Profiling the attitudes of Greek

kindergarten teachers towards computers

Nicholas Zaranis & Vassilios

Oikonomidis

Education and Information

Technologies
The Official Journal of the IFIP Technical
Committee on Education

ISSN 1360-2357

Educ Inf Technol

DOI 10.1007/s10639-013-9296-2

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 Author's personal copy
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DOI 10.1007/s10639-013-9296-2

Profiling the attitudes of Greek kindergarten teachers

towards computers

Nicholas Zaranis & Vassilios Oikonomidis

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine kindergarten teachers’ attitudes
towards computers in the classroom. The sample consisted of two groups allocated in
two different researches. The first group had 383 participants from the first research
(spring 2007) and the second 295 participants from the second research (fall 2012). The
participants in both groups were drawn from kindergarten teachers of public kinder-
gartens in the area of Athens and Crete (Greece). In the first research, a 5-point Likert
scale questionnaire with 49 questions was designed to assess the attitudes of kinder-
garten teachers towards computers. Due to factor analysis on the sample of the first
research, the questionnaire items reduced to 30. Then, cluster analysis was applied to
obtain three distinct clusters of the kindergarten teachers’ profiles: the neutral, the
sceptic and the optimistic kindergarten teachers. Finally, a comparison among the
characteristics of the first research of kindergarten teachers (383) and the second
research (295) was done. The three profiles of kindergarten teachers were summarized
and the changes of recent years were discussed in hope that they may provide useful
information on the education challenges of the kindergarten curriculum.

Keywords Profile . Attitudes . Kindergarten teachers . Computers

1 Introduction

Nowadays, children accept the use of computers in learning as simply as any other
learning activity. Computers have taken a permanent place in all levels of education,
but their appearing in the classroom has not been without some concern; the future is
not without challenges for both kindergarten teachers and students (Chen and Chang
2006; Fisher et al. 2012; Livingstone 2012; Pelgrum 2001).

N. Zaranis (*) : V. Oikonomidis

Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, Panepistimioupoli Gallou, Rethymno 74100,
Greece
e-mail: nzaranis@edc.uoc.gr
V. Oikonomidis
e-mail: vasoikon@hotmail.com
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The integration of ICT in the educational practice of teachers is a very difficult

process that requires time and continuous effort (Baron and Harrari 2005; Selwyn
2000). However, we should consider that a teacher shows a very positive attitude
towards ICT, not only by the occasional use of technology with students but also the
creative use of ICT capabilities; as a result that educational environment in which acts,
can be changed. ICT fundamentally changes the role of the teacher and goes beyond the
traditional way of working. A teacher is an intermediate supporter in regards to
facilitating the student to acquire knowledge (Livingstone 2012).
Greek kindergarten teachers come from varied educational backgrounds which may
include 2-year studies in a public academy named Maraslio Didaskalio or 4-year studies
in a public university. Some graduates of Maraslio Didaskalio may have gone through
2 years of additional instruction at a university (Zaranis and Oikonomidis 2009). For the
past 10 years in Greece, a new Diathematikon Programma (DP)/Cross-Thematic Curric-
ulum Framework for kindergarten, primary and middle school education (Hellenic
Ministry of National Education - Pedagogical Institute, HMNE-PI 2003) has been
established. According to this, individual subjects are maintained within the DP, while
at the same time the horizontal and vertical linking of subject matter content is promoted
(Tselfes and Paroussi 2008). The Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
portion of this program introduces the use of computers as a teaching aid, a cognitive tool
and as a means of communication. Simultaneously, the training programs primarily had
cognitive orientation. It seems that in the near future these training programs will focus on
enhancing teaching skills through the use of ICT (Jimoyiannis and Komis 2007).
Although the fact that the kindergarten learning environment has many unresolved
issues regarding the use of computers, the fact remains that the first formal contact for
many pupils with ICT begins at this educational level. As a result, it is important to
examine this environment in terms of how kindergarten teachers and students learn
about and use computers. Kindergarten teachers are an important group to study because
they are among the first to have an influence on how a child learns in the classroom.
In this article, the term “computers” is used as a synonym for the term ICT
(Information and Communications Technology). This decision was based on the fact
that the terms ICT and computers are defined and correlated similarly by researchers in
the field of early childhood education (Stephen and Plowman 2003).

2 Theoretical framework

2.1 Kindergarten teachers’ attitudes towards computers

It is important to understand the attitudes of kindergarten teachers regarding ICT

because these traits form their profiles. Only a small amount of research has been done
about the attitudes of kindergarten teachers towards ICT in Greece (Tsitouridou and
Vryzas 2003, 2004).
Although software has become increasingly easy to use, researchers state that it is
much more difficult to convince kindergarten teachers to use various computer appli-
cations than a child (Angeli and Valanides 2005). Kindergarten teachers may not have a
positive attitude towards computers without some type of prerequisite training in ICT.
One of the hurdles kindergarten educators have to overcome is when a computer is
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placed in their classroom and they are given only a broad overview of how to use it
having little, if any, previous training (Zaranis and Oikonomidis 2009). Although many
kindergartens have computers, there has not been enough training on how to actively
use them in imaginative ways in order to stimulate interest among children and as a
result, the computers are used exclusively for secretarial support by the kindergarten
teachers (Tsitouridou and Vryzas 2004).
A key problem related to kindergarten teachers’ attitudes towards the use of
computers in class is the limited support. Also, kindergarten teachers had some
concerns about their training or lack of training with computers. Teachers worried that
their lack of knowledge might result in damage to the computers. They also lacked
confidence in their abilities to help children learn how to use the computer. Included
within this concern were the issues surrounding the selection and the use of proper
software in the classroom (Chen and Chang 2006). The researchers were also con-
cerned with fully integrating computers into the curriculum so that computers became
more than just an add-on (Kalogiannakis 2010).
Researches showed that a main variable influencing the beginning of a teacher’s
acceptance of computers as educational tools is the amount and adequacy of his or her
pre-service training (Hermans et al. 2008; Mumtaz 2000). Also, a gap exists between
what pre-service teachers are taught in their ICT courses and what they are expected to
do with ICT in a live classroom setting (Kalogiannakis 2010; Pope et al. 2002). There is
no doubt that basic computing skills constitute the foundation of ICT literacy but they
are not enough for adequately preparing pre-service teachers to teach with ICT (Selinger
2001; Wetzel et al. 2004). Greater understandings of how pre-service and in-service
teachers are trained and prepared for working with new technologies are critical issues
for the field of teacher education and technology. These factors are related to teachers’
general attitudes and how their attitudes and computer use are affected and improved
through computer courses (Angeli 2004; Chen and Chang 2006; Kumar and Kumar
2003; Yildirim 2000). Evidently, the training of pre-service teachers will be pivotal in
determining the future role of ICT in education (Kalogiannakis 2010; Wedman and
Diggs 2001; Wheeler 2001).
Moreover the majority of the preschool teachers surveyed had positive attitudes
towards computer use in early childhood education (Jimoyiannis and Komis 2007).
There did appear to be a relationship between early childhood teachers’ attitudes
towards computers and number of years of teaching experience or level of their
education. In addition, there did seem to be a relationship between the attitudes of early
childhood teachers towards computers and the types of computer training they had
received. The teachers who had received computer training from a college or university
appeared to have a more positive attitude than those who had received only in-service
training or were self-taught (Chen and Chang 2006). In addition, another research
conducted with elementary school children indicated that ICT can have a positive impact
on student learning only when teachers know how to use ICT to promote student
thinking, expression, and knowledge building (Loveless and Dore 2002).
A positive attitude towards computers plays an important role in whether teachers
use technology in the classroom, according to Yildirim (2000) and Pelgrum (2001).
These researchers stated that teachers teach the way they have been taught and it is
unlikely that computer skills will be communicated to students and promoted by
teachers unless the teachers have positive attitudes towards computer use. However,
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students graduating from universities have a better understanding of computers. They

view computers as just another part of their world and everyday life (Ma et al. 2005).

2.2 Greek teachers’ training in ICT

In Greece ICT courses were introduced in secondary schools during the late 1980s.
Since then, many programmes for teachers’ further training in ICT have taken place
based on the model of education in training centres. The provision of in-service training
currently takes place outside of working hours and several researches show that the
teachers’ attitude towards the ICT is characterized often by ambivalence (Minaidi and
Hlapanis 2005; Saiti and Saitis 2006).
Through an empirical research Saiti and Saitis (2006) point out that recent reforms of
education, in-service training of teachers in Greece cannot be considered as the most
significant positive impact on the development of teachers and, consequently, to meet
the learning needs of students in schools. As part of the continuous training of teachers,
the Greek Ministry of Education implemented a national training program in ICT is
known as “In-service teacher training in the use of ICT in education.” This program has
been developed during the years 2002–2008 and the Ministry of Education has con-
ducted workshops for teachers be trained and be familiarized with ICT. Broad partici-
pation of teachers was achieved due to different motives such as the supply of appro-
priate ICT equipment, the certificate offering extra points in the case of evaluation, etc.
The goal of phase A of the training program, called P1, is the acquisition of basic
skills in the use of ICT. This phase covers an introduction to information and basic use
of a personal computer (PC), the use of Word Processing (MS-Word), Spreadsheets
(MS-Excel), Presentations (MS-PowerPoint) and the connection internet access and
communication. Each program covers a period of 8 weeks. All training courses must
take place after school hours so that the operation of the school should not be hindered.
Only permanent teachers of public schools in primary and secondary education, in all
specialties were allowed to participate in this in-service training program. Phase B,
called P2, started in 2008 and is still in progress to this day. The program of phase B
covers the pedagogical use of ICT and the participants would be able to use ICT for
educational purposes in their daily practice in the classroom.
Training in the use of ICT for teaching and learning is an absolute necessity but it
seems that it may suffer from problems and deficiencies in relation to the total Greek
educational context (Drenoyianni 2004). Apart from a few exceptions, teachers in
training lack of organization, experience and pedagogical direction (Minaidi and
Hlapanis 2005). A recent survey was carried out among a group of teachers who
participated in a national training program which took place in Greece in the Dodeca-
nese Islands (Minaidi and Hlapanis 2005). Useful conclusions were reached in relation
to educational obstacles that stood during the teaching process. It was anticipated that
through subsequent phases of the program the participants would acquire the appro-
priate skills in the use of ICT in order to be able to use ICT for educational purposes.

2.3 Research questions

Based on various exposures to computer training, the viewpoint of kindergarten

teachers regarding computer use may be more easily influenced by their attitude profile
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and relative amount of knowledge. As a result, this study seeks to examine the
following research questions:
(1) Can we classify kindergarten teachers into categories according to their attitudes
about computer use in kindergarten?
(2) Has the percentage of kindergarten teachers who support the use of computers in
kindergarten increased in the last 5 years?
Indeed, kindergarten teachers’ attitudes towards computers may assist students in
learning adequate computer skills and improving their education (Shields and Behrman
2000; Sime and Priestley 2005). As a result, a study of kindergarten teachers’ attitudes
and their profiles about computer use becomes more important and we expect to verify
our research questions in accordance with similar researches (Tao and Rosa Yeh 2008;
Tondeur et al. 2007).

3 Methodology

The present research was conducted in two stages. In the first stage we constructed a
topology for kindergarten teachers according to their profile during 2007. In the second
stage, a similar research was conducted with 295 kindergarten teachers that served in
public kindergarten schools in 2012. The second sample’s data (2012) was compared to
the data from the sample of the first research (2007).
Particularly, the first stage of this study took an exploratory approach to
generate a typology of kindergarten teachers on various characteristics of their attitudes
towards computers in the classroom. This was done by using statistical tools of factor
analysis and cluster analysis to categorize the corresponding kindergarten teachers’
attitudes.
For the various statistical analysis required for this study, we used the statistical
analysis software IBM SPSS statistics version 19. During the first research (2007) a 49-
item questionnaire was generated to collect data on kindergarten teachers’ attitudes
towards computers in the classroom (Table 1). These questions were measured with a
5-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 (extremely disagree) to 5 (extremely agree).
Demographic data of kindergarten teachers such as educational background, training,
gender and computer knowledge were collected through the same questionnaire; as
well as their willingness to accept and to use ICT in education as an instructional
alternative. The questionnaire was answered by 383 kindergarten teachers who served
in public kindergartens located in the area of Athens and Crete (Greece). The initial
Cronbach’s alpha was 0.942 for the 49-item perception survey, which demonstrates a
high reliability. The questionnaire took about 15 min to complete.
Classification of kindergarten teachers’ attitudes towards computers in the classroom
was achieved through factor analysis and cluster analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Factor
analysis was used to explore the dimensions of kindergarten teachers’ overall percep-
tion by extracting the underlying factors from the questionnaire items. Factor analysis
produced a factor score for each case on each dimension. These scores represented
kindergarten teachers’ attitudes on using computers in the classroom. Cluster analysis
was then performed using these factor scores as clustering variables. Classification was
then determined using the most appropriate clustering results.
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Table 1 Questionnaire items of the kindergarten teachers’ attitudes

No Variable Question description

2.1 The computer may be used in kindergarten for:

1 a2.1 Preparation and planning of teaching
2 b2.1 Creation of supervisory and teaching materials
3 c2.1 Teaching process
4 d2.1 Performing administrative tasks
5 e2.1 Recording data on the assessment of each child’s development
2.2 The use of computer in kindergarten affects the all-around growth of infants:
6 a2.2 Helping their mental development
7 b2.2 Undermining their social/emotional development
8 c2.2 Reduces psychomotor development
2.3 The use of computer in teaching:
9 a2.3 Facilitates the conduct of teaching and the achievement of its objectives
10 b2.3 Renews the teaching process
11 c2.3 Makes teaching impersonal
12 d2.3 Sets restrictions of the choice of different methods and forms of teaching available
13 e2.3 Can be applied to all areas of the curriculum
2.4 The use of computers by children in kindergarten:
14 a2.4 Enhances their imagination and creativity
15 b2.4 Provide possibilities for their own initiatives
16 c2.4 Respects their personal learning rhythm
17 d2.4 Promotes their active participation in learning
18 e2.4 Gives pleasure and satisfaction in children
2.5 The introduction of the computer in kindergarten:
19 a2.5 Brings them into contact with technology
20 b2.5 Exacerbates inequalities with schools which do not use computers
21 c2.5 Works positively for children who do not have a computer at home
22 d2.5 Facilitates “good” students
23 e2.5 Confuses “bad” students
24 f2.5 Helps children with special needs
25 g2.5 Does not allow students’ cooperation
26 h2.5 Is unsuitable for early childhood
27 i2.5 Makes kindergarten look like primary school
2.6 The educational use of computers in kindergarten provides children with opportunities
to improve their:
28 a2.6 Linguistic capabilities
29 b2.6 Mathematical capabilities
30 c2.6 Learning drive and knowledge
31 d2.6 Concepts of space
32 e2.6 Entertainment
2.7 The following objectives of the program Child and ICT of the CROSS THEMATIC
CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK (C.T.C.F.) may be achieved in the kindergarten:
33 a2.7 Computer is a means of communication, work and entertainment
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Table 1 (continued)

No Variable Question description

34 b2.7 Recognition of computer’s units

35 c2.7 The use of keyboard and mouse
36 d2.7 Creation of drawings and paintings
37 e2.7 The use of CD-ROMs as a teaching material
38 f2.7 The use of exploration games and problem solving
39 g2.7 Recognition of correct body position and rules when working with computer
2.8 The introduction of computers in the kindergarten and its successful use in teaching requires
the following of kindergarten teacears:
40 a2.8 Very good preparation of teaching activities
41 b2.8 Increase their pedagogical and teaching skills
42 c2.8 Very good knowledge of computer usage and its programs
2.9 The introduction of computer in kindergarten:
43 a2.9 Removes the dominant role from kindergarten teachers during teaching process
44 b2.9 Reduces communication between other students and kindergarten teachers
45 c2.9 Reduces the prestige of kindergarten teachers towards students
2.10 The introduction of computer in kindergarten depends on the following factors:
46 a2.10 Adequacy of the schools’ area
47 b2.10 Appropriateness of technological equipment
48 c2.10 Interest of kindergarten teachers
49 d2.10 Training of kindergarten teachers

4 Results

4.1 Kindergarten teachers’ profiles

The research was conducted in two stages. The sample of the first and second stage
consisted of kindergarten teachers who served in public kindergartens located in the
area of Athens and Crete (Greece).
In the first stage (2007) a total of 450 questionnaires were sent to kindergarten
teachers and 396 of them returned. After discarding 13 incomplete ones, 383 question-
naires were entered into our analysis, yielding a final response rate of 85.11 %.
Moreover, the case to variable ratio (383 cases versus 30 variables) in our study is
higher than the recommended general rule of thumb of at least 5:1 for an adequate
factor analysis as suggested by Hair et al. (1998). The descriptive statistics of this stage
are outlined below. The vast majority of kindergarten teachers in the sample were
women. Less than 27 % of them graduated from public universities with 4-year studies
and nearly 73 % received their first degree with 2-year studies. Over 80 % of them had
a second degree or formal training in educational methods. In addition, 42.8 % had less
than 10 years of teaching experience, 28.7 % had between 11 and 20 years and about
28.5 % had over 21 years of teaching experience.
In the second stage of the study 295 kindergarten teachers from the same areas
(Athens and Crete) were constituted the sample during 2012. The questionnaire items
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in the second stage were reduced to 30 items due to factor analysis performed on the
first stage’s 49 questionnaire items. The descriptive statistics of the second stage are
outlined below. The vast majority of kindergarten teachers in the sample were women.
More than 66 % of them graduated from public universities with 4-year studies and less
than 34 % received their first degree with 2-year studies. About 77 % of them had a
second degree or formal training in educational methods. In addition, 43.1 % had less
than 10 years of teaching experience, 29.2 % had between 11 and 20 years, and about
27.8 % had over 21 years of teaching experience.
In general, the demographic characteristics of the sample of the first stage (2007)
with 383 kindergarten teachers and sample of the second stage (2012) with 295
kindergarten teachers differed slightly. Regarding the total years of in-service teaching
experience among the kindergarten teachers, no statistically significant difference
(χ2(2, N=678)=.039, p=.981) was found. Moreover, there was no statistically
significant difference (χ2(2, N=678)=3.165, p=.205) for the lifelong training of
kindergarten teachers. The kindergarten teachers had a significant difference (χ2(1,
N=678)=103.996, p<.001) for the type of their first degree. In the first sample (2007)
the kindergarten teachers with 2-year degrees were about 73.1 % and less than 27 % of
them graduated from public universities with 4-year studies. In the second sample
(2012) there were about 33.9 % kindergarten teachers with 2-year degrees and more
than 66 % of them graduated from public universities with 4-year studies. However,
this difference was not significant because in 1990, according to the Greek legislation
(Ministry of National Education & University of Ioannina 2008), all kindergarten
teachers were obligated to have 2 years of additional educational training; hence their
degree was equivalent to a 4-year degree offered by universities.

4.2 Factor analysis

On the sample of the first stage the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test for sampling
adequacy and Bartlett’s test for sphericity were used to first examine the suitability of
selected variables for the factor analysis (Bryman 1989). The KMO test resulted in a
0.908 value that was greater than the suggested minimum value of 0.5 for adequacy, and
Bartlett’s test also demonstrated a very good sphericity (v2=5924.18, df=435, p<0.001).
Factor analysis was used to extract the principal components of kindergarten
teachers’ attitudes on the 49-item questionnaire items of the first stage. Only those
extracted factors with eigenvalues bigger than one were selected. In the end, a total of
five factors emerged, which together explained the 59.75 % of the total variance.
Varimax with Kaiser Normalization was applied to ensure the extracted factors were
distinct from one another. Question items 5, 6, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27,
29, 30, 32, 40, 41 and 42 were dropped from the analysis due to their low factor
loadings on every extracted factor. The cut off value of item loadings is kept less than
0.5 and as a result the number of variables was reduced to 30. Table 2 shows the result
of the factor analysis. Each factor was named to reflect a common higher level group
constructed of those questions that related to the same factor.
Factor one included 12 question items regarding how a computer helps the child
universally in the teaching process, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.895. Seven question
items, in relation to the use of computers by the pupils as cognitive tool, made up the
second factor, which resulted in a high Cronbach’s alpha of 0.908. The third factor
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Table 2 Factor analysis results

No Factor Question number Cronbach’s alpha

F1 How computer helps the child universally in the 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 0.895
teaching process 16, 17, 25, 28, 31
F2 The use of computers by the pupils as cognitive tool 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39. 0.908
F3 The changes caused by the computer on the role of the 43, 44, 45. 0.844
kindergarten teacher in the classroom
F4 Kindergarten teachers use the computer only to organize 1, 2, 3, 4. 0.754
their administrative work
F5 The conditions under which the computer may 46, 47, 48, 49. 0.737
integrate into the kindergarten
Overall 0.916

included three question items concerning the changes caused by the computer on the role
of the kindergarten teacher in the classroom, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.844. Four
questions examining that kindergarten teachers use the computer only to organize their
administrative work constituted the fourth factor, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.754. The
fifth factor had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.737 and was composed of four question items
regarding the conditions under which the computer may integrate into the kindergarten.
Cronbach’s alpha of the overall 30-item questionnaire remained high at 0.916.

4.3 Cluster analysis

In the sample of the first stage the k-means clustering algorithm was then applied to
obtain three distinct classifications for kindergarten teachers which were further named
according to the final cluster center position (Table 3) on each of the five factors
identified earlier. The three clusters for kindergarten teachers were: (a) cluster one: the
neutral kindergarten teachers, (b) cluster two: the skeptic kindergarten teachers and (c)
cluster three: the optimistic kindergarten teachers, as showed in Fig. 1.
(a) The neutral kindergarten teacher: The first type has elevated rates in first three factors
listed in the teaching process (Fig. 1). This type considers that the integration of

Table 3 Final cluster centers

Factor Cluster

1 2 3

F1: How computer helps the child universally in the teaching process 3.38 2.91 4.00
F2: The use of computers by the pupils as cognitive tool 3.92 3.81 4.58
F3: The changes caused by the computer on the role of the kindergarten teacher in 3.90 2.59 4.12
the classroom
F4: Kindergarten teachers use the computer only to organize their administrative work 4.12 4.11 4.61
F5: The conditions under which the computer may integrate into the kindergarten 3.97 4.38 4.66
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Fig. 1 Classification of kindergarten teachers’ attitude on ICT

computers in the educational process may be successful and believes that ICT can
make changes in teaching and relations with kindergarten children (Table 3). It is the
realistic approach of kindergarten teachers in ICT as an expression of a cross-
curricular approach to learning. There were 153 kindergarten teachers in the seg-
ment, representing 40 % of the respondents. The majority of them (81 %) had
training in education or a second degree. Less than half (43.1 %) belonged to the
group of kindergarten teachers with 1–10 years of teaching experience. Only 32.7 %
of the kindergartens in this group have a computer and unfortunately 16.3 % of the
children use it during the teaching process.
(b) The skeptic kindergarten teacher: The second type gives great importance to the
conditions of introducing computers in the classroom, as showed in Table 3. They
probably use these conditions as an excuse. They did not appear to be sure about
the changes caused by the role of the kindergarten teacher as illustrated in Table 3.
The third factor had the lowest value of the cluster two. Probably because of their
negative attitude towards ICT as shown in Table 3. The first factor of the second
cluster had a low value. Eighty five kindergarten teachers, or 22 % of the total
respondents, belonged to this group. They have the greatest percentage (25.9 %)
of kindergarten teachers who have not received any additional training in the field
of education among the other types. They do not seem to be interested in such
instruction. They have the lowest percentage (38.8 %) of teaching experience, 1–
10 years, among the other types. In addition they present the highest score
(82.4 %) of teachers without a computer in the kindergarten and again the highest
score for kindergarten teachers without any formal training in ICT (63.5 %).
(c) The optimistic kindergarten teacher: The third type is the holistic model of
kindergarten teachers in ICT. They were positive that computers can be used by
the kindergarten teachers and children in the full range of activities in kindergarten
as listed in Table 3. They are stronger believers and supporters of ICT in education
(Fig. 1). One hundred and forty five kindergarten teachers were in this group
representing 38 % of the total respondents. The majority of them (44,8 %)
belonged to the group of kindergarten teachers with 1–10 years of teaching
experience and 82.1 % of them had received further training in education or a
second degree. This group seems to care for further education unlike the second
cluster. Interestingly, the majority 72.4 % of them did not have a computer at
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school and 84.8 % of the pupils did not use a computer in the classroom. In
addition, 61.4 % of them did not have any formal training in ICT.
Finally, comparing data from the research of first stage (2007) and the data of the second
stage (2012), we found that the proportion of the latter group of the second cluster has
increased, as listed in Table 4. It is indicated that eleven percentage points is the difference
between the attitudes of the 2007 and 2012 data. A chi-square test was conducted and the
relationship was found between year and cluster, χ2 (2, N=678)=10.380, p=.006.

5 Discussion - perspectives

The result of the cluster analysis produced three level constructs of ICT with charac-
teristics similar to our initial conceptualization from the literature review (Angeli 2004;
Chen and Chang 2006; Kumar and Kumar 2003; Tao and Rosa Yeh 2008; Tsitouridou
and Vryzas 2003, 2004; Yildirim 2000). These findings support the first research
question. Kindergarten teachers can indeed be classified into categories according to
their attitudes about computer use in education.
The foremost cluster is the neutral kindergarten teachers who had the ability to
influence teaching outcomes with the use of ICT in mind. Other factors such as the
strong impression of kindergarten teachers’ administrative work through the computers
were within our conceptual expectation on the implementation of ICT in education. The
only surprise was the issues regarding the high percentage of further training in
education or a second degree. It was possible that the teachers just did not care enough
about using the computer in learning activities since they did not have the proper
training to produce academic results using the computer in the teaching environment
(Selinger 2001; Wetzel et al. 2004).
Except for the considerable group of the neutral kindergarten teachers, it appeared that
the smallest group of teachers (22 %) were aware of the major issues regarding ICT in
education and were unsure how these issues might play an important role in the future.
This small cluster of teachers, referred to as the skeptic kindergarten teachers, expressed
high support on the conditions under which the computer may integrate into the kinder-
garten. Kindergarten teachers in this group would be the hardest to convert to proponents
of using ICT in education since they had formed strong, different opinions from the first

Table 4 Crosstabulation of 2007 and 2012 data and cluster

Cluster Total

1 2 3

Year 2007 F 153 85 145 383

% 39.9 % 22.2 % 37.9 % 100.0 %
2012 F 104 98 93 295
% 35.3 % 33.2 % 31.5 % 100.0 %
Total F 257 183 238 678
% 37.9 % 27.0 % 35.1 % 100.0 %
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cluster. More specifically, the skeptic kindergarten teachers strongly disagreed on the
factors regarding the changes of the role of the kindergarten teacher and the conditions for
integrating computers in the teaching process. These teachers were not exactly sure of the
adaptation and administrative work of kindergarten teachers’ challenges brought forth by
implementing ICT in education. They do not care too much about the use of computers by
students as a cognitive tool. Moreover, they questioned ICT’s ability to produce a quality
education and learning outcomes (Kalogiannakis 2010; Shade and Davis 1997;
Tsitouridou and Vryzas 2004; Zaranis and Oikonomidis 2009).
The final considerable group is the optimistic kindergarten teachers (38 %). These
teachers were stronger believers and supporters of ICT in education. They agreed with
customization and administration challenges and were impressed with the use of com-
puters by the pupils as cognitive tool. They were positive about the changes caused by the
computer on the role of the kindergarten teacher in the classroom and ICT education’s
learning effect (Loveless and Dore 2002; Pelgrum 2001; Yildirim 2000). Also, they think
about the conditions under which the computers may integrate into the kindergarten.
Furthermore, this study revealed that the percentage of skeptic teachers rose eleven
percentage points between the 2007 data and the 2012 data. This finding disagrees with
our second research question and related researches which showed an increasing support of
positive kindergarten teachers’ attitudes in recent years (Tao and Rosa Yeh 2008; Tondeur
et al. 2007).
The rise of skeptic kindergarten teachers, in recent years, may be due to the increase
of bureaucratic competence with computers. For example, updating the website “http://
survey.sch.gr” twice a month for statistics relating to kindergarten is obligatory. In
addition the new Diathematikon Programma (Hellenic Ministry of National Education -
Pedagogical Institute, HMNE-PI 2003) has been in place, which broadened the curric-
ulum to new scientific fields such as computer science, physics experiments and new
ways of teaching mathematics. These caused an increased workload on kindergarten
teachers (Zaranis and Oikonomidis 2009). Moreover the current economic crisis has
significantly reduced the salaries of kindergarten teachers. Under these circumstances,
it is obvious that kindergarten teachers do not have the willingness to deal with new
ways of teaching; thereby they see every innovation with skepticism.
School policy makers should be aware that it may take a lot of effort to motivate the
large percentage of skeptics of ICT in education. More conclusive and positive evidence
of the learning effect from computers in education is required to decrease the percentage
of this group. This group of teachers lacked the appropriate training in ICT compared
among the others.
An ICT kindergarten teacher training program, which is both comprehensive and
authentic, should include a wide range school activities related to the needs of
kindergarten teachers. The establishment of lifelong learning should be under consid-
eration. Τraining efforts are generally welcomed by kindergarten teachers but with
consistent support. Extensive training is necessary in order to consider themselves able
to integrate ICT into their teaching methodologies. The next key issue is the concen-
tration of skills and content development to the detriment of pedagogy. It is our position
that pedagogy can be vital in any type of teaching learning activities and therefore are
always at the heart of any implementation of educational innovation. Kindergarten
teachers may attend a training course and obtain skills such as creating a word
processing document or “surf the net” or develop web pages but these skills must then
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be placed in a pedagogic context. Kindergarten teachers must be shown how to re-focus

their work and lessons to take account of ICT.
The above discussion should be referenced in light of some of the limitations of this
study. The first limitation of the study was that the data collected from the participants
only from the cities of Athens and the island of Crete. The second limitation was the
generalizability of this study which was limited to participants attending public schools.
Therefore, the results from this research can be generalized only to similar groups of
kindergarten teachers. The results may not adequately describe kindergarten teachers
from other regions of Greece.
The use of ICT in education is not a panacea and researchers ought to more deeply
study the complex pedagogical issues related to the uses of ICT. Moreover, of utmost
importance is the use of ICT as a tool and the integration of it into every aspect of
academic life; however, the integration of ICT must be curriculum and student-need
driven rather than technology driven. We, as researchers and educators, should view
and try to use ICT as a catalyst for change and pedagogical innovation in education. We
argue that those who are involved in in-service kindergarten teacher training should
think and act holistically in regards to the personal and professional lives of teachers. It
is necessary to find out more about educational approaches within kindergarten teacher
training that can encourage them to create powerful learning environments. The time
has come for the emphasis of training courses to shift beyond the acquisition of basic
ICT skills towards improvement of kindergarten teachers’ professional skills and for the
change of the way that ICT is looked at in teaching.
Greek kindergarten teachers need access to a considerable range of knowledge and skills
in order to be able to keep up with ICT and to provide students with the best education
possible. ICT must go beyond the status of a productivity tool and achieve the status of a
mind tool. A concerted effort on the part of initial kindergarten teachers training institutions
to prioritize an ICT policy in their strategic planning will have far-reaching results.
Nevertheless, it is important to understand that what makes ICT valuable is the pedagogical
utilization of its services and not the technological aspects of it. For teachers, training in this
sector appears to be necessary. Kindergarten teachers need to understand how to organize
the classroom and to structure teaching and learning tasks so that ICT resources become a
necessary and integral part of learning rather a technical aid add-on.
We believe enhancing kindergarten teachers’ knowledge and experience in educa-
tional theories and practices could be an effective way to influence their attitude
towards using ICT in education. Accordingly, offering more ICT courses for educators
may increase the percentage of teachers who support ICT in kindergarten education.
The integration of computers in education is a direction for policy makers to focus on.
Thus, recent calls for educational reform in teacher education place the training of pre-
service teachers in effective ways of using ICT in kindergarten education as top priority.

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