Year Four Laboratory Manual-2

Fourth Year Physics Laboratory Manual
Department of Physics and Electronics
National University of Lesotho

Contents
I Semester A 1
1 P4500 Latent Heat - Berthelot’s Method 2
1.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 P4503 X-Ray Diffraction 5
2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 P4508 Michelson Interferometer 8
3.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.1 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 P4509 Velocity of Sound in Liquids 17
4.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2.1 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
i
CONTENTS ii
II Semester B 20
5 P4501 Fresnel 21
5.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.1 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.1.1 Brewster’s Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.2.1.2 Variation of Reflectance with Angle of Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6 P4504 Millikan Oil Drop 24
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.3.1 Apparatus Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.3.2 Droplet Viewing Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.3.3 Ionization Lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3.4 Plate-charging Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.4.1 Aligning the Optical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.4.2 Adjusting and Measuring the Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4.3 Determination of temperature within the droplet viewing chamber . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4.4 Determination of droplet radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4.4.1 Introducing the droplets into the chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.4.4.2 Selection of the Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.5.1 Discussions & Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.5.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.6 Laboratory Preliminary Preparation Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CONTENTS iii
7 P4510 Speed of Light Apparatus 34
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.1.1 History of Light Speed Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.1.1.1 Galileo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.1.1.2 Römer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.1.1.3 Fizeau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.1.1.4 Foucault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.2 The Foucalt Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.2.1 A Qualitative Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.2.2 A Quantitative Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.3 The Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.3.1 High Speed Rotating Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.3.2 High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.3.3 Operating the Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.3.4 Measuring Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.3.5 Focusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.3.6 Fixed Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.3.7 Optics Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.3.8 Mini Laser with Bracket and Laser Alignment Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.3.9 Laser Alignment Jigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.3.10 Optical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.4 Setup and Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.4.1 Set Up the Optics Bench and Laser Alignment Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.4.1.1 Laser Alignment Jigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.4.1.2 Align the Rotating Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.4.1.3 Adding the Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

CONTENTS iv
7.4.1.4 Place the Measuring Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.4.1.5 Place the Polarizers on the Optics Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.4.1.6 Focusing the Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4.1.7 Cleaning Up the Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4.1.8 Alignment Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4.1.9 Alignment Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.5 Making the Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.5.1 Important - Protect the Rotating Mirror Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.5.2 Important - Protect Your Eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.5.3 High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.5.4 Record Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.6 Notes on Accuracy and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.6.1 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.6.2 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Part I
Semester A
1
Experiment Number 1
P4500 Latent Heat - Berthelot’s Method
1.1 Theory
1.2 Procedure
One of the main defects of the simple methods applying the principle of mixing of the determination of
latent heats is that condensed liquid that has already given up its latent heat is carried over into the calorime-
ter.This is avoided in Berthelot’s Methods by the use of a steam trap on a separate condenser. Since the
experiment is fairly slow a cooling correction is necessary.
If a mass m of steam at temperature T1 is condensed in a calorimeter of thermal capacity W originally at

temperature T0 , and the temperature rises to T2 , then the latent heat of vaporization is given by formula
which relate the theory. Where
W = mw sw + mc sc + mg sg (1.1)
with sw , sc and sg as the Specific Heats. mw , mc and mg are the Masses of water in the calorimeter and the
copper calorimeter plus stirrer, as well as the glass condenser respectively. Recall similar experiment in
the year one of Physics practicals. The calorimeter will lose heat according to Newton’s Law. State this
law.
Cooling Correction
If a graph of temperature against time is plotted, both while steam is being condensed in the calorimeter
and after the temperature has fallen, the Newton’s Law constant can be determined from the cooling part of
the curve. The graph shows this.
2
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 1. P4500 LATENT HEAT - BERTHELOT’S METHOD 3
Fig. 1.1: Cooling Curve Correction.
δQ δθ
= ms = −kθ (1.2)
δt δt
k
Hence c = ms = δδtθ . The heating part of the curve may then be divided into a number of segments such as
XY at equal time intervals t. The temperature loss is 4θ = Cθ̄ 4t from each segment of the heating curve
and the temperature correction of the sum of the contribution from all such segments, i.e 4T = ∑ 4θ .
N.B The correction will be negative if θ̄ is below θ0 .
1.2.1 Experiment
a) Weigh the calorimeter and stirrer dry and the glass condenser dry (use a hair dryer to dry the condenser
and weigh it in a clean beaker on the balance).
b) Fill the calorimeter three quarter full of cold water and re-weigh. Use the triple balance, as it is too
heavy for Oertling balance. Light the ring burner and adjust its air valve and gas supply so that it
burns with a low blue flame. Introduce some water into the steam trap and make sure that the delivery
pipe is dry.
c) Assemble the apparatus and measure the room temperature θ0 and the initial temperature of the water
T0 . Re-light the burner and record the temperature every minute or half as steam condenses until the
calorimeter reaches a nal temperature of about 35◦C to40◦C, stirring continually. CAUTION:- Do
not let steam trap burn dry!!!. Use diagram shown in Fig. 1.2.
d) Turn o the burner and continue to record the temperature until it has fallen a couple of degrees.
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 1. P4500 LATENT HEAT - BERTHELOT’S METHOD 4
e) Dismantle the apparatus and re-weigh the condenser and its contents (dry the outside carefully) in the
same beaker as before to prevent spillage.
f) From your results estimate the latent heat of water. The boiling point of water can be determined
from a subsidiary measure or from the table if the atmosphere pressure is known. Find atmospheric
pressure from supervisor.
g) From your results estimate the latent heat of vaporization of water.
Apparatus
• Berthelot’s Calorimeter
• Thermometer
• Stop Watch and Digital Oerthling Balance
Fig. 1.2: Latent Heat Apparatus.

Experiment Number 2
P4503 X-Ray Diffraction
2.1 Theory
2.2 Procedure
The Tele-X-ometer is a teaching instrument which enables many X-ray properties to be measured in the
laboratory. In this experiment you are asked to investigate the diraction of X-rays from a Lif crystal. Nor-
mally obtaining X-rays from as single crystal involves careful orientation of the crystal and their detection.
The crystal provided has been cleaved parallel to the(100) faces and then subjected to a mechanical strain
so that the slip bands produced are in a small range of crystal orientation. This means that de ections of the
(n00) family can be observed without precise orientation.
X-rays are detected by a Geiger Tube mounted on the carriage of the Tele-X-ometer. When the carriage is
rotated through an angle 2θ note that the LIF crystal mounted on the center post of the apparatus rotates
through an angle 2θ . Thus the Geiger tube is in a position θ to detect X-rays diffracted according to Bragg’s
Law.
The incident X-ray beam contains the “white” background radiation due to the inverse photoelectric effect
and the Kα and Kβ lines typical of the Cu target atoms. These have wavelengths 0.145 and 0.138nm
respectively. In this experiment the scattered intensity of the X-rays is measured as a function of the Bragg
angle 2θ , the results will depict two adjacent peaks (which repeat themselves). These correspond to the Kα
and Kβ lines respectively.
The sharp peaks are diffraction maxima for the 200 and 400 planes for Cu radiation. From them an estimate
of the lattice constant of the face centered cubic lattice of Lif may be made. The relative intensity of Cu
radiation after ltering through a Ni filter is also investigated.
2.2.1 Experiment
a) Switching on X-rays is dangerous. So a safety circuit prevents the tube being switched unless the
protective lead-glass cover is lowered. Check that the power is set to 30Kv, so that the circular
5
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 2. P4503 X-RAY DIFFRACTION 6
aperture is in place in front of the GM Tube and that when the 2θ scale around the circumference of
the apparatus is at zero, the θ scale on the plane of the crystal support also reads zero. Set the time
switch to 50 minutes. The apparatus will automatically switch o after this point. It may be necessary
to reset this switch during the experiment, Why? Do not switch on the Geiger Tube supply whilst
the lid is open.
b) Measurement:
• Plot the count of X-ray intensity (corrected for background) against Bragg angle 2θ in the range 12◦C
to 120◦C degrees. Use automatic timing facility of the Harris Digi-counter. In the vicinity of the sharp
diraction peaks of the Cu radiation the thumb wheel allows measurement of peak position to be made
0
to 10 of an arc.
• Replace the circular aperture with Ni filter (Tel 564.004) at position 13 and remeasure the peak
intensity of the first Kα and Kβ peaks.
• Prove that the permitted re ections of the (n00) type in a face centered cubic lattice have n even.
• Determine d spacing for the sharp peaks using Bragg’s Law:-
2dsinθ = λ (2.1)
• Using d = a(h2 + k2 + l 2 ), determine the lattice constant a of the cubic unit cell.
• Estimate the minimum wavelength observed in the scattering of the white background radiation and
hence calculate a value for Plank’s constant h.
Apparatus
• Tele-X-Ometer
• Digi-counter Harris
• Accessories
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 2. P4503 X-RAY DIFFRACTION 7
Fig. 2.1: X-Ray Diffraction Apparatus.

Experiment Number 3
P4508 Michelson Interferometer
3.1 Objectives
a) To determine an unknown laser wavelength.
b) To determine the function describing the observed fringes.
c) To perform non-interactive measurement (Bomb Tester).
3.2 Theory
In 1881, 78 years after Young introduced his two-slit experiment, A. A. Michelson designed and built an
interferometer using a similar principle. Originally Michelson designed his interferometer as a means to
test for the existence of the ether, a hypothesized medium in which light propagated. Due in part to his
efforts, the ether is no longer considered a viable hypothesis. But beyond this, Michelson’s interferometer
has become a widely used instrument for measuring the wavelength of light, for using the wavelength of a
known light source to measure extremely small distances, and for investigating optical media.
Fig. 3.1 shows a diagram of a Michelson interferometer. The beam of light from the laser strikes the beam-
splitter, which reflects 50% of the incident light and transmits the other 50%. The incident beam is therefore
split into two beams; one beam is transmitted toward the movable mirror (M1 ), the other is reflected toward
the fixed mirror (M2 ). Both mirrors reflect the light directly back toward the beam-splitter. Half the light
from M1 is reflected from the beam-splitter to the viewing screen and half the light from M2 is transmitted
through the beam-splitter to the viewing screen.
In this way the original beam of light is split, and portions of the resulting beams are brought back together.
Since the beams are from the same source, their phases are highly correlated. When a lens is placed between
the laser source and the beam-splitter, the light ray spreads out, and an interference pattern of dark and bright
rings, or fringes, is seen on the viewing screen (Fig. 3.2). Since the two interfering beams of light were split
from the same initial beam, they were initially in phase. Their relative phase when they meet at any point
8
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 3. P4508 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER 9
Fig. 3.1: Michelson Interferometer.
on the viewing screen, therefore, depends on the difference in the length of their optical paths in reaching
that point. By moving M1 , the path length of one of the beams can be varied.
Fig. 3.2: Fringes.
Since the beam traverses the path between M1 and the beam-splitter twice, moving M1 1/4 wavelength
nearer the beam-splitter will reduce the optical path of that beam by 1/2 wavelength. The interference
pattern will change; the radii of the maxima will be reduced so they now occupy the position of the former
minima. If M1 is moved an additional 1/4 wavelength closer to the beam-splitter, the radii of the maxima
will again be reduced so maxima and minima trade positions, but this new arrangement will be indistin-
guishable from the original pattern. By slowly moving the mirror a measured distance dm , and counting m,
the number of times the fringe pattern is restored to its original state, the wavelength of the light (λ ) can be
calculated as:
2dm
λ = (3.1)
m
If the wavelength of the light is known, the same procedure can be used to measure dm . A one dimensional
slice/cut through the diameter of the circular fringes will be a line with alternating parts of peaks and
troughs. The intensity of these peaks and troughs when plotted resemble a squared Sinc function as shown
in Fig. 3.3.
Fig. 3.3: Fringe slice as a Squared Sinc Function.
That is, the intensity I(x) as a function of position x along the diameter of the fringe pattern can be described
by an equation of the form,
sin(Bx) 2
I(x) = A( ) +C (3.2)
Bx
with A, B, and C as constants to be determined/approximated using the plotted data.
NOTE: Using the Compensator
In Fig. 3.1, notice that one beam passes through the glass of the beam-splitter only once, while the other
beam passes through it three times. If a highly coherent and monochromatic light source is used, such as
a laser, this is no problem. With other light sources this is a problem. The difference in the effective path
length of the separated beams is increased, thereby decreasing the coherence of the beams at the viewing
Fig. 3.4: Counting Fringes.
screen. This will obscure the interference pattern. A compensator is identical to the beam-splitter, but
without the reflective coating. By inserting it in the beam path, as shown in Fig. 3.1, both beams pass
through the same thickness of glass, eliminating this problem.
3.3 Procedure
Accurate Fringe-Counting
The following techniques can help you make accurate measurements.
a) It’s not necessary that your interference pattern be perfectly symmetrical or sharp. As long as you
can clearly distinguish the maxima and minima, you can make accurate measurements.
b) It’s easy to lose track when counting fringes. The following technique can help. Center the inter-
ference pattern on the viewing screen using the thumbscrews on the back of the fixed mirror. Select
a reference line on the millimeter scale and line it up with the boundary between a maxima and a
minima (see Fig. 3.4). Move the micrometer dial until the boundary between the next maximum and
minimum reaches the same position as the original boundary. (The fringe pattern should look the
same as in the original position.) One fringe has gone by.
c) When turning the micrometer dial to count fringes, always turn it one complete revolution before
you start counting, then continue turning it in the same direction while counting. This will almost
entirely eliminate errors due to backlash in the micrometer movement. Backlash is a slight slippage
that always occurs when you reverse the direction of motion in a mechanical instrument. (Turning
the micrometer dial clockwise moves the movable mirror toward the right. Turning the dial counter-
clockwise moves the mirror toward the left.) The PASCO micrometer is designed to minimize back-
lash. However, by using the technique described above, you can practically eliminate all effects of
backlash in your measurements.
d) Always take several readings and average them for greater accuracy.
Laser Beam Alignment
a) Set the interferometer base on a lab table with the micrometer knob pointing toward you.
b) Position the laser alignment bench to the left of the base approximately perpendicular to the interfer-
ometer base and place the laser on the bench.
c) Secure the movable mirror in the recessed hole in the interferometer base.
d) Turn the laser on. Using the leveling screws on the laser bench, adjust its height until the laser beam
is approximately parallel with the top of the interferometer base and strikes the movable mirror in the
center. (To check that the beam is parallel with the base, place a piece of paper in the beam path, with
the edge of the paper flush against the base. Mark the height of the beam on the paper. Using the
piece of paper, check that the beam height is the same at both ends of the bench.)
e) Adjust the X-Y position of the laser until the beam is reflected from the movable mirror right back
into the laser aperture. This is most easily done by gently sliding the rear end of the laser transverse
to the axis of the alignment bench, as shown in Fig. 3.5.
Fig. 3.5: Aligning the Laser Beam.

Experimental Setup and Operation
a) Align the laser and interferometer base as previously described. The laser beam should be approxi-
mately parallel with the top of the base, should strike the center of the movable mirror, and should be
reflected directly back into the laser aperture.
b) Mount the adjustable mirror on the interferometer base. Position one component holder in front of
the laser. Place the other component holder opposite the adjustable mirror and attach the viewing
screen to its magnetic backing. See Fig. 3.6.
Fig. 3.6: Michelson Mode Setup.
c) Position the beam-splitter at a 45 degree angle to the laser beam, within the crop marks, so that the
beam is reflected to the fixed mirror. Adjust the angle of the beam-splitter as needed so that the
reflected beam hits the fixed mirror near its center.
d) There should now be two sets of bright dots on the viewing screen; one set comes from the fixed
mirror and the other comes from the movable mirror. Each set of dots should include a bright dot
with two or more dots of lesser brightness (due to multiple reflections). Adjust the angle of the beam-
splitter again until the two sets of dots are as close together as possible, then tighten the thumbscrew
to secure the beam-splitter.
e) Using the thumbscrews on the back of the adjustable mirror, adjust the mirror’s tilt until the two sets
of dots on the viewing screen coincide.
f) The compensator is not needed for producing interference fringes when using a laser light source.
However, if you wish to use the compensator, it mounts perpendicular to the beam-splitter, as shown.
g) Attach the 18mm FL lens to the magnetic backing of the component holder in front of the laser, as
shown, and adjust its position until the diverging beam is centered on the beam-splitter. You should
now see circular fringes on the viewing screen. If not, carefully adjust the tilt of the adjustable mirror
until the fringes appear.
3.3.1 Experiment
a) Michelson Interferometer Setup
i) If not already done for you, perform an experiment setup as described above.
ii) Ensure that the interference pattern apears on the screen as depicted in Fig. 3.2.
b) Quantum Metrology Experiment
i) Take multiple measurements of the laser beam wavelength

ii) Calculate the mean wavelength
iii) Calculate the standard deviation of the wavelength.
iv) Comment on the measured value and discrepancy in relation to the exact value of 632.8nm.
c) Parameter Estimation Experiment
i) Take a picture (or several pictures) of the fringe shown on the screen (white clear paper).
ii) Copy this picture into Paint application in your computer at home and cut out a rectangular
block as shown in Fig. 3.3.
iii) Open this rectangular block in any image processing tool (i.e. Matlab or Scilab) and calculate
the average intensity I(x)of the vertical pixels for every point along the x axis. Consult your
P4508 instructor for assistance on this part.
iv) Plot the average intensity I(x) against x as shown in Fig. 3.3.
v) Determine the approximate values of A, B, and C (as shown in equation (3.2)) corresponding to
the plot you just made. Use the values to make a plot of equation (3.2) on top of the plot you
just made in the previous step and comment on the similarities and differences of the two plots.
What is the mean squared error between the two graphs?
d) Quantum Bomb Tester Experiment

Consider a bomb that can be triggered by shooting a photon at its receiver. If the photon is absorbed
the bomb explodes but if the photon is not absorbed the bomb doesn’t go off and is deemed a dummy
or malfunctional. As a worker in a bomb manufacturing company (definitely not in Lesotho) you
are given a task of testing each bomb as to whether it is functional or just a dummy without actually
exploding any bomb. This means the experiment you devise should allow you to have a photon
that tells you information about the bomb yet this photon never interacted with the bomb. This is
the essence of interaction-free measurement and it is a feature unique to quantum mechanics. This
feature can be extended to taking images/pictures of things never seen (or interacted with) before. It
is best done with single photon sources which we currently do not have in the department. We will
use a laser beam (many photons not single photon source) to try and reproduce an approximate effect
by following the steps below. Record your measurements in a tabular form as shown in Table 3.1. A
dark room is required for good contrast against background noise.
Trial No Itotal [mV] Imin [mV] I1Open [mV] I2Open [mV]

1
2
3
Table 3.1: Sample results from three measurements. The distance between the detector and the beam
splitter was increased before each subsequent trial. While the table lists the voltages measured from the
photodetector, these are proportional to the intensitites. We have Itot , Imin , I1Open , and I2Open as total laser
intensity, minimum intensity, intensity with arm one open and intensity with arm two open respectively.
i) Replace the viewing screen with a photodetector (i.e. photodiode) or a power meter.
ii) Measure the total intensity (represented as photodiode voltage) of the beams in both arms of the
interferometer. This is done by misaligning the interferometer initially by turning the adjustment
screws of one mirror. Turn until the interference/ring pattern disappears. Now, measure the
voltage on the detector. This voltage only represents half of the overall intensity (50% of the
total light from each arm of the interferometer will be directed back towards the laser), so you
must double this value and record the result in Table 3.1, Column 2 as Itot value.
iii) Now bring back the inteference pattern and adjust it by turning the adjustment screws on the mir-
rors so that a minimum (meaning darkness) exists in the center of an interference pattern/fringe.
iv) The photodiode should now be placed in the center of the interference pattern and the iris di-
aphragm closed as much as possible, so that only a small opening can still be seen. This is to
make sure that only the (interference’s) dark center spot falls onto the photodiode. The voltage
on the photodiode will not reach zero because ambient light can enter and, realistically, a perfect
minimum can usually never be achieved. You can simply accept the value as an offset. Record
this minimum reading as Imin in the table.
v) After recording Imin , block (with hand or book) the laser beam in arm two of the interferometer
and record the measured reading under I1Open in the table.
vi) Unblock arm two beam and block arm one beam of the interferometer. Record the measured
reading under I2Open in the table.
vii) Move the photodetector by at least 10 cm and redo the experiment as Trial 2.
viii) Move the photodetector by at least another 10 cm and redo the experiment as Trial 3.
ix) Write down a quantum mechanical description of the photon’s (its state or wavefunction) jour-
ney from its source (i.e. laser) through the quantum mechanical operators (i.e. beam splitter and
mirrors) until at the observation point (i.e. photodiode or power meter).
x) Explain how interaction-free measurement is possible from your quantum mechanical descrip-
tion and correlate this with your experimental measurements in the table.
xi) If you were given N number of bombs to test, what would be the success rate (fidelity) of the
interaction-free measurement in this experimental setup?
xii) Your analysis must have shown that a fraction of N bombs would be successfully tested without
detonating, another fraction would explode while testing and the last fraction would remain
undetermined. Show that is the undetermined bombs were subjected to retesting until no bomb
is left undetermined, then the total number of successfully tested (without detonating) bombs
would be one-third of the total bombs (i.e. N/3).
xiii) What would happen if constructive inteference was measured rather than the destructive inter-
ference at the center of the pattern? That is, would the interaction-free measurement still be
possible?
xiv) In this experiment, a 50/50 beam splitter was used. Calculate and comment on how the fidelity
can be improved by changing the beam splitter from 50/50 ratio to 90/10 ratio.
e) Bose-Einstein Statistics Discussion
i) Crossing/colliding two laser beams in free space results in no change in any of the incident
beams. That is one beam just passes right through the other beam as if it wasn’t there at all.
Citing Bose-Einstein statistics and Pauli exclusion principle, comment on this strange behaviour
of the two colliding laser beams.
ii) One property of Bose-Einstein matter particles is the coherence (a fixed phase relationship
among all particle waves). Explain how this property is related to there being an interference
fringe/pattern (i.e. wave property/feature) formed on the viewing screen out of a collection of a
bunch of light particles (photons).
Apparatus
• Base
• Laser
• Beam Splitter
• Power Supply
• Lens 18mm FL
• Viewing Screen
• Movable Mirror
• Adjustable Mirror
• Compensator Plate
• Component Holder(s)
• Laser Alignment Bench
• Photodiode/Power Meter
Experiment Number 4
P4509 Velocity of Sound in Liquids
4.1 Theory
With a change 4l in the distance between generator and pick-up from its initial position (relative phase
4φ = 0), the receiver signal phase moves in relation to the transmitter signal by
4l
4φ = 2π (4.1)
λ
When the distance changes further, the signals overlap again for,
4φ = 2πn, n = 1, 2, 3, etc (4.2)
The wavelength can be determined as,
4l 4l
λ = 2π = (4.3)
4φ n
When the sound frequency f is known, the phase velocity c p is given by,
cp = λ f (4.4)
The wavelength λ is obtained from equation (4.3) as a slope of the regression line. The group velocity cg
is obtained from the changes in the sound path 4l and in the delay time 4t as,
4l
cg = (4.5)
4t
Group and phase velocity are interlinked in accordance with,
17
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 4. P4509 VELOCITY OF SOUND IN LIQUIDS 18
dc p
cg = c p − λ (4.6)
dλ
Whenever cg = c p that means dc p /dλ = 0 which in turn translates to saying there is no dispersion.
4.2 Procedure
The sound waves transmitted to a liquid by the Ultrasonic generator are picked up by a piezoelectric ultra-
sonic pickup and the signals from the transmitter and receiver are compared on an oscilloscope.
The wavelength is determined and the phase velocity calculated from the relative phase position of the
signals.
4.2.1 Experiment
Use apparatus shown in Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.1: Velocity of Sound Apparatus.
a) The sound-radiating surface of the generator is wetted with glycerol or water in order to improve the
connection and rests against the wall of the glass cell.
b) In order to avoid stationary waves and multiple echoes through sound reflected, the cell wall opposite
the generator is covered with sound absorbing materials such as foam or crumpled paper.
c) The oscilloscope is triggered internally via channel by the monitoring signal from the ultrasonic
generator.
d) The pick-up and monitor signals are set in phase on the screen by moving the pick-ups and the phase
setting on the generator. The pick-up is moved from this setting and the wavelength determined from
the distance 4l by which it was moved n distance.
e) The measurements made for distilled water, glycerol, and sodium chloride solution are to be per-
formed.
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 4. P4509 VELOCITY OF SOUND IN LIQUIDS 19
Apparatus
• Double Beam Oscilloscope
• Ultrasonic Generator, Pickup and Transmitter Head
• Stand
• Glycerol, Distilled Water and Sodium Chloride

Part II
Semester B
20
Experiment Number 5
P4501 Fresnel
5.1 Theory
5.2 Procedure
The reflection coefficient as function of the angle of incidence depends on the plane of polarization of the
incident light. If the plane is parallel to the plane of incidence, there is an angle of refleection known as
Brewster’s Angle θB for which no light is reflected. Where the polarization are as:
• p = parallel to plane of incidence.
• s = perpendicular to plane of incidence.
In this experiment Brewster’s Angle is measured and the variation of reflection coefficient for the two
planes of polarization discussed above are qualitatively measured. Fresnel’s laws of reflection show that the
fraction of incident light reflected at an angle θ is:
sin(θ − θ 0 )
r= (5.1)
sin(θ + θ 0 )
5.2.1 Experiment
Use illustration shown in Fig. 5.1
21
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 5. P4501 FRESNEL 22
Fig. 5.1: Prism setup and Brewster’s angle.
5.2.1.1 Brewster’s Angle
A prism is clamped on the table of the spectrometer and the spectrometer is focused by Schurter’s Method
and the table is leveled. This prism is placed on the spectrometer table so that one face is over the center of
the table. This face receives a beam of light from the collimator of which the slit is strongly illuminated by
a sodium discharge lamp. Diagram shows that. The light reflected from the surface is plane polarizing the
angle of incidence iB of light at the surface is such that iB = r = 900 .
sin iB sin iB
n= = = tan iB (5.2)
sin r sin ir
Where iB is Brewster’s Angle. The polarizer is placed over the spectrometer telescope objective. The
incident angle i is varied over a range of values. At each setting, i is found at which the minimum light
intensity is as small as possible; corresponding ideally to the reflected light being completely eliminated.
This will be the case when i = iB , the reflected light is placed polarized and eliminated by rotation of the
polarizer to the “crossed” (into the page). The angle i is recorded and the refractive index n is calculated
from n = tan iB and this value is compared with that found for the glass of the prism by minimum deviation
method.
5.2.1.2 Variation of Reflectance with Angle of Incidence
The photocell is now plugged into the spectrometer in place of the eyepiece and connected to the ammeter
for measuring the intensity of light incident upon it. The light is supplied from the constant voltage unit. The
spectrometer is covered with light shield to prevent extraneous light entering the telescope. The reflected
intensity is now found from the graph drawn. The polarizer is now rotated through 900 so that the light
incident on the prism is perpendicular to the plane of incidence and again the reflected intensity is found as
function of the angle of incidence. Note when incident intensity is low the period required for the photocell
to reach equilibrium becomes very minute. As this part of the experiment is qualitative since the photocell
conductance is not strictly linear with incident intensity, a method of reducing observation time should be
used. For example; intensity reading may be recorded after a period of three minutes in each case.
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 5. P4501 FRESNEL 23
5.3 Apparatus
• Spectrometer
• Prism
• Polarizer and Analyzer
• Power Supply
• Digital Meter
Experiment Number 6
P4504 Millikan Oil Drop
6.1 Introduction
The PASCO Millikan Oil Drop Apparatus is designed to conduct the Millikan Oil Drop Experiment where
the electric charge carried by a particle may be calculated by measuring the force experienced by the particle
in an electric field of known strength. Although it is relatively easy to produce a known electric field, the
force exerted by such a field on a particle carrying only one or several excess electrons is very small. For
example, a field of 1000 volts per centimeter (105 volts per meter) would exert a force of only 1.6 × 10−14 N
on a particle bearing one excess electron. This is a force comparable to the gravitational force on a particle
with a mass of 10−12 (one million millionth) gram (10−15 kilogram). The success of the Millikan Oil Drop
experiment depends on the ability to measure forces this small.
The behaviour of small charged droplets of oil, having masses of only 10−12 gram (10−15 kg) or less, is
observed in a gravitational and an electric field. Measuring the velocity of fall of the drop in air enables,
with the use of Stokes’ Law, the calculation of the mass of the drop. The observation of the velocity of the
drop rising in an electric field then permits a calculation of the force on, and hence, the charge carried by
the oil drop.
Although this experiment will allow the total charge on a drop to be measured, it is only through an analysis
of the data obtained and a certain degree of experimental skill that the charge of a single electron can be
determined. By selecting droplets which rise and fall slowly, it will be certain that the drop has a small
number of excess electrons. A number of such drops should be observed and their respective charges
calculated. If the charges on these drops are integral multiples of a certain smallest charge, then this is a
good indication of the atomic nature of electricity.
However, since a different droplet has been used for measuring each charge, there remains the question as
to the effect of the drop itself on the charge. This uncertainty can be eliminated by changing the charge on a
single drop while the drop is under observation. An ionization source placed near the drop will accomplish
this. In fact, it is possible to change the charge on the same drop several times. If the results of measurements
on the same drop then yield charges which are integral multiples of some smallest charge, then this is proof
of the atomic nature of electricity.
24
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 6. P4504 MILLIKAN OIL DROP 25
6.2 Aim
Calculate the radius, a, of the droplet given by:
s 2
b 9ην f b
a= + − (6.1)
2p 2gρ 2p
where ρ is density of oil (kg/m3 ), p is barometric pressure (Pascals), η is viscosity of air (Ns/m2 ), g is
acceleration of gravity (m/s2 ), b is constant, equal to 8.2 × 10−3 Pam, and ν f is velocity of fall (m/s).
6.3 Apparatus
1. Apparatus Platform (Millikan Oil Drop AP-8210A)
2. A, C Adapter, 100 - 240 V AC to 12 V DC, 1.0 A
3. Oil Atomizer
4. Non-volatile mineral oil, with density of approximately 886 kg/m3
5. Power Supply, high voltage, well-regulated, 500 V DC, 10 mA
6. Digital Multi-meter, to measure voltage and resistance
7. 4 Banana plug patch cords
8. Digital Stopwatch (Your Cell phone will do)
9. Micrometer Screw Gauge (0 to 25 mm with 0.01 mm resolution)
10. Barometer (for measuring room pressure)

6.3.1 Apparatus Platform
Fig. 6.1: Millikan Oil Drop AP-8210A.
6.3.2 Droplet Viewing Chamber
Fig. 6.2: Droplet viewing Chamber.

Droplet viewing chamber consists of:
• Lid (clear plastic chamber cover)
• Housing,
• Convex lens (fitted in the housing hole next to the bottom)
• Droplet hole cover
• Upper capacitor plate (brass)
• Plastic spacer (approximately 7.6 mm thick)
• Lower capacitor plate (brass)
• Alpha source, thorium-232, 0.00185 microcuries
• Electrical connection to the upper capacitor plate
6.3.3 Ionization Lever
Fig. 6.3: Ionization Lever.
• When the lever is in the ionization OFF position, the ionization source is rotated away from the area
of the droplets, so virtually no alpha particles enter the area. In this position, the alpha source is
shielded on all sides.
• At the ON position, the ionization source is rotated toward the area of the droplets and the area is
exposed to the ionizing alpha particles from the thorium-232.
• At the SPRAY DROPLET POSITION, the chamber is vented by a small hole that allows air to escape
when oil droplets are being introduced to the chamber.
6.3.4 Plate-charging Switch
Fig. 6.4: Plate-charging switch.
The plate charging switch has three positions:
• TOP PLATE –: negative binding post is connected to the upper capacitor plate.
• TOP PLATE +: negative binding post is connected to the lower capacitor plate.
• PLATES GROUNDED: plates are disconnected from the high voltage supply and are electrically
connected to each other.
6.4 Procedure
6.4.1 Aligning the Optical System
1. Lift the housing straight up from the droplet viewing chamber and put it aside. Whilst leaving behind the
attached upper capacitor plate, plastic spacer and lower capacitor plate as shown in Fig. 6.5.
Fig. 6.5: Viewing chamber.
2. Unscrew the focusing wire from its storage place on the platform (refer to Fig. 6.1 to see where focusing
wire is) and carefully insert it into the hole in the center of the upper capacitor plate as depicted in Fig. 6.5
above.
3. Plug the included AC adapter into a 230 V AC receptacle (electrical plug socket) and connect the cable
to the power jack on the side of the LED light source on the apparatus platform.
4. Turn the brightness adjustment knob on the LED light source to optimize the contrast between the
illuminated pin and the dark background. Bring the reticle into focus by turning the reticle focusing ring on
the viewing scope.
5. View the focusing wire through the viewing scope and bring the wire into sharp focus by turning the
droplet focusing ring. NOTE: Viewing will be easier for experimenters who wear glasses if the viewing
scope is focused without using the glasses.
6. Once the wire is in sharp focus it means that when the droplets are introduced into the viewing chamber
will be easily seen. So return the focusing wire to its storage location on the apparatus platform.
7. Replace the viewing chamber housing by ensuring that the housing pins (refer to Fig. 6.2 to see housing
pins) properly fit into it.
8. Put on the lid cover over the housing.
6.4.2 Adjusting and Measuring the Voltage
1. Connect the high voltage (500 V DC) power supply to the plate voltage connectors using banana plug
patch cords.
2. Adjust the voltage to deliver about 500 V DC (it must not beyond 500 V please). Use the digital multi-
meter to measure the voltage delivered to the plate voltage connectors.
6.4.3 Determination of temperature within the droplet viewing chamber
1. Connect the multi-meter to the thermistor connectors on the platform (refer to figure to see thermistor
connectors) in order to measure the resistance of the thermistor that is embedded in the lower capacitor
plate.
2. Refer to the Thermistor Resistance Table located on the platform to find the temperature of the lower
brass capacitor plate. The measured temperature corresponds to the temperature inside the droplet viewing
chamber.
NOTE: The temperature inside the droplet viewing chamber should be determined periodically (about every
fifteen minutes).
6.4.4 Determination of droplet radius
1. Remove the lid of the housing (Fig. 6.2) and place the droplet hole cover on the upper capacitor plate.
NOTE: The droplet hole cover has a hole in one side and a hole in the bottom. The hole in the bottom lines
up with the small hole in the center of the upper capacitor plate.
The droplet hole cover prevents additional droplets from entering the chamber once the experiment has
started.
2. Then return the lid on the housing.
3. Measure and record the plate voltage and the thermistor resistance (hence obtain temperature of the
droplet viewing chamber).
6.4.4.1 Introducing the droplets into the chamber
1. Move the ionization source lever to the “SPRAY DROPLET POSITION” to allow air to escape from the
chamber during the introduction of droplets into the chamber.
2. Place the tip of the atomizer into the hole on the lid (shown in Fig. 6.2) of the droplet viewing chamber.
3. While observing through the viewing scope, squeeze the atomizer bulb with one quick squeeze. Then
squeeze it slowly to force the droplets through the hole in the droplet hole cover, so that they go through
the droplet entry hole in the upper capacitor plate, and then into the viewing area space between the two
capacitor plates.
3. When you see a shower of drops through the viewing scope, move the ionization source lever to the
‘OFF’ position.
NOTE: The exact technique of introducing droplets will need to be developed by the experimenter. The
objective is to get a small number of drops, not a large, bright cloud from which a single drop can be
chosen.
If the entire viewing area becomes filled with droplets so that no one drop can be selected, either wait three
or four minutes until the droplets settle out of view, or turn off the DC power supply and disassemble the
droplet viewing chamber, thus removing the droplets.
Remember that the droplets are being forced into the viewing area by the pressure of the atomizer. Exces-
sive pumping of the atomizer can cause too many droplets to be forced into the viewing area and, more
importantly, into the area between the chamber wall and the focal point of the viewing scope. Drops in this
area prevent observations of drops at the focal point of the scope.
6.4.4.2 Selection of the Droplet
1. From the drops in view, select a droplet that both falls slowly (about 0.02 to 0.05 mm/s) when the plate
charging switch is in the “Plates Grounded” position, and can also be driven up and down by turning the
plate charging switch to “TOP PLATE –” or “TOP PLATE +”.
2. Switch between these three positions on the plate charging switch to select such droplet.
HINT: A droplet that requires about 15 seconds to fall the distance between the major reticle lines (0.5 mm)
of the viewing scope will rise the same distance, under the influence of an electric field (1000 V/cm) in the
following times with the following charges:
Time (s) Excess Electron

15 1
7 2
3 3
NOTE: If too many droplets are in view, you can clear out many of them by turning the plate charging
switch to “TOP PLATE –” (connecting power to the capacitor plates) for several seconds.
If too few droplets have net charges to permit the selection of an appropriately sized and charged drop,
move the ionization source lever to the ON position for about five seconds.
3. When you find an appropriately sized and charged oil droplet, fine tune the focus of the viewing scope.
NOTE: The oil droplet is in best focus for accurate data collection when it appears as a pinpoint of bright
light.
4. Turn the brightness adjustment knob (see Fig. 6.1) on the light to optimize the contrast between the
illuminated drop and the dark background.
5. Measure the fall velocity (when the plates are not charged) about 10 to 20 times. Maneuver the droplet
up and down as needed using the plate charging switch.
NOTE: The greatest accuracy of measurement is achieved if you time from the instant that the bright
pinpoint of light passes behind the first major reticle line to the instant that the pinpoint of light passes
behind the second major reticle line. (These reticle lines are 0.5 mm apart.)
6. Calculate the radius of the droplet, also estimate and propagate the associated uncertainty/error.
6.5 Questions
6.5.1 Discussions & Comments
a) When the oil drops are sprayed into the volume, they are already electrically charged. What process
gives them their charge?
b) Why do some droplets move up and others down?
c) Were your results on the number of electrons always integers? If not, can you explain why?
d) What were the sources of uncertainty? How could you improve your results?
6.5.2 Conclusion
a) Does your value agree within uncertainty with expected value of e = 1.6 × 10−19C?
b) State in % how far is your value away from the expected value of “e”.
c) What is the largest source of uncertainty?
d) Where can you apply the knowledge gained in the modern world?
6.6 Laboratory Preliminary Preparation Work
• The radius r. To get around this, we use stokes law.
• At terminal velocity, this is equal to the weight of the drop, mg = 6πηrν.
• Remember: η is the viscocity of air, ν is the terminal velocity of the oil drop.
1
ηνt 2
• After substituting in the weight from the earlier expression and a bit of algebra we get, r = 9 2(ρoil −ρair )g .
• You will notice that we can now measure all quantities easily. Think about how you could mesure
terminal velocity.
• We can now substitute for r in our original equation nd obtain a value for q.
Experiment Number 7
P4510 Speed of Light Apparatus
7.1 Introduction
The velocity of light in free space is one of the most important and intriguing constants of nature. Whether
the light comes from a laser on a desk top or from a star that is hurtling away at fantastic speeds, if you
measure the velocity of the light, you measure the same constant value. In more precise terminology, the
velocity of light is independent of the relative velocities of the light source and the observer. Furthermore,
as Einstein first presented in his Special Theory of Relativity, the speed of light is critically important in
some surprising ways. In particular,
a) The velocity of light establishes an upper limit to the velocity that may be imparted to any object
b) Objects moving near the velocity of light follow a set of physical laws drastically different, not only
from Newton’s Laws, but from the basic assumptions of human intuition.
With this in mind, it’s not surprising that a great deal of time and effort has been invested in measuring the
speed of light. Some of the most accurate measurements were made by Albert Michelson between 1926
and 1929 using methods very similar to those you will be using with the PASCO Speed of Light Apparatus.
Michelson measured the velocity of light in air to be 2.99712 × 108 m/s. From this result he deduced the
velocity in free space to be 2.99796 × 108 m/s. But Michelson was by no means the first to concern himself
with this measurement. His work was built on a history of ever-improving methodology.
7.1.1 History of Light Speed Measurement
7.1.1.1 Galileo
Through much of history, those few who thought to speculate on the velocity of light considered it to be
infinite. One of the first to question this assumption was the great Italian physicist Galileo Galilei, who
34
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 7. P4510 SPEED OF LIGHT APPARATUS 35
suggested a method for actually measuring the speed of light. The method was simple. Two people, call
them A and B, take covered lanterns to the tops of hills that are separated by a distance of about a mile.
First A uncovers her lantern. As soon as B sees A’s light, she uncovers her own lantern. By measuring the
time from when A uncovers her lantern until A sees B’s light, then dividing this time by twice the distance
between the hill tops, the speed of light can be determined. However, the speed of light being what it is, and
human reaction times being what they are, Galileo was able to determine only that the speed of light was
far greater than could be measured using his procedure. Although Galileo was unable to provide even an
approximate value for the speed of light, his experiment set the stage for later attempts. It also introduced
an important point: to measure great velocities accurately, the measurements must be made over a long
distance
7.1.1.2 Römer
The first successful measurement of the velocity of light was provided by the Danish astronomer Olaf
Römer in 1675. Römer based his measurement on observations of the eclipses of one of the moons of
Jupiter. As this moon orbits Jupiter, there is a period of time when Jupiter lies between it and the Earth,
and blocks it from view. Römer noticed that the duration of these eclipses was shorter when the Earth was
moving toward Jupiter than when the Earth was moving away. He correctly interpreted this phenomena
as resulting from the finite speed of light. Geometrically the moon is always behind Jupiter for the same
period of time during each eclipse. Suppose, however, that the Earth is moving away from Jupiter. An
astronomer on Earth catches his last glimpse of the moon, not at the instant the moon moves behind Jupiter,
but only after the last bit of unblocked light from the moon reaches his eyes. There is a similar delay as the
moon moves out from behind Jupiter but, since the Earth has moved farther away, the light must now travel
a longer distance to reach the astronomer. The astronomer therefore sees an eclipse that lasts longer than
the actual geometrical eclipse. Similarly, when the Earth is moving toward Jupiter, the astronomer sees an
eclipse that lasts a shorter interval of time. From observations of these eclipses over many years, Römer
calculated the speed of light to be 2.1 × 108 m/s. This value is approximately one-third too slow due to an
inaccurate knowledge at that time of the distances involved. Nevertheless, Römer’s method provided clear
evidence that the velocity of light was not infinite, and gave a reasonable estimate of its true value - not bad
for 1675.
7.1.1.3 Fizeau
The French scientist Armand Hippolyte Fizeau, in 1849, developed an ingenious method for measuring the
speed of light over terrestrial distances. He used a rapidly revolving cogwheel in front of a light source to
deliver the light to a distant mirror in discrete pulses. The mirror reflected these pulses back toward the
cogwheel. Depending on the position of the cogwheel when a pulse returned, it would either block the
pulse of light or pass it through to an observer. Fizeau measured the rates of cogwheel rotation that allowed
observation of the returning pulses for carefully measured distances between the cogwheel and the mirror.
Using this method, Fizeau measured the speed of light to be 3.15 × 108 m/s. This is within a few percent of
the currently accepted value
Fig. 7.1: Diagram of the Foucault Method.
7.1.1.4 Foucault
Léon Foucault improved Fizeau’s method, using a rotating mirror instead of a rotating cogwheel. (Since
this is the method you will use in this experiment, the details will be discussed in considerable detail in
the next section). As mentioned, Michelson used Foucault’s method to produce some remarkably accurate
measurements of the velocity of light. The best of these measurements gave a velocity of 2.99774×108 m/s.
This may be compared to the presently accepted value of 2.99792458 × 108 m/s.
7.2 The Foucalt Method
7.2.1 A Qualitative Description
In this experiment, you will use a method for measuring the speed of light that is basically the same as that
developed by Foucault in 1862. A diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 7.1, above.
With all the equipment properly aligned and with the rotating mirror stationary, the optical path is as follows.
The parallel beam of light from the laser is focused to a point image at point s by lens L1 . Lens L2 is
positioned so that the image point at s is reflected from the rotating mirror MR , and is focused onto the
fixed, spherical mirror MF . The fixed mirror, MF , reflects the light back along the same path to again focus
the image at point s.
In order that the reflected point image can be viewed through the measuring microscope, a beam splitter is
placed in the optical path, so a reflected image of the returning light is also formed at point s0 . Now, suppose
MR is rotated slightly so that the reflected beam strikes MF at a different point. Because of the spherical
shape of MF , the beam will still be reflected directly back toward MR . The return image of the source point
will still be formed at points s and s0 . The only significant difference in rotating MR by a slight amount is
that the point of reflection on MF changes. Now imagine that MR is rotating continuously at a very high
speed. In this case, the return image of the source point will no longer be formed at points s and s0 . This is
because, with MR rotating, a light pulse that travels from MR to MF and back finds MR at a different angle
when it returns than when it was first reflected. As will be shown in the following derivation, by measuring
the displacement of the image point caused by the rotation of MR , the velocity of light can be determined.
7.2.2 A Quantitative Description
In order to use the Foucault method to measure the speed of light, it’s necessary to determine a precise
relationship between the speed of light and the displacement of the image point. Of course, other variables
of the experimental setup also affect the displacement. These include:
• the rate of rotation of MR .
• the distance between MR and MF .
• the magnification of L2 , which depends on the focal length of L2 and also on the distances between
L2 , L1 , and MF .
Each of these variables will show up in the final expression that is derived for the speed of light. To begin
the derivation, consider a beam of light leaving the laser. It follows the path described in the qualitative
description above. That is, first the beam is focused to a point at s, then reflected from MR to MF , and back
to MR . The beam then returns through the beam splitter, and is refocused to a point at point s0 where it can
be viewed through the microscope. This beam of light is reflected from a particular point on MF . As the
first step in the derivation, we must determine how the point of reflection on MF relates to the rotational
angle of MR . Fig. 7.2 (a) shows the path of the beam of light, from the laser to MF , when MR is at an angle
θ . In this case, the angle of incidence of the light path as it strikes MR is also θ and, since the angle of
incidence equals the angle of reflection, the angle between the incident and reflected rays is just 2θ . As
shown in the diagram, the pulse of light strikes MF at a point that we have labeled S. Fig. 7.2 (b) shows the
path of the pulse of light if it leaves the laser at a slightly later time, when MR is at an angle θ1 = θ + 4θ .
The angle of incidence is now equal to θ1 = θ + 4θ , so that the angle between the incident and reflected
rays is just 2θ1 = 2(θ + 4θ ). This time we label the point where the pulse strikes MF as S1 . If we define D
as the distance between MF and MR , then the distance between S and S1 can be calculated:
S1 − S = D (2θ1 − 2θ ) = D [2 (θ + 4θ ) − 2θ ] = 2D4θ (7.1)

Fig. 7.2: The Reflection Point on MF .
In the next step in the derivation, it is helpful to think of a single, very quick pulse of light leaving the laser.
Suppose MR is rotating, and this pulse of light strikes MR when it is at angle θ , as in Fig. 7.2 (a). The pulse
will then be reflected to point S on MF . However, by the time the pulse returns to MR , MR will have rotated
to a new angle, say angle θ1 . If MR had not been rotating, but had remained stationary, this returning pulse
of light would be refocused at point S. Clearly, since MR is now in a different position, the light pulse will
be refocused at a different point. We must now determine where that new point will be. The situation is very
much like that shown in Fig. 7.2 (b), with one important difference: the beam of light that is returning to
MR is coming from point S on MF , instead of from point S1 . To make the situation simpler, it is convenient
to remove the confusion of the rotating mirror and the beam splitter by looking at the virtual images of the
beam path, as shown in Fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.3: Analyzing the Virtual Images.

The critical geometry of the virtual images is the same as for the reflected images. Looking at the virtual
images, the problem becomes a simple application of thin lens optics. With MR at angle θ1 , point S1 is on
the focal axis of lens L2 . Point S is in the focal plane of lens L2 , but it is a distance 4S = S1 − S away from
the focal axis. From thin lens theory, we know that an object of height 4S in the focal plane of L2 will
be focused in the plane of point s with a height of (−i/o)4S. Here i and o are the distances of the lens
from the image and object, respectively, and the minus sign corresponds to the inversion of the image. As
shown in Fig. 7.3, reflection from the beam splitter forms a similar image of the same height. Therefore,
ignoring the minus sign since we aren’t concerned that the image is inverted, we can write an expression
for the displacement (4s0 ) of the image point:

0 i A
4s = 4s = 4S = 4S (7.2)
o D+B
Combining equations (7.1) and (7.2), and noting that 4S = S1 − S, the displacement of the image point
relates to the initial and secondary positions of MR by the formula:
2DA4θ
4s0 = (7.3)
D+B
The angle 4θ depends on the rotational velocity of MR and on the time it takes the light pulse to travel back
and forth between the mirrors MR and MF , a distance of 2D. The equation for this relationship is:
2Dω
4θ = (7.4)
c
where c is the speed of light and ω is the rotational velocity of the mirror in radians per second. (2D/c
is the time it takes the light pulse to travel from MR to MF and back.) Using equation (7.4) to replace in
equation (7.3) gives:
4AD2 ω
4s0 = (7.5)
c(D + B)
Equation (7.5) can be rearranged to provide our final equation for the speed of light:
4AD2 ω
c= (7.6)
(D + B)4s0
where: c is the speed of light, ω is the rotational velocity of the rotating mirror (MR ), A is the distance
between lens L2 and lens L1 , minus the focal length of L1 , B is the distance between lens L2 and the rotating
mirror (MR ), D is the distance between the rotating mirror (MR ) and the fixed mirror (MF ) and 4s0 is the
displacement of the image point, as viewed through the microscope. (4s0 = s1 − s; where s is the position
of the image point when the rotating mirror (MR ) is stationary, and s1 is the position of the image point
when the rotating mirror is rotating with angular velocity ω.) Equation (7.6) was derived on the assumption
that the image point is the result of a single, short pulse of light from the laser. But, looking back at
equations (7.1) through (7.4), the displacement of the image point depends only on the difference in the
angular position of MR in the time it takes for the light to travel between the mirrors. The displacement
does not depend on the specific mirror angles for any given pulse. If we think of the continuous laser beam
as a series of infinitely small pulses, the image due to each pulse will be displaced by the same amount.
All these images displaced by the same amount will, of course, result in a single image. By measuring the
displacement of this image, the rate of rotation of MR , and the relevant distances between components, the
speed of light can be measured.
7.3 The Equipment
7.3.1 High Speed Rotating Mirror
The High Speed Rotating Mirror connects to the High Speed Rotating Controller, which has a power supply
and a digital display. The mirror is flat to within one-quarter wavelength. The mirror shaft is supported on
high speed ball bearings and is mounted in a protective, removable housing. The mirror is driven by a
small motor with a drive belt. A thumbscrew in the base can be used to hold the mirror in place during the
alignment process. An optical decoder on the drive wheel and the digital display on the controller provide
measurements of mirror rotation to within 0.1% or one revolution per second.
Fig. 7.4: High Speed Rotating Mirror.
7.3.2 High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller
The High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller has a digital display of the mirror’s rotational speed in rev-
olutions per second, a slide switch for OFF-ON, two control buttons (DIRECTION and START/STOP),
two green light emitting diode (LED) indicators for direction of rotation (CW - clockwise - and CCW -
counterclockwise), and a third yellow LED indicator for maximum speed (MAX SPEED).
Fig. 7.5: High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller.
At the top end of the Controller are three ports for connecting the High Speed Rotating Mirror and the
power supply for the controller.
Fig. 7.6: Controller Connectors.
Each cable that plugs into the controller has a unique number of pins so that the cables cannot be connected
incorrectly.
7.3.3 Operating the Controller
The Controller can make the High Speed Rotating Mirror rotate in two directions and at two different speeds
(750 rev/s and 1500 rev/s).
• When the slide switch is at the ON position, one of the direction indicator green LEDs will light up
and begin to blink. The digital display will show “0” as the speed.
• Press the DIRECTION control button to switch to the other direction. The other green LED will
blink.
• Press the START/STOP control button to cause the High Speed Rotating Mirror to begin rotating.
The digital display will show “750” as the speed. The green direction indicator LED will continue to
blink as the mirror speeds up, and then the LED will shine continuously when the mirror reaches the
indicated speed.
• Press the START/STOP control button again to cause the mirror to stop rotating.
• To achieve the maximum speed, first press the START/STOP control button and let the mirror speed
up to the “750” speed, as indicated by the green LED shining continuously. Then, press and HOLD
the START/STOP button. The digital display will show “1500”, the yellow ‘MAX SPEED’ LED will
shine continuously, and the green direction indicator LED will blink until the mirror reaches the
indicated speed.
• When the green LED shines continuously, release the START/STOP button. The mirror will continue
to rotate at the maximum speed until you press the START/STOP button again to stop the rotation.
• WARNING: The High Speed Rotating Mirror is designed to rotate at maximum speed for a limited
time. When the yellow LED starts blinking, the controller is nearing automatic shutoff.
• If all three LEDs are blinking, the motor current is too high and the controller will automatically shut
down. There will be a ‘cool down’ time of about one minute before the unit can be used again.
CAUTION: Before turning on the High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller, carefully read the cautionary
notes in the section titled Making the Measurement.
7.3.4 Measuring Microscope
The Measuring Microscope has a 90 power (90X) microscope mounted in a microscope holder. The holder
is mounted in a movable micrometer stage just underneath the top of the micrometer housing. The stage
can be moved back-and-forth using the micrometer knob. Beneath the micrometer is a knob that is mounted
on the shaft of the beam splitter. The beam splitter holds the half-silvered mirror that splits the laser beam.
When the knob is straight down, the beam splitter mirror is at a forty-five degree angle. Measurements are
made by using the micrometer to move the microscope so that the image point is visually centered on the
microscope cross-hairs before and after the displacement of the point that occurs when the rotating mirror
reaches full speed. By noting the change in the micrometer settings, the displacement, 4s0 can be resolved
to within 0.005 millimeters.
Fig. 7.7: Measuring Microscope.
7.3.5 Focusing
To focus the microscope cross-hairs, slide the eyepiece up or down in the microscope. To focus the mi-
croscope, loosen the locking thumbscrew on the microscope holder and slide the microscope up or down
within the holder. When the locking thumbscrew is loosened, the microscope can also be removed from the
microscope holder. This can be helpful when you are trying to locate the image point. A piece of tissue
paper placed other the opening of the microscope holder provides a screen that allows you to view the point
without focusing the microscope.
7.3.6 Fixed Mirror
The Fixed Mirror is a spherical mirror with a radius of curvature of 13.5 meters. It is mounted on a platform
and has two separate x and y adjustment screws on the back.
Fig. 7.8: Fixed Mirror, Back View.

7.3.7 Optics Bench
The one meter Optics Bench provides a flat, level surface for aligning the optical components. The bench is
equipped with a one meter scale on one side, four leveling screws, and a magnetic top surface. The “fence”,
a raised edge on the back of the bench, provides a guide for aligning components along the optical axis.
Fig. 7.9: Optics Bench.
7.3.8 Mini Laser with Bracket and Laser Alignment Bench
The 0.5 milliwatt, T EM00 mode, random polarization laser has an output wavelength of 632.8 nanometers.
The Bracket comes with hardware for mounting the mini laser. The Laser Alignment Bench attaches to
the Optics Bench at one end for precise position of the laser. Optics Bench Couplers are included with the
Laser Alignment Bench.
Fig. 7.10: Mini Laser and Bracket.
7.3.9 Laser Alignment Jigs
The Laser Alignment Jigs mount magnetically to the Optics Bench. Each has a 2mm diameter hole that is
used to align the laser beam.
7.3.10 Optical Components
The lenses, calibrated polarizers and component holders are described in the Setup and Alignment section
of the manual.
7.4 Setup and Alignment
The following setup and alignment procedure is designed for those using the Complete Speed of Light
Apparatus. For those using only some of the components in the system, the general procedure is the same,
although the details depend on the optical components used.
IMPORTANT: Proper alignment is critical, not only for getting good results, but for getting any results at
all. Please follow this setup and alignment procedure carefully. Allow yourself about three hours to do it
properly the first time. Once you have set up the equipment a few times, you may find that the alignment
summary at the end of this section is a helpful guide
For reference as you set up the equipment, Fig. 7.11 shows the approximate positioning of the components
with respect to the metric scale on the side of the Optics Bench. The exact placement of each component
depends on the position of the Fixed Mirror (MF ) and must be determined by following the steps of the
alignment procedure described below.
Fig. 7.11: Equipment Setup and Alignment.
7.4.1 Set Up the Optics Bench and Laser Alignment Bench
1. Place the Optics Bench on a flat, level surface.
2. Use the Optics Bench Couplers and the provided screws to connect the Optics Bench end-to-end with the
Laser Alignment Bench as shown in Fig. 7.12. Do not tighten the screws holding the Bench Couplers yet.
Fig. 7.12: Optics Bench & Laser Alignment Bench.
Note: The leveling screws must be removed from the end of the Optics Bench and from the end of the Laser
Alignment Bench to attach the Bench Couplers. Two of the removed leveling screws are then inserted into
the threaded holes in the Bench Couplers and are used for leveling (see Fig. 7.12). Save the other two
screws. All component holders, the Measuring Microscope, and the High Speed Rotating Mirror Assembly
should be mounted flush against the “fence” of the Optics Bench. This will insure that all components are
mounted at right angles to the beam axis.
3. Mount the Mini Laser on its bracket and place the bracket and laser on the Laser Alignment Bench.
7.4.1.1 Laser Alignment Jigs
4. Mount the High Speed Rotating Mirror on the opposite end of the bench from the laser. Be sure that the
base of the mirror assembly is flush against the fence of the bench.
5. Align the front edge of the mirror assembly with the 17cm mark on the metric scale of the Optics Bench.
The laser must be aligned so that the beam strikes the center of the Rotating Mirror (MR ). Two alignment
jigs are provided for this purpose.
Fig. 7.13: Using the Alignment Jigs to Align the Laser.

6. Place one jig at each end of the Optics Bench as shown in Fig. 7.13, with the edges of the jigs flush with
the fence on the bench. When properly placed, the holes in the jigs define a straight line that is parallel to
the axis of the Optics Bench.
7. Turn on the laser.
8. Adjust the position of the front of the laser so the beam passes directly through the hole in the first
alignment jig. Use the two front leveling screws to adjust the height. Adjust the position of the laser on the
Laser Alignment Bench to adjust the lateral position. Next, adjust the height and position of the rear of the
laser so the beam passes directly through the hole in the second alignment jig.
CAUTION: Do not look into the laser beam, either directly or as it reflects from any surfaces. Also, when
arranging the equipment, be sure that the beam does not cross an area where someone might accidentally
look into the beam.
9. To fix the laser in position with respect to the Optics Bench, tighten the screws on the Optics Bench
Couplers. Be sure to recheck the alignment of the laser beam and adjust if necessary.
7.4.1.2 Align the Rotating Mirror
The Rotating Mirror, MR , must be aligned so that its axis of rotation is vertical and also perpendicular to
the laser beam. In other words, the mirror surface will be at right angles to the laser beam. The Rotating
Mirror assembly is covered by a mirror housing that is held in place by two thumb nuts (see Fig. 7.4).
10. Unscrew and remove the two thumb nuts on the top of the mirror housing. Carefully remove the mirror
housing. The Rotating Mirror is driven by a high speed belt that goes around a pulley mounted underneath
the motor. To the left of the Rotating Mirror assembly is an oblong slot, an edge of the pulley can be seen
by looking down through the oblong slot. The slot provides access for you to rotate the pulley and thereby
align the Rotating Mirror.
Fig. 7.14: Rotating Mirror with Housing Removed
11. Remove the second laser alignment jig (closest to the Rotating Mirror). Use a finger to rotate the pulley
and turn the mirror so that the laser beam reflects from the surface of the Rotating Mirror back through the
hole in the first alignment jig.
12. Carefully tighten the locking thumbscrew so that it holds the pulley in place.
CAUTION: Do not over-tighten the thumbscrew in order to avoid warping the pulley.
Fig. 7.15: Positioning and Aligning L1 .
7.4.1.3 Adding the Lenses
13. Remove the first laser alignment jig.
14. Mount the 48 mm focal length lens (L1 ) on one of the Component Holders. Place the Component
Holder on the Optics Bench so that the center line of the holder is aligned with the 93.0 cm mark on the
metric scale of the bench.
15. Without letting the Component Holder move, slide L1 up, down, or sideways as needed to center the
laser beam on the surface of the Rotating Mirror (MR ).
NOTE: The lens will spread the laser beam slightly at the position of the Rotating Mirror.
16. Mount the f252 mm focal length lens (L2 ) on a second Component Holder. Place the Component Holder
on the Optics Bench so that the center line of the holder is aligned with the 62.2 cm mark on the metric
scale.
17. As for L1 , hold the Component Holder and adjust L2 up, down, or sideways as needed to center the laser
beam again on the surface of the Rotating Mirror, MR .
7.4.1.4 Place the Measuring Microscope
18. Mount the Measuring Microscope on the Optics Bench so that the edge of the Microscope Housing is
flush with the fence on the bench. Position the Measuring Microscope so that its left edge is aligned with
the 82.0 cm mark on the metric scale on the bench (see Fig. 7.11). The side of the Microscope Housing with
the Micrometer and the Beam Splitter Knob should be on the same side as the metric scale of the Optics
Bench.
19. Position the Beam Splitter Knob so that is points directly down. The beam splitter will slightly alter the
position of the laser beam.
CAUTION: Do not look through the Measuring Microscope until the polarizers have been placed between
the laser and the beam splitter mirror in a later step.
20. Readjust lens L2 on its Component Holder so that the laser beam is again centered on the Rotating
Mirror, MR .
Position the Fixed Mirror 21. Place the Fixed Mirror (MF ) between 2 and 15 meters from the Rotating
Mirror (MR ) as shown in Fig. 7.16. The angle between the axis of the Optics Bench and a line from MR to
MF should be approximately 12 degrees.
NOTE: If the angle between the axis of the Optics Bench and the line between the mirrors is greater than
20 degrees, the reflected beam will be blocked by the Rotating Mirror enclosure.
Fig. 7.16: Positioning the Fixed Mirror, MF .
22. Make sure that the Fixed Mirror is not on the same side of the Optics Bench as the Micrometer so you
will be able to make the measurements without blocking the laser beam.
NOTE: Best results are obtained when the Fixed Mirror (MF ) is 10 to 15 meters from the Rotating Mirror
(MR ). See the Notes on Accuracy section later in the manual.
23. Loosen the locking thumbscrew on the High Speed Rotating Mirror. Turn the rotating mirror MR
slightly so that the laser beam is reflected toward the fixed mirror MF . Re-tighten the locking thumbscrew
to hold MR in place.
NOTE: Place a piece of paper in the beam path and “walk” the beam toward MF , adjusting the rotation of
MR as needed.
24. Adjust the position of MF so the beam strikes it approximately in the center. Again, a piece of paper in
the beam path will make the beam easier to see.
25. With a piece of paper still against the surface of MF , slide L2 back and forth along the Optics Bench to
focus the beam to the smallest possible point on MF .
26. Adjust the two thumbscrews on the back of MF so that the beam is reflected directly back to the center of
the Rotating Mirror, MR . This step is best performed with two people: one adjusting MF , and one watching
the beam position on MR .
27. Return the sound enclosure to the rotating mirror.
7.4.1.5 Place the Polarizers on the Optics Bench
28. Place a Calibrated Polarizer on each side of a Component Holder and mount the Component Holder
with the two polarizers on the Optics Bench between the laser and L1 .
29. Begin with the polarizers at right angles to each other. While looking through the microscope, rotate
one polarizer until the image is bright enough to view comfortably.
NOTE: There are several things to try if you can’t find the point image.
• Vary the tilt of the beam splitter slightly (no more than a few degrees) and turn the micrometer knob
to vary the position of the microscope until the image comes into view.
• Loosen the lock-screw on the Microscope Holder and remove the Microscope temporarily as shown
in Fig. 7.17. Place a piece of tissue paper over the top of the Microscope Holder to locate the beam.
Adjust the beam splitter angle and the micrometer knob to center the point image in the tube of the
Microscope Holder.
• Slide the Measuring Microscope a centimeter or so in either direction along the axis of the Optics
Bench. Be sure that the Measuring Microscope stays flush against the fence of the Optics Bench.
Fig. 7.17: Looking for the Beam Image.

If these steps don’t work, recheck the alignment, beginning with step 1.
7.4.1.6 Focusing the Microscope
30. Bring the cross-hairs of the Microscope into focus by sliding the eyepiece up and down.
31. To focus the Microscope, loosen the lock screw on the Microscope Holder and slide the entire micro-
scope up and down.
NOTE: If the apparatus is properly aligned, you will see the point image of the laser beam through the
Microscope.
32. Focus the Microscope until the image is as sharp as possible.
IMPORTANT: In addition to the point image, you may also see interference fringes through the microscope
resulting, for example, from reflection of the laser beam from L1 . To be sure that you are observing the
correct point image, place an opaque piece of paper between MR and MF while you watch the point image
in the Microscope. If the point image does not disappear, it is not the correct image.
7.4.1.7 Cleaning Up the Image
In addition to the point image, you may also see interference fringes through the microscope (as well as the
extraneous beam images mentioned above). These fringes cause no difficulty as long as the point image
is clearly visible. However, the fringes and extraneous beam images can sometimes be removed without
losing the point image.
33. Clean up the point image by turning L2 slightly askew, so it is no longer quite at a right angle to the
beam axis (see Fig. 7.18).
Fig. 7.18: Turning L1 Slightly Askew.
7.4.1.8 Alignment Summary
(See Fig. 7.11 for approximate component placement.) This summary is for those who are familiar with
the equipment and the experiment, and just need a quick reminder of the steps in the alignment procedure.
If you have not successfully aligned the apparatus before, it is recommended that you take the time to go
through the detailed procedure in the previous section.
1. Use the alignment jigs to align the laser beam so that it strikes the center of MR .
2. Adjust the rotational axis of MR so it is perpendicular to the beam (i.e., as MR rotates, there must be a
position at which it reflects the laser beam directly back to the laser aperture).
3. Insert L1 to focus the laser beam to a point. Adjust L1 so the beam is still centered on MR .
4. Insert L2 and adjust it so the beam is still centered on MR .
5. Place the Measuring Microscope in position and, again, be sure that the beam is still centered on MR .
6. Position MF at the chosen distance from MR (between 2 and 15 meters) so the reflected image from MR
strikes the center of MF .
7. Adjust the position of L1 to focus the beam to a point on MF .
8. Adjust MF so the beam is reflected directly back onto MR .
9. Insert the polarizers between the laser and the beam splitter.
10. Focus the microscope on the image point.
11. Remove the polarizers.
7.4.1.9 Alignment Hints
Once you have the microscope focused, it may still be difficult to obtain a good image point. There may be
several other lights visible in the microscope besides the image reflected from the fixed mirror.
The most common of these are stray interference patterns. These are caused by multiple reflections from
the surfaces of the lenses, and may be ignored. If necessary, you may be able to eliminate them by angling
the lenses 1–2◦ . Stray image points are most often caused by reflections off the lens in front of the rotating
mirror housing. To determine which image point is the one you must measure, block the beam path between
the rotating mirror and the fixed mirror. The relevant image point will disappear. If the image point that
you need to measure is significantly off-center, you can move it by adjusting the angle of the beam splitter.
Another common problem is an image that is “stretched” with no easily discernible maxima. Check first
to make sure that this is the image that is needed by blocking the beam path between the moving and fixed
mirrors. If it is, then twist L2 slightly until the image coalesces into a single spot.
Once the mirror begins to rotate, it is safe to look into the microscope without the polarizers. With the mirror
rotating, you will notice that the carefully aligned pattern has changed: now the entire field is covered with
a random interference pattern, and there is a bright band down the center of the field. Ignore the interference
pattern; it can’t be avoided. The bright band is the image of the laser when, once each rotation, the mirror
reflects it into the microscope beam splitter. This is also unavoidable. The actual image point will probably
be just to one side of the bright band. Check for it by blocking and unblocking the beam path between the
rotating mirror and fixed mirror and watching to see what disappears. If everything is aligned perfectly, the
image point will be hidden by the bright band; in this case, make sure that there is an image point when the
rotating mirror is fixed and is reflecting the laser to the fixed mirror. If there is a correct image point under
stationary conditions, then misalign the fixed mirror MF very slightly (0.004◦ or less) around the horizontal
axis. This will bring the actual image point out from within the bright band.
7.5 Making the Measurement
The speed of light measurement is made by rotating the mirror at a high speed and using the microscope
and micrometer to measure the corresponding deflection of the image point away from its position when the
rotating mirror was stationary. By rotating the mirror first in one direction, then in the opposite direction,
the total beam deflection is doubled, thereby doubling the accuracy of the measurement.
7.5.1 Important - Protect the Rotating Mirror Assembly
Before using the High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller to make the mirror rotate, be sure that the locking
thumbscrew for the rotating mirror is completely loosened so the mirror can rotate freely.
7.5.2 Important - Protect Your Eyes
Remove the Component Holder with the two Calibrated Polarizers, but do not look into the microscope if
the rotating mirror is not rotating. If the mirror is rotating, it is safe to look into the microscope.
7.5.3 High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller
• If the slide switch on the controller is moved to the ON position, the digital display will show “0” and
the green LED next to ‘CW’ will blink.
• When the START/STOP control button is pressed, the rotating mirror starts rotating. The ‘CW’
LED will blink until the mirror reaches 750 revolutions per second, and then the LED will shine
continuously. Wait until this happens before adjusting the speed to maximum.
• When the START/STOP control button is pressed and held, the yellow LED next to ‘MAX SPEED’
will begin to shine and the digital display will show “1500”. Release the START/STOP control button.
The green LED will blink until the mirror speed reaches 1500 revolutions per second and then the
green LED will shine continuously.
• Press the START/STOP button again to stop the motor.

7.5.4 Record Data
1. Use the controller to start the mirror rotating in the clockwise (CW) direction at 750 revolutions per
second.
2. Check that the image point is in sharp focus. Adjust the microscope and L2 if necessary to improve the
image.
3. While watching through the microscope, use the controller to increase the speed of rotation to MAX
SPEED, and note how the image point deflection increases.
4. When the rotation speed stabilizes, turn the micrometer knob on the Measuring Microscope to align
the center of the beam image with the cross hair in the microscope that is perpendicular to the direction of
deflection.
5. Record the micrometer reading as s0cw (clockwise).
6. Use the controller to stop the mirror rotating.
CAUTION: Do not look through the microscope when the laser is on and the mirror is not rotating.
NOTE: When the direction of the micrometer knob is reversed, there will always be some movement of the
micrometer knob before the stage responds. This error is small and it can be eliminated. Before reversing
the direction of rotation of the mirror, turn the knob slightly to adjust the initial position of the micrometer
stage. For the next measurement, turn the micrometer knob in the same direction as you adjusted it.
7. Use the DIRECTION control button to select CCW.
8. Press the START/STOP controller button to start the mirror rotating in the counterclockwise direction at
750 revolutions per second.
9. While watching through the microscope, use the controller to increase the speed of rotation to MAX
SPEED, and note now the image point deflects in the opposite direction.
10. When the rotation speed stabilizes, turn the micrometer knob to align the center of the beam image with
the cross hair in the microscope as before,
11. Record the micrometer reading as s0ccw (counter-clockwise).
12. User the controller to stop the mirror rotating.
NOTES:
• When the mirror is rotated at MAX SPEED, the image point will widen in the direction of displace-
ment. Position the microscope cross-hair in the center of the resulting image.
• The micrometer on the Measuring Microscope is graduated in increments of 0.01 mm for the beam
deflections.
The following equation was derived earlier in the manual:
4AD2 ω
c= (7.7)
(D + B)4s0
where: c is the speed of light, ω is the rotational velocity of the rotating mirror (MR ), A is the distance
between lens L2 and lens L1 , minus the focal length of L1 , B is the distance between lens L2 and the rotating
mirror (MR ), D is the distance between the rotating mirror (MR ) and the fixed mirror (MF ) and 4s0 is the
displacement of the image point, as viewed through the microscope. (4s0 = s1 − s; where s is the position
of the image point when the rotating mirror (MR ) is stationary, and s1 is the position of the image point
when the rotating mirror is rotating with angular velocity ω.)
When adjusted to fit the parameters just measured, it becomes:
8πAD2 (Rev/scw + Rev/sccw )

c= (7.8)
(D + B)(s0cw − s0ccw )
Use this equation, along with Fig. 7.1: Diagram of the Foucault Method, to calculate c, the speed of light.
NOTE: The following equation is the same as the original equation (7.6), but with two differences. The
rotational speed is expressed in rad/s, and the CCW rotational speed will be a negative number, indicating
the direction of rotation.
4AD2 (ωcw − ωccw )

c= (7.9)
(D + B)(s0cw − s0ccw )
7.6 Notes on Accuracy and Maintenance
7.6.1 Accuracy
Precise alignment of the optical components and careful measurement are, of course, essential for an ac-
curate measurement using this equipment. Beyond this, the main factor affecting accuracy is the distance
between the fixed and rotating mirrors. As mentioned in the alignment procedure, the optimum distance
between MR and MF is from 10 to 15 meters. Within this range, accuracy of 5% is readily obtainable. If
space is a problem, the distance between the mirrors can be reduced to as little as 1 meter and proportional
reduction in accuracy will result. In general, longer distances provide greater accuracy. The rotating mirror,
MR , rotates farther as the light travels between the mirrors, and the image deflection is correspondingly
greater. Greater deflections reduce the percentage of measurement error. However, the optical components
are designed for optimal focusing of the image point at 13.5 meters (this is the radius of curvature of MF ).
Image focusing is not a significant problem as long as the distance between the mirrors is within about 15
meters. At larger distances the intensity and focus of the image point begins to drop, and measurement and
alignment are hampered. Typical sample data taken in our lab gives values for c that are within 1.5 − 2.5%
of accepted values.
7.6.2 Maintenance
Regular maintenance for this equipment is minimal. The mirrors and lenses should be cleaned periodically.
IMPORTANT: The lenses may be cleaned with lens tissue, but do not use lens tissue on the spherical mirror
(MF ). It has a delicate aluminized front surface and should only be cleaned with alcohol and a soft cloth.
Do not use any cleaning compound that contains ammonia because the ammonia will attack the aluminum
surface. If problems arise with the rotating mirror assembly, such as a broken drive belt, notify PASCO
scientific. We do not recommend that you attempt to fix this equipment yourself.

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Fourth Year Physics Laboratory Manual

Department of Physics and Electronics

National University of Lesotho

1 P4500 Latent Heat - Berthelot’s Method 2

2 P4503 X-Ray Diffraction 5

3 P4508 Michelson Interferometer 8

4 P4509 Velocity of Sound in Liquids 17

5.2.1.1 Brewster’s Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5.2.1.2 Variation of Reflectance with Angle of Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

6 P4504 Millikan Oil Drop 24

6.3.1 Apparatus Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6.3.2 Droplet Viewing Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6.3.3 Ionization Lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

6.3.4 Plate-charging Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

6.4.1 Aligning the Optical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

6.4.2 Adjusting and Measuring the Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6.4.3 Determination of temperature within the droplet viewing chamber . . . . . . . . . 29

6.4.4 Determination of droplet radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6.4.4.1 Introducing the droplets into the chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6.4.4.2 Selection of the Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6.5.1 Discussions & Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6.6 Laboratory Preliminary Preparation Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

7 P4510 Speed of Light Apparatus 34

7.1.1 History of Light Speed Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

7.2 The Foucalt Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

7.2.1 A Qualitative Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

7.2.2 A Quantitative Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

7.3 The Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7.3.1 High Speed Rotating Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7.3.2 High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7.3.3 Operating the Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

7.3.4 Measuring Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7.3.6 Fixed Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

7.3.7 Optics Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

7.3.8 Mini Laser with Bracket and Laser Alignment Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

7.3.9 Laser Alignment Jigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

7.3.10 Optical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7.4 Setup and Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7.4.1 Set Up the Optics Bench and Laser Alignment Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7.4.1.1 Laser Alignment Jigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7.4.1.2 Align the Rotating Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.4.1.3 Adding the Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7.4.1.4 Place the Measuring Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7.4.1.5 Place the Polarizers on the Optics Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

7.4.1.6 Focusing the Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

7.4.1.7 Cleaning Up the Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

7.4.1.8 Alignment Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

7.4.1.9 Alignment Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

7.5 Making the Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

7.5.1 Important - Protect the Rotating Mirror Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

7.5.2 Important - Protect Your Eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

7.5.3 High Speed Rotating Mirror Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

7.5.4 Record Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

7.6 Notes on Accuracy and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

P4500 Latent Heat - Berthelot’s Method

If a mass m of steam at temperature T1 is condensed in a calorimeter of thermal capacity W originally at

Fig. 1.1: Cooling Curve Correction.

N.B The correction will be negative if θ̄ is below θ0 .

g) From your results estimate the latent heat of vaporization of water.

• Stop Watch and Digital Oerthling Balance

Fig. 1.2: Latent Heat Apparatus.

P4503 X-Ray Diffraction

• Determine d spacing for the sharp peaks using Bragg’s Law:-