Historical Archaeology in Yucatan: A Preliminary Framework

Author(s): Anthony P. Andrews

Source: Historical Archaeology, Vol. 15, No. 1 (1981), pp. 1-18
Published by: Society for Historical Archaeology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25615385
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ANTHONY P. ANDREWS the case of Taxco, San Miguel de Allende, and
Guanajuato inMexico, as well as Antigua in
Guatemala, all beautiful showcases of colonial
Historical Archaeology in architecture. Unfortunately, the conservation
of these towns was done with an eye to at
Yucatan: A Preliminary
tracting tourists, and little or no serious ar
Framework chaeological research accompanied the resto
ration efforts.
ABSTRACT This overall situation is ironic, as Latin
America offers a rich field for historical ar
There is a growing interest in the historical archaeology both in terms of physical remains
chaeology,
of Latin America, a discipline which until recently has
and historic documentation. Moreover, this
received little attention. Given the enormous quantities
of source materials and physical remains, as well as the
field offers certain advantages, a major one
diverse historic and cultural backgrounds of different being the near absence of looting of historical
geographical areas, it is necessary to prepare regional sites: looters and collectors are mainly con
syntheses which will provide a framework for future cerned with prehispanic remains. Another ad
research. Such a framework is presented for the penin
sula of Yucatan, inMexico. Included are a delineation
vantage is good preservation: there has been
of the major chronological periods, a classification of relatively little destruction of historical sites
archaeological site types and a synthesis of source outside of major metropolitan areas.
materials. Although a small number of scholars are
developing an interest in historical remains,
Introduction: Background and Problems formal research objectives have yet to be de
fined. Most projects to date have been isolated
Historical archaeology is a young discipline in events. A number of studies have been carried
North America and Europe, having been de out in the Valley of Mexico, and the results
veloped within the last 50 years. In fact, the have appeared in various journals. There has
formal methods and objectives of this field in also been some work in the Mexican state of
the United States have only been established Chiapas (Gussinyer 1972; Lee and Markman
within the last 15 years. 1977; Lee 1979) and in the Caribbean (cf.
Latin American countries have yet to dis Handler and Lange 1978). Despite the paucity
play a serious interest in historical archaeol of materials, there is a growing consensus that
ogy. Such a situation results from limited archaeologists need not limit themselves to
funds and manpower, as well as a low level of prehispanic remains, and moreover, that sal
interest in historical remains. Even in those vage programs at historic sites should be given
countries where large-scale, government-run special attention (Barrera Rubio 1978a; Mal
archaeological research programs have ex donado 1976). In general, though, there is little
isted for decades (i.e., Mexico and Peru), literature on the subject of historical archae
scholars have concentrated heavily on those ology. However, with the growing number of
prehispanic sites and colonial monuments trained professionals and larger budgets for
whose restoration stimulated the tourist indus archaeological research, historic sites should
try, a major source of income for these coun begin to attract more attention.
tries (Yadeun 1978). There is no formal framework for research
Work on historic sites, then, has focused on on historic sites anywhere in Latin America;
the conservation and consolidation of the in fact, a comprehensive classification scheme
more spectacular early colonial remains. In a for historic sites has yet to be established,
few isolated cases, entire communities have either on a national or regional scale. As a
been preserved or partially restored: such is very preliminary effort to deal with this prob
 2 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1

lem, this paper will attempt to set up a classifi towns. The few reports of the restoration pro
cation of historic sites for a specific region of jects that are available offer only superficial
southern Mexico, namely, the peninsula of accounts of the work. Despite the paucity of
Yucatan, which includes the states of Yuca reports, the present consolidation work is of
tan, Campeche and Quintana Roo (Figure 1). the highest quality, thanks to the efforts of
As in most other parts of Latin America, Enrique Manero Peon, the architect who has
historical archaeology is almost non-existent supervised most of the colonial projects on the
in Yucatan. Work on historic remains has peninsula over the last decade. The conserva
been limited to the consolidation of a number tion techniques now employed reflect the
of early colonial buildings in the cities of policy common for archaeological projects
Merida, Campeche, Izamal, and Valladolid, as throughout Mexico: conservation and consoli
well as in rural areas: the convent ofMani, the dation, rather than full-scale restoration (cf.
fort of Bacalar, and a few churches in small Molina Montes 1975).

gulf
';'-'--V--:^^

mexico
Progr^so^^
Sisal Tizimin Cancun
. M
#Motul

MERIDA Izamal
Jr ":M Valladolid
* Jj'/
; : -YUCATAN
:| . . :/ /. J^^yj^
.' /v . :fCozumel
*
.\ . Ticul*
' ?Mani /.
:| ?Oxkutzcab
?
;V( Hacalchakan Tekax ./ .
.
\

CAMPECHE^i F.Carril.o
. .7Puerto
r^fr

Champo '
QUINT AM A
toM^^^ : < ROO /
/ .J caribbean

^^ . f SEA
CAMPECHE A
/?/A Baca,ar
^ \ j
^----^arm^^^/ I .
O^gV CHETUMAL*//

GUATEMALA BELIZE p
| \ 5<^^^"j?
I | Kilometers

FIGURE 1. Map of the Yucatan Peninsula, showing the major communities discussed in the text.
HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY INYUCATAN: A PRELIMINARYFRAMEWORK 3

Most consolidation work inYucatan has fo a "contact" site. Two kinds of contact sites
cused on prominent early colonial buildings, can be distinguished:
whose historical value is appreciated by the a. Sites which had one or more early con
government and private sector alike. How tacts with Europeans (i.e., early explor
ever, the protection of less prominent colonial ers, conquistadors or friars), but which
structures and all post-1800 buildings is prob remained outside the sphere of colonial
lematical. There is a registry of colonial mon influence and control.
uments and federal regulations for their pro b. Sites which were contacted at a late
tection, but the law is vague inmany aspects
date; these might be best categorized as
and makes no provisions for 19th century sites.
"Late Contact"
structures, a situation which has led to a vari
ety of legal problems in salvaging historic sites Colonial (1542-1821)
{Ley Federal 1972; Norberto Gonzalez C,
pers. comm.).
This category includes all sites which came
Despite this state of affairs, Yucatan offers
under colonial jurisdiction after the founding
great potential for historical archaeology.
of Merida in 1542, when Spanish control was
There are large numbers of excellently pre
established over most of the peninsula. The
served historic sites, and a wealth of published
and documentary materials. This paper will at period ends with the conclusion of theWar of
Independence, in 1821, when Yucatan joined
tempt to bring together some of these materi the Republic of Mexico.
als. First, however, it is necessary to define
the major historic periods of the region, as
well as the different types of sites found on the Republican (1821-1910)
peninsula. After experimenting with a number
This category includes all sites with remains
of different classificatory schemes, I realized
that the chronological and typological dimen dating between theWar of Independence and
the Mexican Revolution. In Yucatan, two
sions of historic sites inYucatan could not be
kinds can be distinguished:
merged. Consequently, chronology and site
are dealt with as separate, though a. Sites under the control of Mexican or
typology
not unrelated variables in the classification Yucatecan authorities.
scheme proposed here. b. Sites beyond such control (e.g., the in
dependent Cruzob Maya villages of
A Chronological Framework southern Quintana Roo and Campeche).

Historical remains in Yucatan can be National/Modern (1910-present)

broken into four major periods or categories.
These follow the basic chronological frame This category includes all sites with remains
work established by Yucatecan historians, dating from the Mexican Revolution to the
which is recognized and accepted by most present.
scholars. The proposed categories are defined From an archaeological point of view, these
as follows: chronological categories may best be viewed
as "components," as few sites are restricted
Contact to any single time period. For example, a con
tact period settlement may become a colonial
Sites in this category are difficult to define, village, revert to independent Cruzob status,
as almost every native community of early and then become a modern town. Chan Santa
colonial Yucatan was, at one time or another, Cruz (today Felipe Carrillo Puerto) underwent
 4 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1

such a series of transformations, and archae tions but retain small groups of year
ological investigations there should, in theory, round residents. Contemporary exam
reveal the various components. ples are Isla Cancun, Club Akumal, and
Club Pez Maya on the coast of Quintana
Site Classification Roo.

In Yucatan, an historic site may be defined

The vast majority of these communities are
as any settlement, structure or landscape fea
inhabited today and overlie the remains of
ture that is the result of human activity from
earlier periods. However, there are a fair
the time of Spanish contact to the present.
number of abandoned pueblos and rancherias
Following the view that archaeology and his
around the peninsula. Several contact period
tory begin in the immediate present, the classi
and early colonial settlements along the east
fication includes all modern settlements, con
coast of the peninsula were abandoned in the
structions, and remains. Hence, a resort com
late 16th and early 17th centuries and lie in
plex presently under construction is viewed as ruins today. Among these are Ecab
an historic site, as is an abandoned convent of (Benavi
des and Andrews 1979), Pole (today Xcaret)
the 16th century. Such a comprehensive defi
(Andrews IV and Andrews 1975), Xamanzama
nition allows for a dynamic typology that can
and Zama (today Tancah/Tulum) (Miller and
deal with future sites as well as long aban
Farriss 1979), and Villa Real on Chetumal
doned features of the past.
Bay. There are also a number of abandoned
The site typology presented below is based
colonial settlements in central Yucatan (cf.
primarily on use and habitation patterns and
Roys 1952, 1957). The best known is Cisteil,
may be viewed as a settlement pattern ap which was razed by colonial authorities fol
proach. It is straight-forward and self-explana
lowing a revolt in 1761 (Ramirez Aznar 1977).
tory and includes comments that clarify vari
ous aspects of individual site types. Five ma 2. Ranches, Plantations and Rural Industrial
Sites (Long Term Rural Habitation)
jor categories are defined, as follows:
Hacienda (Henequen plantation)
1. Permanent Communities (Permanent
Habitation) Desfibradora (Henequen processing plant)
a. Ciadades (Cities) Ingenio de Aziicar (Sugar plantation)
Plantacion Algodonera (Cotton plantation)
Communities with a population exceed
include the Rancho Ganadero (Cattle ranch)
ing 10,000 people. These
three state capitals (Merida, Campeche,
Rancho Milpero (Small corn farm)
20 Estacion Experimental (Experimental farm)
and Chetumal) and approximately
other communities. Cooperative Agrkola (Cooperative farm)
Cocal (Coconut plantation)
b. Villas (Towns)
Aseradero (Sawmill)
Communities with a population exceed
Centro Salinero (Salt-processing complex)
ing 5,000 people. There are approxi
mately 50 villas on the peninsula. These site types are self-evident but may
c. Pueblos (Villages) overlap. The majority of the henequen planta
Communities with a population exceed tions of northwest Yucatan were established
ing 100 people. There are several hun after 1860; many incorporated older cattle
dred. ranches and farms. Today, many plantations
d. Rancherias or Caserios (Hamlets) have been broken up into communal land
Settlements with less than 100 people. holding corporations (ejidos)y and the central
e. Complejos Turisticos (Tourist Resorts) cores of many old haciendas have evolved into
These have variable itinerant popula small villages. Hence, in northwest Yucatan, a
HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY INYUCATAN: A PRELIMINARYFRAMEWORK 5

colonial period cattle ranch would be trans 1978; Eaton 1978). Chicle camps will have
formed into a henequen plantation which to adobe ovens and raised wooden boxes in
day may have become a village. Other sites which chicle sap was cooked and "'blocked.''
have gone through similar transformations. Charcoal-making sites are found along the
The 19th century cotton plantations of the shores of coastal swamps, as charcoal is gen
Valladolid/Tizimin region are today mostly erally made from mangrove wood; large
cattle ranches. The same is true of sugar plan patches of burnt earth are theirmost recogniz
tations of southern Yucatan and Campeche: able feature. Road construction camps are of
they have been incorporated intomodern cat ten next to lime quarries and are easily recog
tle ranches, cooperatives, and small farms. nized by their roadside location as well as by
The cotton and sugar industries, which flour abandoned broken machinery parts. The re
ished briefly in the early 19th century, were mains of fuel storage tanks and large wooden
seriously crippled by the Caste War of the funnels which were used for feeding limestone
1840s. Few plantations survived past 1880, into gravel mills are also commonly found at
and today only one remains active, namely, these sites. Some camps are not so obvious
the Ingenio La Joya, near Champoton on the and may only be identified by close examina
central coast of Campeche. Modern changes tion of surface materials. Lumber and chicle
are also affecting many early sites: several camps are easily confused: it is quite common
cocales, for example, have been displaced by for a camp to be used by woodcutters in the
growing coastal communities, summer homes dry season and by chicle gatherers in the rainy
and modern tourist resorts. At Siho Playa, in months. Hunting blinds are evident by their
Campeche, a 19th century sugar plantation, large amounts of shotgun shells, hearths, and
which lay atop a prehispanic site, was recently sometimes animal bones, features which are
refurbished as a tourist resort. particularly obvious in coastal march areas
where duck hunters reuse the same blind on a
3. Camp Sites (Temporal or Seasonal
seasonal basis. And finally, archaeologists
Habitation
should be able to recognize archaeological
Pesquero (fishing) camps
camps, large heaps of discarded potsherds and
Milpero (milpa) camps
rum bottles being the most obvious diagnostic
Chiclero (chicle) camps
features.
Maderero (lumber) camps
Caminero (road construction) camps 4. Special Function Sites (Variable
Salinero (salt-collecting) camps Habitation)
Carbonero (charcoal-making) camps Puertos (Ports)
Militar (military) camps In general, these will overlap with coastal
Arqueologico (archaeological) camps communities. However, there are a num
Estaciones de Caza (hunting blinds) ber of sites that served purely as ports.
These camps can be identified on the basis These generally had a pier, a warehouse,
of their locations and surface remains. The and a house or two for the caretaker and his
more recent campsites will generally have the family. Examples are Xtul and San Benito
remains of perishable thatched structures. on the north coast and Vigia Chico on the
Hearths are quite common. Fishing camps will east coast, which are today abandoned. In
have large marine faunal middens (shells and the past they served as shipping outlets for
fishbones). A number of these camps, which products from the interior (henequen, lum
have both prehispanic and posthispanic re ber, chicle). They were often connected to
mains, have been reported on the west and the interior by means of tranvia (Decau
north coasts of the peninsula (Andrews 1977, ville) lines. The modern port of Puerto
 6 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1

Morelos served such a function in the late a. They are reused as shrines, camps, or
19th century: itwas the sole outlet for the habitation sites;
huge lumber and chicle concessions based b. They become tourist centers, are re
at Colonia Santa Maria (today Leona Vi stored and acquire guardian camps and
cario). tourist facilities.
Fuertes y Fortificaciones (Forts and Forti Balnearios (Swimming Resorts)
fications are
These day resorts, usually used by
Most of these date to the colonial period. nearby residents and occasionally by non
They fall into three categories: local visitors. Examples are Playa Bonita,
a. Forts and garrisons near Lerma on the Campeche coast, and
b. Defensive wall systems (Merida, Cam Playa Chacmool, Xelha, and Calderitas on
peche, and coastal vigia parapets) the east coast.
c. Fortified churches and convents.
Sitios Subacudticos (Underwater Sites)
Zonas Militares (Military Posts)
These include all historic shipwrecks and
These 20th century army and navy
are
related features.
bases, without permanent fortifications.
They generally consist of fenced-in com Features
5. Special Landscape (Non
pounds, with guardhouses and barracks.
Habitational)
They cover two to three acres. This category includes all non-habitational
Faros (Lighthouses) sites and features that do not fall into any of
There are four kinds: the above types. They are generally iso
a. Community lighthouses (within coastal lated constructions that serve specific pur
communities) poses. Some of the more prominent exam
b. Isolated with military posts (caretaker ples include:
and militia) Roads
c. Isolated (caretaker and family)
Bridges
d. Isolated, mechanical (no residents) Railroad tracks
Adoratios (Shrines) Tranvia (Decauville) tracks
There are four kinds: Airstrips
a. Road shrines Piers
b. Trail shrines Warehouses and granaries
c. Cave shrines Quarries
d. Coastal shrines Roadside monuments and signs
Rural property walls
Garitas (Checkpoint guardhouses)
Meteorological stations
These include police, customs, migration, Communications equipment (utility poles
and fiscal inspection stations. They will of and lines, and microwave stations)
ten have a few residential huts nearby. Water pipelines (for potable water)
They are generally isolated roadside sta stations
Water-pumping
tions, found at state and national borders or
Irrigation canals
at the boundary of a free commercial zone. Oil rigs and pumping stations
Zonas Arqueologicas (Prehispanic Sites) Oil depots
Archaeological zones can be historic sites Thermoelectric stations
in two respects: Battlefield sites
HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY INYUCATAN: A PRELIMINARYFRAMEWORK 7

Materials for Historical Archaeology: Echanove Trujillo (9 vols., 1944-51; 2nd edi
Notes and Sources tion, 1977; see also Garcia Canul et al., 1979),
and the Handbook of Middle American In
There is considerable documentary and dians, edited by Robert Wauchope (16 vols.
published material on the history of Yucatan, 1964-1976).
about which there has been a long tradition of The first printing press arrived inYucatan in
scholarly interest. There are well over 5,000 1813, and Yucatecan journalism was born with
published items on Yucatecan history, and the the publication of the weekly El Misceldneo
unpublished documentary items available in that same year. Over a hundred journals and
various archives probably number in the tens newspapers have since been published on the
of thousands. peninsula. Most of them were short-lived but
A major historiographic survey of Yucatan remain valuable sources of historical informa
has yet to be carried out (but see Ferrer de tion. Antonio Canto Lopez (1946) has written
Mendiolea 1946a) and will not be attempted a comprehensive history of Yucatecan jour
here. For the sake of brevity, only the major nalism, which includes specific data on every
categories and sources of materials will be journal published on the peninsula up to 1943.
outlined. They can be broken down as follows: An updated study, covering the last 37 years,
is badly needed.
1. Pre-20th century descriptive historical
Most travel acocunts published by visitors
works.
to the peninsula date from the 1830s to the
2. 20th century descriptive and analytical
studies. present. Suarez Molina (1956) has prepared a
3. Journalistic sources: journals and news comprehensive bibliography of these accounts.
Historians often neglect categories (6) and
papers, dating from 1813 to the present.
4. Travel accounts (primarily 19thand 20th (7). This is unfortunate, as these materials can
be of immense value to historical archaeolo
centuries).
gists. Tourist guidebooks are of particular
5. Official publications: proclamations,
value. The oldest appears to be that of Gomez
statutes and legal codes, rules and regu
Rul (1923). Since then, several hundred have
lations, speeches, etc. These date from
been published; these are extensively illus
1821 to the present.
6. Technical manuals, trated with maps, drawings and photographs
leaflets, pamphlets,
and often include detailed commercial direc
and catalogs, dating from the mid-1800s
to the present. tories of Yucatan's major communities. A
7. Miscellaneous publications: commerical compilation of these would be a worthwhile
and telephone directories, almanacs, project. Another major source of information
tourist guidebooks, road and railroad along these lines is the Calendario de Es

maps, geography textbooks, etc. Most of pinoza (published annually, 1851-1942) and
these date from the 1880s to the present. the Almanaque de Espinoza (published an
8. Unpublished documents. nually, 1942-present).
Geographical studies and local geography
There are
several major bibliographic textbooks, like guidebooks, are useful general
sources for Yucatecan historical materials: sources of information. They often contain his
Bernal (1962), Gomez Ugarte and Pagaza torical data and deal with a variety of subjects
(1937), Harrison (1976), Perez Martinez (1943) that may be of interest to the historical ar
and Priego de Arjona (1944). Other major ref chaeologist. The older schoolbook geogra
erence sources on Yucatan include the En phies are veritable period pieces, as they often
ciclopedia Yucatanense, edited by Carlos include illustrations of buildings and land
 8 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1

scape features that no longer exist. These ge these communities were abandoned, the result
ographies focus on individual states, i.e., of a complex series of population movements
Yucatan (Edwards 1954; Martinez H. 1936, that characterized the early years of the colo
1941, 1943, 1946; Vega C. 1967), Campeche nial period (Ryder 1977; Farriss 1978; Miller
(Pacheco Blanco 1928) and Quintana Roo and Farriss 1979). Many such sites still lie
(Edwards 1957; Pacheco Cruz 1958; Davidson abandoned today, providing excellent pros
1967). pects for future historical archaeology pro
Unpublished documents can be found in a jects.
variety of different places, from private homes Two areas of the peninsula have been the
to company warehouses to specialized ar subject of regional historical studies. Scholes
chives. The largest collections of historical and Roys' 1948 study of the Acalan-Tixchel
documents on Yucatan can be found in the region of southern Campeche provides volu
following archives: minous documentation for that area during the
1. Archivo General de la Nacidn, Mexico early colonial period. The major weakness of
the study is the lack of corroborating field sur
City
2. Archivo General de Indias, Seville veys. Cozumel Island, off the coast of Quin
tana Roo, has been the subject of two historic
3. Archivo Histdrico Nacional, Madrid
4. Archivo de la Iglesia Catedral, Merida settlement pattern studies (Davidson 1967;
Sabloff 1975). These studies combine docu
5. Archivo del Estado de Yucatan, Merida
6. Archivo General de Centro America, mentary and informant interview data with
field reconnaissance; as a result, a reasonably
Guatemala City (previously Archivo
good reconstruction of the history of settle
General del Gobierno)
ment patterns on the island, is available from
A comprehensive guide to Mesoamerican the conquest to the present.
documentary sources, edited by Howard F. Historic studies of specific communities are
Cline, is available in volumes 12 to 15 of the scarce. Several descriptive works focus on the
Handbook of Middle American Indians (Cline Escoffie' (1932), Ferrer de
city of Merida:
1972-75). Mendiolea (1938, 1946b), Hijuelos (1942,
1946), Garcia Preciat (1944), Camara Zavala
Community and Regional Studies (1950, 1977). Roman Piha Chan (1977) has
made a detailed study of the city of Cam
There are relatively few studies of historic peche, its fortifications and colonial architec
communities or postconquest settlement pat ture. This work includes a valuable collection
terns inYucatan; the majority of the literature of early illustrations (maps, engravings, and
is documentary and focuses mainly on colo photographs). A few historical and/or descrip
nial period sites. tive works have been written on other Yuca
The most comprehensive study of contact tecan communities, such as Valladolid (Ba
period and early colonial settlements inYuca queiro Anduze 1943; Alcocer Perez 1960),
tan is Ralph L. Roys' Political Geography of Izamal (Bolio 1894; Ferrer de Mendiolea
the Yucatan Maya (1957). This work contains # 1940), Espita (Patron Peniche 1959), Tekanto
a geographic directory of early sites and their (Thompson 1978), Tekax (Civeira Taboada
documentation and is considered the most 1974), and Mani (Barrera Vasquez 1978).
basic reference source by most scholars. Roys Studies of early communities have been
relies heavily on a collection of documents superficial and strictly exploratory. The early
known as the Relaciones de Yucatan (1898? colonial settlement of Ecab, on the northeast
1900) which contain valuable information on corner of the peninsula, has recently been the
many 16th century communities. Many of subject of a brief reconnaissance (Benavides
HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY INYUCATAN: A PRELIMINARYFRAMEWORK 9

and Andrews 1979). Luis Ramirez Aznar (1950) has written a brief monograph on the
(1977) recently located the colonial village of Convent of San Francisco, and Ruz Menendez
Cisteil and published a brief account of its his (1976) has recently made a survey of grave
tory and remains. stones in the older churches of Merida.
Finally, there is a large body of ethno Relatively little is known of the early
graphic data on Yucatecan communities, most churches and chapels that dotted the Yucate
of it dating from the 1930s to the present. can landscape in the 16th century, mainly be
Many of the ethnographic studies contain use cause they were eventually replaced and/or
ful historical data and most include maps and incorporated into the larger and more perma
photographs of village scenes and buildings. nent structures of later periods. Figure 2
Among the more prominent general ethno shows the location of most of the communities
graphic sources are the works of Redfield that still have standing 16th century religious
(1941, 1946) and Villa Rojas (1945, 1946, structures. Only a few of the earliest struc
1969). Individual communities studied include tures have survived, but only because they are
Merida (Hansen 1934, 1946), Chankom and located in communities that were abandoned
Dzitas (Redfield 1941, 1946, 1950; Redfield early in the colonial period. Six of these have
and Villa Rojas 1934), Xcacal (Villa Rojas been the subject of detailed reports: the
1945, 1946), Sudzal (Bonfil Batalla 1962), Baca church at Ecab, in northeastern Quintana Roo
(Anas Garcia 1972), Ticul (Thompson 1974a, (Benavides and Andrews 1979); the open
1974b), Postunich (Press 1975), Xoy (Rivera chapels at Pocboc inCampeche (Messmacher
1976), Coba (Rosales de Benavides 1976), and 1966a), Dzibilchaltun inYucatan (Folan 1970),
Maxcanu (Valencia Bellavista 1978). and Xcaret (Andrews IV and Andrews 1975),
Villa Real (Escalona Ramos 1943, 1946), and
Religious Architecture Tancah (Miller and Farris 1979) in Quintana
Roo. Another 16th century open chapel has
Studies of colonial religious architecture been located in Belize at Lamanai (Indian
deal primarily with buildings in the state of Church), though its discoverer erroneously
Yucatan. The 1945 Catdlogo de Construc reported it to be a prehispanic structure (Cas
ciones Religiosas del Estado de Yucatan is the tells 1904). These studies provide us with our
most basic source. This two volume catalog is only record of very early colonial religious
the result of an extensive field survey of build architecture on the peninsula. Studies of simi
ings throughout the state and contains hun lar communities are presently being carried
dreds of architectural plans and photographs, out in the state of Chiapas by the New World
supplemented with historical notes on each Archaeological Foundation (Lee and Mark
building. Other valuable sources include the man 1977; Lee 1979).
above-mentioned studies of Roys (1952, 1957) There is relatively little literature on the
and Garcia Preciat (1944). Piha Chan's (1977) early colonial architecture of Middle America,
study of the city of Campeche includes illus and scholars have few sources to rely on for
trations of many of the religious structures comparative purposes. Only two major stud
there. The cathedral of Campeche has been ies of early colonial Mexican architecture are
described in detail by Garcia Preciat (1944). available, namely those of Kubler (1948) and
Most other studies have focused on particu McAndrew (1965).
lar buildings. The cathedral of Merida, one of
the oldest in the New World, has been the Civic and Domestic Architecture
subject of several historical studies by Sierra
O'Reilly (1845), Canton Rosado (1942), and Studies of civic architecture are scarce and
Garcia Preciat (1935, 1944). Novelo Erosa are limited to the cities of Merida and Cam
 10 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1

OULF OtlollolioHoo TImooooooII Bfr.

Toooli W #
?* # T**"*?
HEMICO
;.;sT MfMlOA? Q%ZkmkL
ir*.
/
Tiioonooi
J\'r\:
VALLADOLIO/
v| (XoorotVj^^Sot'wMi
;4 imih?/ l/
lT , ,/T
^,,,
/ :| \

?ihq
iS^fl^^^^ mytytl

( "-. K/lomoforo
JJ
_V ^_

FIGURE 2. 16th Century religious structures on the Yucatan Peninsula. Major convent towns are indicated by crosses.

peche. The above-mentioned general studies Toussaint 1941; Arrigunaga Peon 1967). A
of the two cities are useful as introductory brief study of portico styles in old homes in
works?particularly those of Garcia Preciat the downtown area is also available (Irigoyen
(1944) and Piha Chan (1977). A historical cata 1979).
log of the streets of Merida is also available A study of historic houses has yet to be un
(Camara Zavala 1950, 1977). dertaken in Yucatan. This is unfortunate, as
A number of buildings inMerida have been many colonial 19th century houses are be
and
the subject of short studies. These include the ing destroyed in the course of contemporary
Peon Contreras theatre (Camara Zavala 1946), urban growth. The most common type of
the University (Ruz Menendez 1961), the dwelling on the peninsula is the adobe and
Municipal Palace (Quintal Martin 1961), and thatch house of the native Maya, which has
the House of Montejo (Rubio Mane and remained virtually unchanged since prehis
HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY INYUCATAN: A PRELIMINARYFRAMEWORK 11

panic times. Robert Wauchope (1938) has have been the subject of several studies, most
made an exhaustive study of these dwellings notably those of Garcia Preciat (1944), Trueba
and their related structures. Urbina (1960), Calderon Quijano (1968) and
Piha Chan (1977). The city ofMerida also had,
MilitaryArchitecture(Figure3) in the past, a number of colonial and 19th cen
tury military constructions: city walls, a fort
Most of the fortifications on the peninsula (the ciudadela of San Benito), and several gar
have been well-documented, both historically risons (cuarteles) and powder magazines
and architecturally. The best overall study of (casamatas). Most of these have been de
these structures is that of Garcia Preciat stroyed, but records of them are available
(1944). The most prominent military construc (Garcia Preciat 1944; Novelo Erosa 1950).
tions on the peninsula are themassive colonial Also available are studies on the colonial forts
fortifications of Campeche and Lerma; these of Bacalar (Escalona Ramos 1943; Garcia

GUL F

FIGURE 3. Colonial and 19th Century Fortifications of the Yucatan Peninsula.

 12 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1

Preciat 1944; Messmacher 1966b), Champoton Transportation and Communications

(Garcia Preciat 1944; Calderdn Quijano 1968),
and Sisal (Garcia Preciat (1944), Calderdn There are three studies that cover most as
Quijano (1968), and Civeira Taboada (1968). pects of the history of transport and commun
The latter report includes architectural plans ications in Yucatan (Irabien de Rosado 1928;
of the 19th century fort. Two other garrisons Ferrer de Mendiolea 1946; Suarez Molina
of unknown date (probably colonial) at Tekax 1977). These studies trace the development of
and Sotuta in the state of Yucatan have been road systems (16th century onwards), ports,
reported by Garcia Preciat (1944). Also of in piers, lighthouses and shipping (16th century
terest are the small defensive parapets which onwards), railroads (1850s onwards), airports
were built at certain locations along the north and airlines (1920s onwards), as well as postal,
coast to repel pirate attacks. These are located telegraph and telephone services.
a short distance inland from the coast, near
coastal vigias (lookouts) of the Colonial pe Underwater and Nautical Archaeology
riod. I have located one of these parapets just
south of the port of Chicxulub, and Barrera As inmost other parts of the world, historic
Rubio (1978) reports another in the vicinity of underwater archaeology inYucatan has been
Ixil. Both Chicxulub and Ixil were vigias in dominated by treasure hunters in search of co
Colonial times (Roys 1957:40). According to lonial wrecks. The peninsula is surrounded by
Barrera Rubio (1978), these parapets were shoals and reefs, where hundreds of ships
built in the early 17th century. have run aground over the last four and a half
centuries. Although exploration of colonial
Plantations (Cotton, Sugar and Henequen) wrecks has been extensive, the available liter
ature is fragmentary (cf. Bush Romero 1961,
As noted above, there are a considerable 1964a, 1964b; Marx 1972). Marx (1971a,
number of plantations in northern and western 1971b) has compiled an inventory of colonial
Yucatan. These include 19th century cotton shipwrecks, supplemented with useful histori
and sugar plantations, as well as late 19th and cal data. wrecks have been neglected.
Later
20th century henequen haciendas. While his Although they can often be documented in
torical data on individual plantations are some detail through newspaper accounts, as
scarce, the literature on the rural plantation well as insurance and shipping records, little
economy is considerable. The evolution of the has been done with 19th and 20th century
rural economy of Yucatan has been the sub wrecks.

of several studies, the most informative Yucatan has had a small ship-building in
ject
being those of Cline (1947a), Patch (1975, dustry since colonial times. Known shipyards
1976, 1977) and Suarez Molina (1977). (astilleros) include those of Campeche,
More specific studies on the 19th century Lerma, Champoton, Ciudad del Carmen, Santa
cotton and sugar plantations include those of Clara, and Isla Mujeres. These yards have
Cline (1947a, 1947b, 1948) and Suarez Molina produced a variety of wooden-hulled boats:
small
(1977). The literature on the henequen indus rowboats, dories, fishing sloops,
try is voluminous: for a general introduction I medium-sized ocean-going fishing and shrimp
would recommend the studies of Trujillo boats, and small ferries. This whole industry
(1947), Camara Zavala (1947), Aznar Mendoza has been neglected by historians; a historical
(1947), Cline (1947a, 1948a), Chardon (1961), survey of these shipyards and a chronological
Peon (1966), Gon typology of Yucatecan seacraft is badly
Strickon (1965), Manero
zalez Navarro (1970) and Suarez Molina needed and would be of great value to histori
(1977). cal archaeology.
HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY INYUCATAN: A PRELIMINARYFRAMEWORK 13

Although little has been written about it, the tecan communities (see Community and Re
fishing industry has always been prominent in gional Studies section). Ethnographic reports
Yucatan. The works of Soli's Preciat (1969), often include descriptions of native ritual,
Suarez Molina (1977), and Eaton (1978) do household, and farming implements, many of
contain brief accounts of this industry, but a which have not changed since prehispanic or
more comprehensive study would be very use colonial times. Needless to say, many of these
ful. artifacts turn up at historic sites.
Finally (for general reference purposes), the
above-cited studies of Ferrer de Mendiolea
(1947) and Suarez Molina (1977) contain valu Conclusions
able information on ports, piers, lighthouses
and shipping activities on the coasts of the Our knowledge of Yucatecan culture, from
peninsula.
Formative times to the present, is far more
impressive than that of many other regions of
the world. Still, anthropological research has
Artifacts been the domain of prehispanic archaeologists
and modern ethnographers, and history has
Next to nothing is known about historic arti been a poor cousin, often called upon to rein
facts inYucatan, as archaeologists and collec force archaeological and ethnographic frame
tors alike have been almost exclusively inter works. Hence, while extensive use has been
ested in prehispanic remains. Nonetheless, made of historical materials, the physical re
two general surveys of the craft industry are mains of post-conquest Yucatan have been
available; these contain a fair amount of his largely ignored.
torical information, and should be of use to The primary objective of this paper is to
historical archaeologists (Hernandez Fajardo demonstrate the strong potential for historical
1944; Barrera Vasquez 1979). archaeology in Yucatan and promote an
Early colonial sites have yielded small col awareness of the physical remains and histori
lections of majolica and Spanish olive wares cal materials. Above all, it is a compilation of
but these have not received much analytical sources that can be of use to future research in
attention. The only studies that have dealt historical archaeology in Yucatan, and as
with local colonial ceramics are those of Gog such, is intended mainly as a source of refer
gin (1960, 1968)and Ball (1978) but theyonly ence. The chronological categories and site
identify a few types. In contrast to the situa typology proposed here may not prove en
tion in Yucatan, considerable work has been tirely adequate for subsequent research,
carried out on the colonial ceramics of central though it is hoped that they may serve as a
and northern Mexico. The studies of Florence preliminary framework from which more
and Robert Lister (1969, 1974, 1975, 1976a, complex classification schemes can be de
1976b, 1978), Seifert (1975, 1977), and Lopez veloped.
Cervantes (1976) should be of great value to Not only is there potential for historical
future research in Yucatan. archaeology in Yucatan but there is also an
Three studies of modern Yucatecan pottery urgent, growing need to develop this disci
making are available and provide a good de pline. Many historic sites are presently
scription of the raw materials, techniques and threatened by fast developing changes in the
products of this industry (Rendon 1947; urban and rural landscapes, and unless an in
Thompson 1958; Arnold 1971). terest in these remains develops soon, we may
Another source of information on recent ar lose a valuable portion of the rich cultural
tifacts is the ethnographic literature on Yuca heritage of the region.
 14 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Baqueiro Aduze, Oswaldo

1943 La Ciudad Heroica: Historia de Valladolid.
Iwould like to thank James E. Ayres for his advice and Merida.
assistance in the preparation of this paper. Ronald L.
Barrera Rubio, Alfredo
Michael, Antonio Benavides C. and two anonymous re
1978a Arqueologia e Historia. Novedades de Yucatan,
viewers also offered valuable comments. I am also in
March 19. Merida.
debted to Barbara McClatchie Andrews fordraftingthe 1978b Las de una fortificacion
Trincheras, vestigio del
maps that accompany this paper as well as forher editorial
siglo XVIII. Novedades de Yucatan, February
assistance. 26. Merida.

Barrera VAsquez, Alfredo

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