Oxygen cycle

Oxygen cycle refers to the movement of

oxygen through the atmosphere (air),
biosphere (plants and animals) and the
lithosphere (the Earth’s crust). The oxygen
cycle demonstrates how free oxygen is made
available in each of these regions, as well as
how it is used. The oxygen cycle is the
biogeochemical cycle of oxygen atoms
between different oxidation states in ions,
oxides, and molecules through redox
reactions within and between the
[1]
spheres/reservoirs of the planet Earth. The
word oxygen in the literature typically refers Main reservoirs and fluxes — in the biosphere (green),
to the most common oxygen allotrope, marine biosphere (blue), lithosphere (brown), and atmosphere
elemental/diatomic oxygen (O2 ), as it is a (grey).
common product or reactant of many The major fluxes between these reservoirs are shown in
biogeochemical redox reactions within the colored arrows, where the green arrows are related to the
cycle.[2] Processes within the oxygen cycle terrestrial biosphere, blue arrows are related to the marine
are considered to be biological or geological biosphere, black arrows are related to the lithosphere, and
and are evaluated as either a source (O2 the purple arrow is related to space (not a reservoir, but also
production) or sink (O2 consumption).[1][2] contributes to the atmospheric O2) .[1]
The value of photosynthesis or net primary productivity
(NPP) can be estimated through the variation in the
Oxygen is one of the most common elements
on Earth and represents a large portion of abundance and isotopic composition of atmospheric O2.[2][3]
each main reservoir. By far the largest The rate of organic carbon burial was derived from estimated
reservoir of Earth's oxygen is within the fluxes of volcanic and hydrothermal carbon.[4][5]
silicate and oxide minerals of the crust and
mantle (99.5% by weight).[6] The Earth's
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere together hold less than 0.05% of the Earth's total mass of oxygen.
Besides O2 , additional oxygen atoms are present in various forms spread throughout the surface reservoirs
in the molecules of biomass, H2 O, CO2 , HNO3 , NO, NO2 , CO, H2 O2 , O3 , SO2 , H2 SO4 , MgO, CaO,
AlO, SiO2 , and PO4 .[7]

Atmosphere
The atmosphere is 21% oxygen by volume, which equates to a total of roughly 34 × 1018 mol of
oxygen.[2] Other oxygen-containing molecules in the atmosphere include ozone (O3 ), carbon dioxide
(CO2 ), water vapor (H2 O), and sulphur and nitrogen oxides (SO2 , NO, N2 O, etc.).

Biosphere
The biosphere is 22% oxygen by volume, present mainly as a component of organic molecules
(Cx Hx Nx Ox ) and water.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is 33% oxygen by volume[8] present mainly as a component of water molecules, with
dissolved molecules including free oxygen and carbolic acids (Hx CO3 ).

Lithosphere
The lithosphere is 46.6% oxygen by volume, present mainly as silica minerals (SiO2 ) and other oxide
minerals.

Sources and sinks

While there are many abiotic sources and sinks for O2 , the presence of the profuse concentration of free
oxygen in modern Earth's atmosphere and ocean is attributed to O2 production from the biological process
of oxygenic photosynthesis in conjunction with a biological sink known as the biological pump and a
geologic process of carbon burial involving plate tectonics.[9][10][11][7] Biology is the main driver of O2
flux on modern Earth, and the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria, which is discussed as part
of the Great Oxygenation Event, is thought to be directly responsible for the conditions permitting the
development and existence of all complex eukaryotic metabolism.[12][13][14]

Biological production

The main source of atmospheric free oxygen is photosynthesis, which produces sugars and free oxygen
from carbon dioxide and water:

Photosynthesizing organisms include the plant life of the land areas, as well as the phytoplankton of the
oceans. The tiny marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus was discovered in 1986 and accounts for up to
half of the photosynthesis of the open oceans.[15][16]

Abiotic production

An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high-energy ultraviolet
radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component atoms. The free hydrogen and
nitrogen atoms escape into space, leaving O2 in the atmosphere:

Biological consumption
The main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms in which
animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

Capacities and fluxes

The following tables offer estimates of oxygen cycle reservoir capacities and fluxes. These numbers are
based primarily on estimates from (Walker, J. C. G.):[10] More recent research indicates that ocean life
(marine primary production) is actually responsible for more than half the total oxygen production on
Earth.[17][18]

Capacity Flux in/out Residence time

Reservoir (kg O2) (kg O2 per year) (years)

Atmosphere 1.4 × 1018 3 × 1014 4500

Biosphere 1.6 × 1016 3 × 1014 50

Lithosphere 2.9 × 1020 6 × 1011 500 000 000

Table 2: Annual gain and loss of atmospheric oxygen (Units of 1010 kg O2 per year)[1]

Photosynthesis (land) 16,500

Photosynthesis (ocean) 13,500

Photolysis of N2O 1.3

Photolysis of H2O 0.03

Total gains ~30,000

Losses - respiration and decay

Aerobic respiration 23,000

Microbial oxidation 5,100

Combustion of fossil fuel (anthropogenic) 1,200

Photochemical oxidation 600

Fixation of N2 by lightning 12

Fixation of N2 by industry (anthropogenic) 10

Oxidation of volcanic gases 5

Losses - weathering
Chemical weathering 50

Surface reaction of O3 12

Total losses ~30,000

Ozone
The presence of atmospheric oxygen has led to the formation of ozone (O3 ) and the ozone layer within the
stratosphere:
 O + O2 :- O3

The ozone layer is extremely important to modern life as it absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation:

See also
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Hydrogen Cycle

References
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17. Roach, John (June 7, 2004). "Source of Half Earth's Oxygen Gets Little Credit" (http://news.n
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Zhiqiang; Wen-Der, Liang; Yang, Yih; Liu, Kon-Kee (2003). "New evidence for enhanced
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Further reading
Cloud P, Gibor A (September 1970). "The oxygen cycle". Scientific American. 223 (3): 110–
123. Bibcode:1970SciAm.223c.110C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970SciAm.223c.1
10C). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0970-110 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerica
n0970-110). PMID 5459721 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5459721).
Fasullo J. "Substitute Lectures for ATOC 3600" (http://paos.colorado.edu/~fasullo/pjw_class/
oxygencycle.html). Principles of Climate, Lectures on the global oxygen cycle.
Morris RM. "OXYSPHERE - A Beginners' Guide to the Biogeochemical Cycling of
Atmospheric Oxygen" (https://web.archive.org/web/20041103093231/http://seis.natsci.csulb.
edu/rmorris/oxy/Oxy.htm). Archived from the original (http://seis.natsci.csulb.edu/rmorris/oxy/
Oxy.htm) on 2004-11-03.

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