass of nitrogen as 101.1 g
of potassium nitrate? 29
The Mole and number of
particles
◼ The Avogadro constant (L) is defined as the
number of particles in one mole of a substance.
◼ Avogadro constant (L) = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1

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 The Mole and number of
particles
Questions:
1. How many particles are there in:
(a) 2.8 g of iron
(b) 4.00g of oxygen gas
(c) 36 g of water

2. Calculate the number of moles in

(a)6 x 1021 iron atoms
(b)7.5 x 1023 of water H2O molecules
(c)4.5 x 1023 aluminium oxide, Al2O3 particles
(d) 7.2 x 1023 magnesium chloride, MgCl2 particles

3. How many atoms of carbon are present in 18g of glucose C6H12O6?

4. A sports medal has a total surface area of 150 cm2. It was evenly coated with silver by electrolysis.
Its mass increased by 0.216 g.
How many atoms of silver were deposited per cm2 on the surface of the medal?

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Mole and volume of gases
◼ The molar volume of gas is defined as the volume of one mole
of gas.
◼ Avogadro’s Law - Equal volume of gases measured under
same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain equal
number of moles of gas molecules.
◼ The molar volume of any gas is 22.4 dm3/mol at s.t.p or 24
dm3/mol at r.t.p.

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 Mole and volume of gases
22.4L 22.4L 22.4L

1 mole
gas
Standard Molar
Volume

• 1 mole of any gas at fix STP (Std Temp/Pressure,

0oC, 1 atm )

• occupies a volume of 22.4dm3/22400cm3

Gas Helium Nitrogen Oxygen

• 1 mole of any gas at fix RTP (Room Temp/Pressure,

25oC, 1 atm ) Mole/mol 1 1 1

• occupies a volume of 24.0dm3/24000cm3 Mass/g 4.0 28.0 32.0

Pressure/at 1 1 1
m
Temp/K 273 273 273
Vol/dm3 22.4 22.4 22.4
Particles 6.02 x 1023 6.02 x 1023 6.02 x 1023 33
 Mole and volume of gases
◼ Questions:
1. Calculate the volume of 24 x 1023 molecules of N2 in r.t.p.
2. Calculate the mass of 120 cm3 of ethane gas at room temperature and
pressure.
3. Calculate volume of the following gas under r.t.p:
(a) 4.44g of carbon dioxide gas.
(b) 0.4g of nitrogen gas.
(c) 3.6 x 1023 molecules of water vapour.
4. Which of the following contain the same number of atoms as 6.0 g of
water?
(a) 16.0 g of oxygen gas
(b) 22.4 dm3 of hydrogen gas at s.t.p
(c) 6.0 g of helium

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Amount of substance

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Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry

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 Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry
◼ Atoms can be deflected by magnetic fields - provided the
atom is first turned into an ion.
◼ Electrically charged particles are affected by a magnetic field
although electrically neutral ones aren't.
◼ The sequence is :
Stage 1: Ionisation
◼ The atom is ionised by knocking one or more electrons off to
give a positive ion.
◼ Mass spectrometers always work with positive ions.
Stage 2: Acceleration
◼ The ions are accelerated so that they all have the same
kinetic energy.
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 Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry
Stage 3: Deflection
◼ The ions are then deflected by a magnetic field according to
their masses.
◼ The lighter they are, the more they are deflected.
◼ The amount of deflection also depends on the number of
positive charges on the ion [mass-to charge ratio (m/e)]
- in other words, on how many electrons were knocked off in
the first stage. The more the ion is charged, the more it gets
deflected.
Stage 4: Detection
◼ The beam of ions passing through the machine is detected
electrically.
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Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry
◼ A mass spectrum is a plot of relative abundance
against m/e. It shows where the ion appears and
how many ions appear.

◼ Information that can be obtained from the mass

spectrum of an element:
(a) the isotopes which are present in the element.
(b) the relative isotopic mass of each isotope.
(c) the abundance of each isotope.

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Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry

Mass Spectrum of Boron

• Two isotopes of boron with their relative abundances:
Boron-10: 23
Boron -11: 100
•Ralative atomic Mass of Boron =

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Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry

Mass Spectrum of Lead

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Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry
Questions:
1. The diagram shows the mass spectrum of a sample
of naturally-occurring copper. What is the relative
atomic mass of this copper?

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Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry
Questions:
2. An element has a mass spectrum as shown in the
diagram. What is the relative atomic mass for this
element?

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Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry
Questions:
3. The relative atomic mass of copper is 63.5.
Which chart is a correct mass spectrum that would lead to this value?

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 Determination of Relative
Atomic Mass by Mass
Spectrometry
4. The relative atomic mass of boron, which consists of isotopes 10B and 11B is
10.8. What is the percentage of 11B atoms in the isotopic mixture.

5. Bromine has two isotopes, with mass numbers 79 and 81. Its relative atomic
mass is often given as 80. What is the relative abundance of the two
isotopes?

6. Naturally occurring gallium, Ga, is a mixture of two isotopes of mass numbers

69 and 71. Given that Ar of Ga is 69.7, Calculate the percentage abundance
of each isotope.

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Empirical Formula
◼ A formula shows the ratio of the atoms of each
element in the compound.
◼ Can be determined through experiment – Mass of
each element is determined.
◼ The number of moles of atoms of each element that
combine together can be calculated from relative
atomic masses.
◼ The ratio of the moles of each element gives
empirical formula.

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Molecular formula
◼ A formula that shows the actual number of atoms
of each element present in one molecule of a
compound.
◼ Molecular formula is a simple multiple of the
empirical formula.

molecular formula = n x empirical formula

n = 1, 2, 3, etc

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Empirical Formula /
Molecular Formula
Finding empirical formula

Find the masses of the elements that combine,

in grams by experiment.

Convert the masses to moles of atoms

Work out the simplest ratio in which the atoms

combine

Empirical formula
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 Empirical Formula /
Molecular Formula
Questions:
1. 32 g of sulfur combine with 32 g of oxygen to form an oxide of sulfur. What is the
empirical formula?

2. 1.08 g of aluminium combines chemically with 0.96g of oxygen to form an oxide.

What is the empirical formula of the oxide?

3. 8.5g of hydrogen peroxide contains 0.5g of hydrogen. If the molar mass of

hydrogen peroxide is 34 gmol-1, find its molecular formula.

4. A compound contains 12.77% carbon, 2.13% hydrogen and 85.10% bromine by

mass
(a) Find the empirical formula of the compound.
(b) Given that the molar mass of the compound is 188 gmol-1, determine the
molecular formula.

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 Empirical Formula /
Molecular Formula
Questions:
5. Hydrocarbons A and B both contain 85.7% carbon. Their molar masses are 42 g and
84 g respectively
(a) Calculate the empirical formulae of A and B
(b) Calculate the molecular formula of A and B

6. An unknown element M combines with oxygen to form the compound MO2. If 36.0 g
of element M combines exactly with 16.0 g of oxygen, what is the atomic mass of M
in grams.

7. 5.6 g of pure hydrocarbon forms 17.6 g of carbon dioxide and 7.2 g of water when
it undergoes complete combustion. Determine the empirical formula.

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 Calculation about masses
and percentage
◼ If you know the actual amounts of substances that react, you can:
◼ Predict other amounts that will react
◼ Say how much product will form

◼ Element always react in the same ratio, to form a given compound.

◼ Example: carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide.

◼ The total mass does not change, during chemical reaction

So, total mass of reactants = total mass of products
◼ Example: carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide.

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 Calculation about masses
and percentage
Percentages
◼ Calculating the percentage of composition of a compound.
◼ The percentage composition of a compound tells you how much of each element it
contains, as a percentage of total mass.

Atomic mass x number of moles of particular element in a compound

% by mass= X 100%
Molar mass of compound

◼ Example:
◼ Determine which oxides of iron, Fe2O3 or Fe3O4 has more iron

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 Calculation about masses
and percentage
Questions:
1. Sodium thiosulfate and sodium sulfate, which has the higher percentage of sulfur by mass?

2. If the percentage of lead by mass in a compound of formula CaPbOx is 70.2%, calculate x.

3. Zinc and phosphorus react to give zinc phosphide. 9.75 g of zinc combines with 3.1 g
phosphorus.
(a) Find the empirical formula for the compound.
(b) Calculate the percentage of phosphorus in it.

4. One molecule of small protein contains 63 atoms of carbon. The mass percentage of carbon
in the protein is 55.74%. What is the molar mass of the protein?

5. Hydrated copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate crystals loses some of its water of crystallisation
on gentle heating. In one such experiment, 10.0g of hydrated salt was found to give 8.56g of
a residue. Determine the formula of the residue.

6. Calculate the mass of solid residue is obtained from the thermal decomposition of 4.10 g of
anhydrous calcium carbonate?
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 Chemical Equation
◼ A chemical equation is a precise description of a chemical
reaction.
◼ Chemical equation must be balanced
◼ A balanced chemical equation tells us:
◼ The reactants and products
◼ The states of the reactants and products
◼ The ratios in which the substances react (mole ratio)

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 Chemical equation
Steps to balance an equation
◼ Write down the formulae of all reactants and products
◼ Count the number of atoms of each reactant and product.
◼ Balance the least number of atom in the compound
◼ Next, balance the number of atoms that are found in the reactants and the
product.
◼ Add the state symbol
◼ (s) for solid
◼ (g) for gas
◼ (l) for liquid
◼ (aq) for aqueous solution
◼ An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles that are reacting.
Spectator ions are omitted.

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Balancing equation
◼ Balance the following equation:
1. Sn (s) + HNO3(l) → SnO2 (s) + NO2 (g) + H2O(l)

2. NH3(s) + Cl2(l) → N2 (g) + HCl(g)

3. Al2O3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + H2O

4. Zn (s) + Fe3+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Fe2+ (aq)

5. Pb(NO3)2 → PbO + NO2 + O2

6. NO2 + NaOH → NaNO3 + NaNO2 + H2O

7. Cu + HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO

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Concentration of solution

57
Concentration of solution
Important formula:
1. 1dm3 = 1000cm3

2. Concentration = Mass of solute (g)

Volume of solution (dm3)
= molarity (moldm-3) x molar mass (gmol-1)

Moles of solute (mol)

3. Molarity = Volume of solution (dm3)

= concentration (gdm-3) ÷ molar mass (gmol-1)

4. Number of moles , n = MV OR MV
1000

n = number of moles of solute (mol) V = Volume of solution

(cm3)
M = Molarity of solution (mol dm-3 )
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V = Volume of solution (dm3)
Concentration of solution
Questions:
1. Calculate the concentration (in moldm-3) of the following solution:
(a) 4.0g of sodium hydroxide in 500cm3 of solution.
(b) 7.4g calcium hydroxide in 5.0dm3 of solution.
(c) 49.0g of sulphuric acid in 2.5dm3 of solution
(d) 73g of hydrogen chloride in 250cm3 of solution.

2. Find the amount of solute in the following solutions:

(a) 1.00dm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide of concentration
0.25moldm-3.
(b) 500cm3 of hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.02moldm-3
(c) 250cm3 of 0.2 moldm-3 sulphuric acid
(d) 10cm3 of 0.25 moldm-3 solution potassium hydroxide.
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Concentration of solution
Questions:
3. How many moles of sodium ions, Na+, are present in 250cm3 of
0.4moldm-3 Na2SO4?

4. What is the total number of moles of ions in 500cm3 of

0.5moldm-3 (NH4)2Cu(SO4)2(aq)?

5. Calculate the concentration in moldm-3 of sodium hydroxide if

250 cm3 of a solution contains 2.0g of sodium hydroxide.

6. Calculate the mass of Cu(SO4).5H2O needed to prepare 250cm3

copper (II) sulfate solution with concentration 0.02moldm-3?

60
Dilution of Solutions

61
Dilution of Solutions
◼ Dilution
(a) Adding water to a concentrated solution
(b) Changes the concentration of the solution
(c) Does not change the number of moles of solute present
(d) Equation for dilution:

M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = concentration of stock solution (mol dm-3 )

V1 = Volume of stock solution (cm3)
M2 = concentration of diluted solution (mol dm-3 )
V2 = Volume of diluted solution (cm3)

62
Dilution of Solutions
◼ Questions:
1. 250 cm3 NaCl solutions with following concentration were prepared from stock solution of
2.0 moldm-3 NaCl. What is the volume of stock solution that is needed to prepare the
following solutions?
(a) 0.5 moldm-3 NaCl
(b) 0.2 moldm-3 NaCl
(c) 0.1 moldm-3 NaCl
(d) 0.03 moldm-3 NaCl

2. What is the volume of water that needs to be added to the stock solution 5.0 moldm-3 NaOH
to prepare 100 cm3 NaOH solutions with following concentration?
(a) 0.4 moldm-3 NaOH
(b) 0.2 moldm-3 NaOH
(c) 0.05 moldm-3 NaOH
(d) 0.02 moldm-3 NaOH

63
Calculations involving gas
volumes
◼ Hydrocarbons burn in oxygen according to the equation

y y
CxHy(g) + ( x+ )O2(g) xCO2(g) + H 0 (l)
4 2 2

◼ Equal volume of gases, under the same conditions of

temperature and pressure, contain equal number of molecules.
◼ Water product is liquid and the volume of water is negligible
compared to volume of other gas.
◼ If 1cm3 CxHy( is completely burnt in oxygen)
y
- Volume of O2 = ( x+ ) cm3
4
- Volume of CO2 = x cm3
- Volume of water produced (as liquid) ≈ 0 cm3
64
Calculations involving gas
volumes
Questions:
1. The equation for the complete combustion of ethene is:
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
What is the volume of oxygen is required to completely burn 50cm3 of ethene?

2. 10cm3 of gaseous hydrocarbon required 20cm3 of oxygen for complete

combustion. 10cm3 of carbon dioxide was produced in the combustion. All gases
were measured under the same conditions. Calculate the molecular formula of
the hydrocarbon and hence its relative molecular mass.

3. In the absence of a catalyst, ammonia burns in excess of oxygen to produce

steam and nitrogen. What is the volume of oxygen remaining when 80 cm3 of
ammonia is burnt in 100 cm3 of oxygen, all volumes being measured at the same
temperature and pressure?

65
 Calculations involving gas
volumes
4. 100cm3 of gaseous hydrocarbon required 450cm3 of oxygen for complete combustion
to give 300cm3 of carbon dioxide. All gases were measured under the same
conditions. Calculate the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon and hence its
relative molecular mass.

5. 20cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was mixed with 150cm3 of oxygen. The mixture was
sparked so that the hydrocarbon was completely burnt. The gaseous product had a
total volume of 130cm3. When this product was passed over soda lime, the volume
of the product decreased to 90cm3. All gasses were measured at STP. Deduce the
molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.

6. 1.00 g of carbon is combusted in a limited supply of pure oxygen. 0.50 g of the

carbon combusts to form CO2 and 0.50 g of the carbon combusts to form CO.
The resultant mixture of CO2 and CO is passed through excess NaOH(aq) and the
remaining gas is then dried and collected.
What is the volume of the remaining gas? (All gas volumes are measured at 25 °C
and 1 atmosphere pressure.)
66
 Calculations involving gas
volumes
6. 20cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was mixed with 100cm3 of oxygen and the
mixture sparked so that the hydrocarbon was completely burnt. The volume of gas
remaining at the end of the combustion was 70cm3. After passing over soda lime,
this volume was reduced to 10cm3. All gasses were measured at 25OC and at the
same pressure.
(a) what volume of oxygen gas remained unburnt at the end?
(b) What volume of oxygen gas was used in the combustion?
(c) What volume of carbon dioxide was produced in the combustion?
(d) Deduce the formula of the hydrocarbon.
(e) what is the relative molecular mass of the hydrocarbon?

67
Calculation involving
Stoichiometry
◼ Calculations Based on One Reactant or
Product.
◼ Write a Balanced Full Equation for the
reaction.
◼ Calculate the number of moles of the given
substance.
◼ Use equation to determine the mole ratio.
◼ Calculate the required quantity.

68
 Calculation involving
Stoichiometry
Calculating % purity & yield
◼ A pure substance has nothing else mixed with it. But substances often
contain unwanted substances, impurities.

Mass of the pure compound

% of purity of a compound = X 100%
Mass of the impure compound

◼ The yield is the amount of product that obtained from a reaction

Mass of actual yield

% of yield = X 100%
Mass of theoretical yield

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 Stoichiometry calculation
1. Lead is extracted according to the following equation
C + 2PbO →CO2 + 2Pb
(a) Determine the number of moles of lead extracted from 0.5 mole of lead (II) oxide
(b) How many lead atoms are produces if 44.6g of lead (II) oxide is heated with excessive
carbon?

2. 2.4 g of magnesium metal reacted vigorously when heated with excess iron (III) oxide.
What mass of metallic iron could be produced in the process?

3. If 1.68g of magnesium carbonate is added to excess hydrochloric acid, What is the mass
of magnesium chloride produced? What is the volume of carbon dioxide produced at STP?

4. When 3000 g of hydrogen is reacted with excess nitrogen under high pressure and
temperature in the presence of iron catalyst, 2550 g of ammonia is produced. Calculate
the theoretical yield and hence the percentage yield in the process.

70
Limiting the Excess
Reactant
◼ Calculations Based on Quantities of Two Reactants.
◼ Write a Balanced Full Equation for the

reaction
◼ Calculate the number of moles of the given
substances
◼ Identify the Reactant in Excess

◼ Use equation to determine the mole ratio

◼ Calculate the required quantity using the completely

reacted reactant

71
Limiting the Excess
Reactant
◼ Questions:
1. Aluminium reacts with copper (II) oxide to produce aluminium
oxide and copper. If 2.0 g of aluminium is react with 5.76 g of
copper (II) oxide, find the mass of aluminium oxide produced
from this reaction.

2. In an experiment, 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 copper(II) sulfate

solution is measured and poured into a beaker. 5 g of zinc
powder is then added to the solution. Find the mass of copper
metal formed from the reaction.

72
Limiting the Excess
Reactant
3. In an experiment, 50 cm3 of 1.0 moldm-3 sulfuric acid is added
to 60 cm3 of 2.0 moldm-3 potassium hydroxide solution. What is
the mass of the salt produced from this reaction?

4. At STP, 2.8dm3 of hydrogen sulfide was mixed with 1.6dm3 of

sulphur dioxide when following reaction occurred.
2H2S (g) + SO2 (g) 3S (s) + 2H2O (l)
What is the volume of gas remaining after reaction?

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 Volumetric chemistry
Acid-base titration
◼ Determining the concentration of solutions
◼ Determining the percentage purity of molar mass of an acid or base
◼ Deducing the equation for a neutralization reaction
◼ Determining the amount of water of crystallization in a hydrated salt

74
 Acid-Base titration

1. In an experiment, 20.0cm3 of 0.2moldm-3 NaOH reacted with 32.0cm3 of H2SO4

solution. Calculate the concentration of H2SO4 in
(a) moldm-3,
(b) gdm-3

2. 25.0 cm3 of barium hydroxide were neutralized by 17.60 cm3 of 0.100 mol dm-
3 nitric acid solution
Calculate the concentration of barium hydroxide solution.

3. Calculate the volume of 0.12moldm-3 KOH required to react with 25.0cm3

H3PO4, containing 4.90g H3PO4 per dm3 solution.

75
 Acid-Base titration
4. Indigestion remedies often contains magnesium hydroxide. When a typical
dose was mixed with water and titrated against 0.200 moldm-3 hydrochloric
acid, 35.0 cm3 of acid was required to neutralized it. Calculate the mass of
magnesium hydroxide in the dose.

5. Hydrated sodium carbonate has the formula Na2CO3.xH2O.

Solution FB3 contains 14.3 g of Na2CO3.xH2O perdm3.
Solution FB4 contains 0.12moldm-3 HCl.
In an experiment, 20.0cm3of FB 3 was found to react with 16.7cm3 of FB4.
Deduce the value of x in the formula of the hydrated sodium carbonate. The
equation is:
Na2CO3 + 2HCl →2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

76
 Acid-Base titration
6. 27.2g of sodium carbonate crystals (Na2CO3.xH2O) were dissolved in water
and made up to 1dm3. 25.0 cm3 of the solution was neutralized by 47.55
cm3 of hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.1 moldm-3. Find the value of x.

7. A solution is made by dissolving 5.00g of impure sodium hydroxide in water

and make it up to 1dm3 of solution. 25.0cm3 of this solution is neutralized
by 30.3cm3 of hydrochloric acid, of concentration 0.102 moldm-3. Calculate
the percentage purity of the sodium hydroxide.

8. 2.0g of impure calcium carbonate was added to 40cm3 of 1.0moldm-3

hydrochloric acid. The excess acid required exactly 20.0cm3 of 0.2moldm-3
sodium hydroxide solution. What is the percentage of calcium carbonate in
the impure calcium carbonate.

77
 Acid-Base titration
9. A fertiliser contains ammonium sulphate. A sample of 0.500g of fertilizer
was warmed with sodium hydroxide solution. The ammonia evolved
neutralised 44.1cm3 of 0.100moldm-3 hydrochloric acid. Calculate the
percentage of ammonium sulphate in the sample.

10. 0.5g of impure ammonium chloride was warmed with excess of sodium
hydroxide solution. The ammonia liberated was absorbed in 25.0 cm3 of
0.20 moldm-3 sulfuric acid. The excess of sulfuric acid required 5.50 cm3 of
0.2 moldm-3 sodium hydroxide solution for titration. Calculate the
percentage of ammonium chloride in the original sample.

78
 Acid-Base titration
11) 25.0 cm3 of an unknown concentration of sulphuric acid, FA 1, is diluted
with water and make it up to 250 cm3 of solution, labeled as FA 2. 25.0cm3
of FA 2 is pipetted into a conical flask. It requires 26.30cm3 of sodium
hydroxide, of concentration 0.140 moldm-3 for complete neutralization.
(a) Write a balance equation for this experiment.
(b) Phenolphthalein indicator is used in this experiment. What is the colour
change of the solution when the end-point is reached?
(c) Calculate how many moles of NaOH were present in this experiment.
(d) Calculate how many moles of H2SO4 were present in 25.0 cm3 of FA 2.
(e) Calculate how many moles of H2SO4 were present in 25.0 cm3 of the
undiluted solution FA 1.
(f) Calculate the concentration, in mol dm–3, of H2SO4 in FA 1.

79
 Acid-Base titration
12. 25.0 cm3 of concentrated vinegar (ethanoic acid) was diluted to a total
volume of 250 cm3 in a volumetric flask. Diluted vinegar was transfer to a
burette. 25.0 cm3, 0.1M NaOH is pipette into a conical flask, with indicator
added. End point reached when average 29.20 cm3 of diluted vinegar
added.
(a) Calculate how many moles of NaOH were present in this experiment.
(b) Calculate how many moles of ethanoic acid were present in 29.20 cm3
diluted vinegar.
(c) Calculate how many moles of ethanoic acid were present in 25.0 cm3 of
the concentrated vineger.
(d) Calculate the concentration, in mol dm–3, of concentrated vinegar.

80