PRELIMS

Definition of Terms in Police Photography

ACETIC ACID- A rarely mild acid used, in highly diluted from, as the rinse bath (shortstop)
which follows the developer in the normal film and paper developing processes. The acid in
vinegar.

ADAPTER RINGS- Narrow metal rings, threaded on the outside to fit most popular lens, and
threaded on the inside to accept accessories of other than normal lens diameter. Step-up rings
adapt a lens for used with larger-than-normal accessories; step-down rings permit the use of
slightly smaller accessories than the lens will normally accept.

ADJECTABLE CAMERA- A camera with manually adjustable distance settings, lens opening;
and/or shutter speeds.

AGITATION- The process of stirring, swirling, or otherwise causing a liquid to move freely over
the surface during processing. Agitation helps to speed and achieve even development and
prevent spotting or staining.

ANGLE OF VIEW- The portion of scene that is covered through a camera lens. The width of
this wedge-shaped portion is determined by the focal length of the lens. A wide-angle (short-
focal-length) or telephoto (long-focal-length) lens.

APERTURE- The opening in a diaphragm of lens through which light passes, expressed as a
fraction of the focal length. The f/number.

APERTURE PRIORITY- A camera feature that lets you select the desired aperture, and the
camera sets the shutter speed for proper exposure. When you change the aperture or when the
light level changes, the shutter speed changes accordingly.

AUTOFOCUS- The camera focuses automatically on the subject in the center of the viewfinder
when you press the shutter release.

AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE (AE)- A system whereby the camera selects and sets an exposure
based on prevailing conditions without intervention by the photographer.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT- Any light other than produced by the nature (sun, moon, stars,
phosphorescence, etc.). Electric lights are the principal artificial light source in photography.

AVAILABLE LIGHT- The light condition which the photographer finds existing at the subject
position. The term usually implies an indoor or nighttime light condition of low intensity
requiring fast film, large lens aperture, and slow shutter speed.

AVAILABLE LIGHT PHOTOGRAPH - Photography without supplementary illumination even

under poor lightning conditions.

B-(BULB)- A marked setting on most shutter which permits the shutter to be held open for an
indefinite period by continued pressure on the shutter release.

BACK- That portion of a camera which contains the film: specially, the complete assembly
attached to the rear standard view camera (and usually removable) which includes the focusing
screen and which accepts the film holders.

BACK LIGHT- Illumination from a source beyond the subject, as seen from the camera
position, which tends to silhouette the subject, also called Back Lighting.

BASE- The transparent sheet material, usually acetate or polyester, upon which film emulsion
is coated.
BASEBOARD- The large, flat board, usually plywood, to which the enlarger column is
attached, and on which the enlarger easel is normally placed.

BASE FOG- Any uniform fog produced when an exposed emulsion is developed.

BASE-PLUS-FOG-DENSITY- The density of an unexposed area of a developed film (negative

or positive).

BELLOWS- The center section of a view camera which connects the front and back standards.
The bellows is usually made of leather, cloth, or plastic, is accordion-pleated for flexibility and
is, of course, light tight.

BELLOWS EXTENSION- A term often used to refer either to the total bellows length or to the
additional extension of the bellows (beyond that required for infinity focus) necessary for
focusing at close subject distance.

BELLOWS EXTENSION FACTOR- A number (multiplier) indicating the exposure increase

required for correct exposure.

BETWEEN-THE-LENS-SHUTTER- A shutter designed to operate in a space between the

elements of the lens.

BLIND- An emulsion not sensitive to certain colors; color blind.

BLUE-SENSITIVE- The sensitivity of an ordinary silver emulsion; red and green blind.

BOUNCE FLASH- Directing light from a flash gun toward a ceiling, wall or other large
reflecting surface to obtain the contrasts softening effect of a diffused light source spread over
a larger area of the subject.

BOUNCE LIGHT- Light reflected onto the subject from surrounding surfaces rather than
directly on the subject.

BRACKET- To make a number of exposures (some greater and some less than one considered
to be normal) in addition to the “normal” one, with the intent of getting one near-perfect
exposure.

BURNING-IN- The process of allowing some relatively small image area to receive more than
the normal exposure by shielding most of the printing paper surface from the light.

BURNED-OUT- Describes an area of the print image in which highlight detail has not been
recorded, usually because of severe overexposure of the negative.

CABLE RELEASE- A flexible outer casing containing a stiff wire which can be attached to the
shutter release on a camera. Depressing the plunger at the end of the wire release the shutter
while minimizing risk of camera movement during exposure.

CAMERA MOVEMENTS- Adjustments typically provided on technical and view cameras to (1)
enable the optical axis of the lens to be displaced relative to the center of the image while
keeping the axis perpendicular to the image plane. (2) Position the lens plane and image plane
at an angle to each other (swings and tilts). These adjustments may be provided as a swing
front lens panel or a hinged camera back (swing back) or both. They are used for control of
perspective and sharpness distribution in the image plane.

CHEMICAL FOG- Fog on negatives or prints appearing, during development, in the unexposed
areas.

CLEAR- The appearance of a negative after the fixing bath has removed all visible traces of
undeveloped silver halide.

CLEARING TIME- The length of time required to clear a negative. It depends on the strength,
temperature, and agitation of the fixing bath and the kind of emulsion being used.
CLOSE-UP- Photograph made of an object to show greater detail. A photograph made with a
reproduction ratio greater than 1:10.

CLOSE-UP-LENS- A positive supplementary lens which, when placed over a camera lens,
shortens its focal length and thereby permits closer-than- normal focusing.

CLOSE-UP PHOTOGRAPHY- The techniques and practice of using supplementary lenses,

extension tubes, bellows units, etc. to make pictures at closer ranges than the normal focusing
adjustment of an ordinary hand-camera will allow. Refers to image magnification ratios of up to
perhaps, 2x, and therefore overlaps “Photomacrography”.

COLOR BALANCE- The ability of a film to reproduce the colors of a scene. Color films are
balanced in manufacture for exposure to light of a certain color quality; daylight, tungsten, etc.
Color balance also refers to the reproduction of colors in color prints, which can be altered
during the printing process.

COLOR BLIND- Descriptive of the partial or total inability to recognize of distinguish chromatic
emulsion is sensitive only to blue, violet, and ultraviolet light.

COLOR HEAD- An enlarger light source containing adjustable dichroic filters which can be set
to provide light of any color for color printing.

COLOR TEMPERATUE- A numerical rating given to the color qualities of a light source.
Expressed in degrees Kelvin. The lower the color temperature, the greater the ratio of
yellow/red light. Daylight is considered to be 5000-5500 degrees Kelvin.

COMPLEMENTARY COLORS- Any two colors in the subtractive system which, when mixed in
the proper proportion, produce black or dark neutral gray, in the additive system, any two
colors whose mixture results in white light.

CONCAVE- Hallowed out. The side of spherical surface seen from the center of the sphere.

CONDENSER ENLARGER- An enlarger with sharp, undiffused light that produces high
contrast and high definition in a print. Scratches and blemishes in the negative are emphasized.

CONTACT PAPER- Relatively slow development paper for making positives by contact printing.

CONTACT PRINTING- A method of printing in which the negative is placed in contact with
the printing paper, emulsion to emulsion, and held in that position in a printing frame. The
exposure is made by exposing the frame to raw light so that the paper emulsion is exposed by
light passing through the negative densities.

CONTINUOUS TONE- Describes an image containing a gradation of grays as well as black

and white extremes.

CONTRAST- The difference in tones from the lightest to the darkest areas of negatives and
positives.

CONTRAST GRADE- A number or descriptive term assigned to a particular printing emulsion

which identifies its contrast characteristic. In the rage from zero through five, a normal contrast
paper is usually considered to be two, with the lower contrast. Printing filters for the use with
variable contrast papers are numbered similarly. In some cases low contrast is indicated by the
term “soft” while high contrast papers are labeled “hard”.

CONTRASTY- Higher than normal contrast. The rage of density in a negative or print is higher
than it was in the original scene.

CONVERTER- An optical unit which can be interposed between the camera body and lens to
effectively double or triple the lens focal length; usually, but not always, with some loss of
image quality, an always with a substantial loss of lens speed. Sometimes called an Extender.
COPY- To reproduce via photography. An original which is subjected to photographic
reproduction.

COVERAGE- The area of the image (formed by a lens) which is of useful quality. Also, the area
of the subject which the lens can record as an image of useful quality

CROPPING- Printing only part of the image that is in the negative or slide.

CROSS-LIGHT- Light striking the subject from one side.

CURTAIN SHUTTER- A shutter variety in which split or opening in a strip of metal or cloth is
made to travel part the film surface to effect the exposure.

CURVATURE OF FIELD- The tendency of a simple lens to form its image on a spherical,
rather than flat, plane.

DARK SLIDE- The black plastic or fiber sheet which is inserted into a FILM HOLDER through a
light tight slot to seal the film chamber against light.

DAYLIGHT- Sunlight or skylight or any mixture of the two. For the purposes of color
photography, daylight is considered to have a color temperature of from about 5500deree K. to
6000 degrees K. and this condition is likely to exist when the sun is high and slightly overcast.
Under other conditions the color of daylight is likely to be quite different from the “norm” and
must be filtered if “normal” color rendition is desired.

DENSE- Descriptive of a negative which is dark overall or of an area of a negative which has a
heavy sliver deposit ant therefore transmits only a little light.

DENSITOMETER- An instrument designed to measure the amount of light transmitted by

individual small areas of negative, thus appraising the density of the areas.

DENSITY RANGE- The range of densities represented by, for example, a negative image. It is
found by subtracting the lowest density value from the highest, and is expressed numerically.
DEPTH OF FIELD- The region of acceptable sharp focus around the subject position,
extending toward the camera and away from it, from the plane of sharpest focus. The
boundaries of the depth of field are referred to as the neat limit and the far limit. Depth of field
depends on the lens opening, the focal length of the lens, an the distance from the lens to the
subject.

DEPTH OF FIELD D SCALE- A calibrated scale, ring of chart, often a part of the camera lens
mount, on which the depth of field for any distance and aperture setting is indicated.

DEPTH OF FOCUS- The distance range over which the film could be shifted at the film plane
inside the camera and still have the subject appear in sharp focus; often misused to mean
depth of field.

DEVELOPER- Chemical solution used to covert a latent image to a visible image. Converts
exposed silver halide into metallic silver.

DEVELOPMENT- The process of chemically treating a photographic material to produce a

visible image. Sometimes used to include the fixing and washing operations.

DEVELOPMENT FOG- Fog formed by the partial development of unexposed grains of

emulsion; caused by developing the sensitized material under unsuitable conditions.

DIAPHRAGM- The assembly of thin metal leaves, usually incorporated into the lens barrel or
shutter assembly, which can be adjust to control the size of the lens aperture.

DICHROIC FILTER- A filter, usually of glass coated with a thin film of some durable material,
which has the unique ability to transmit certain color while reflecting the rest of the spectrum.
Because the transmitted and reflected colors complementary the filter appears to change color
in certain lights, hence the “dichroic”. Dichroic filters are highly resistant to heat and fading and
are therefore especially suitable fir use in color printing applications.

DIFFUSER- Any light-scattering medium placed in the path of a beam of light to soften its
character, such as matt white reflectors behind or frosted or opal glass in front of the light
source.

DIFFUSION- The scattering of light in all direction by reflection from a rough surface or
passage through a translucent medium.

DIFFUSION CONDENSER ENLARGER- An enlarger that combines diffuse light with a

condenser system, producing more contrast and sharper detail than a diffusion enlarger but less
contrast and blemish emphasis than a condenser enlarger.

DIFFUSION ENLARGER- An enlarger that scatters light before it strikes the negative,
distributing light evenly on the negative. Details is not as sharp as with a condenser enlarger;
negative blemishes are minimized.

DIOPTER- An optician’s term which identifies the power of a lens. It expresses the reciprocal
of the lens focal length in meter and is usually preceded by a plus or minus sign to indicate
whether the lens id positive (converging) or negative (diverging). Thus, a close up (positive)
lens having a focal length of 50 cm (1/2 meters) would be labeled a +2 lens.

DISTORTION- Sometimes referred to as linear distortion or curvilinear distortion, it is an

aberration of the lens which is characterized by variable magnification of the image area and
will cause straight lines near the edges of the subject field to be formed near the image
margins as curved lines. Two forms are identified, Pincushion and Barrel distortion.

DODGE- To shade a portion of a print during exposure.

DODING- Holding back the image forming light from a part of the image projected on a
enlarger easel during the part of the basic exposure time to make that area of the print lighter.

DOUBLE EXPOSURE- Two pictures taken on one frame of film, or two images printed on one
piece of photographic paper.

DRY-MOUNTING – A method of mounting print on cardboard or similar sheet materials. Dry-

mounting tissue placed between the print and mount on board is softened by the heat of a dry-
mounting press effect on the bond.

DRY-MOUNTING PRESS- A machine for dry-mounting prints. It has a large flat metal
pressure plate which can apply uniform pressure and thermostatically controlled heat on the
prints to be mounted.

DRY_MOUNTING TISSUE- A thin tissue paper impregnated with shellac or some similar
material, which, when heated sufficiently, softens to become an effective adhesive for paper.

DX CODE- A system of encoding ISO speeds onto 35mm film cassettes. A DX coded camera
can read the code and set the film speed automatically.

EASEL- A device to hold photographic paper flat during exposure, usually equipped with an
adjustable metal mask for framing.

EMULSION- a thin coating of light-sensitive material, usually silver halide in gelatin, in which
the image is formed on film and photographic papers.

EMULSION SIDE- The side of the film coated with emulsion. In contact-printing and
enlarging, the emulsion side of the film - dull side - should fact the emulsion side of the photo
paper – shiny side.

ENLARGEMENT- A print that is larger than the negative or slide blowup.

ENLARGER- A device consisting a light source, a negative holder, and a lens, and the means
of adjusting these to project an enlarged image from a negative onto a sheet of photographic
paper.

EXHAUSTION- Inactive state of a solution caused by depletion of its chemical components.

EXISTING LIGHT- Available light. Strictly speaking, existing light covers all natural lighting
from moonlight to sunshine. For photographic purposes, existing light is the light that is already
on the scene or project and includes room lamps, fluorescent lamps, spotlights, neon sign,
candles, daylight through window s outdoor scenes at twilight or in moonlight, and scenes
artificially illuminated after dark.

EXPOSE- To subject a material to the action of light.

EXPOSURE- The quantity of light allowed to act on a photographic material; a product of the
intensity (controlled by the lens opening) and the duration (controlled by the shutter speed or
enlarging time) of light striking the film or paper.

EXPOSURE DETERMINATION- Measuring or estimating the brightness of the parts or the

whole of a subject by exposure meters.

EXPOSURE FACTOR- Figure by which the exposure indicated for an average subject and/or
processing should be multiplied to allow for non-average conditions. Usually applied to filters,
sometimes to lightning or processing.

EXPOSURE INDEX- Number assigned to a photographic material. Based on emulsion speed

and latitude exposure meter characteristics and technique, and proposed conditions of
processing. Used to determine the appropriate exposure under different lighting condition when
using correspondingly calibrated exposure meters. It is identical with the working speed of the
material as specified by international standards.

EXPOSURE LATITUDE- The range of camera exposures, from underexposure to

overexposure, that will produce acceptable pictures from a specific film.

EXPOSURE METER- An instrument with a light-sensitive cell that measures the light reflected
from or falling on a subject; used as an aid to selecting the exposure the exposure setting. The
same as a light meter.

EXPOSURE SETTING- The lens opening plus shutter speed selected to expose the film.

EXTENSION TUBE- Hollow tube with male and female lens from the film plane in close-up
photography.

FACTOR- A number by which the duration or effect of some action or process must, for reason
be multiplied.

FAST- A term used to describe lenses of large relative aperture or films of high sensitive.
Sometimes also applied to unusually sensitive papers.

FILM- A photographic emulsion coated on a flexible, transparent, plastic base.

FILM HOLDER- Thin container of plastic, metal, or wood, usually black, designed to hold two
sheets of film in separate compartments, back to back.

FILM SPEED- The sensitivity of a given film to light, indicated by a number such as ISO 200;
the higher the number, the more sensitive or faster the film.

FILTER FACTOR- The number by which an exposure given through a filter must be multiplied
to compensate for the absorption of light by the filter.
FIX- To make the film insensitive to further exposure to light, usually by bathing the emulsion
with a solution containing Hypo or some other effective silver halide solvent. Such a solution is
called a fixing bath.

FIXING BATH- A solution that removes any light sensitive silver halide crystals not acted upon
by lights or developer, leaving a black-and-white negative or print unalterable by further action
of light.

FLASH- A brief, intense burst of light from a flashbulb or an electronic flash unit, usually used
where the lightning on the scene is inadequate for picture taking.

FLAT- Too low in contrast. The range in density in a negative or print is too short.

FOCAL LENGTH- The distance from the optical center of the lens to its focused image, when
the lens is focused at infinity.

FOCAL PLANE- Plane through the principal focus of a lens and perpendicular to its optical axis.
To record a sharp image the emulsion surface of the film in a camera must be positioned in the
focal plane of the taking lens. That plane in the camera where the sharply focused image is
formed.

FOCUS- To adjust the lens/image plane separation to obtain a sharp image of an object at a
specified distance in front of the camera.

FOGGING- Darkening or discoloring of a negative or print or lightning or discoloring of a slide

caused by; (1) exposure to non-image forming light to which the photographic material is
sensitive, (2) too much handling in air during development, (3) over-development, (4) outdated
film or pa[re, or (5) storage of film or paper in a hot, humid place.

f/STOP- The numerical expression of the aperture diameter of a lens as a fraction of the focal
length. Number indicating the light-passing power of a lens.

GRAIN- The visible granular texture of the silver image, caused by apparent clumping of the
individual silver particles, viewed under magnification.

GRAININESS- The sand like granular appearance of a negative, print, or slide resulting from
the clumping of silver grains during development of the film. Graininess becomes more
pronounced with faster film, increased density in the negative, and degree of enlargement.

GRAY CARD- A card of known reflectance, usually 18 percent, intended to b e placed in the
subject area and used as a meter target in the determination of exposure. Also used in color
photography to establish a neutral reference for the adjustment of print color.

GRAY SCALE- The gradation of an image. A strip of film or paper displaying individually
uniform area of density ranging from light to dark in a series of steps. Also sometimes called
step tables, they are used in testing the sensitivity and contrast characteristics of photographic
materials.

GUIDE NUMBER- Figure allocated to a light source, usually flash, representing the product of
lens aperture and light-to-subject distance required for correct exposure under average
conditions using a specified photographic material.

HYPO- The common name for sodium thiosulfate, also used by photographers when speaking
of the complete fixing bath.

ILLUMINATION- The distribution of light from one or more sources over the subject being
photographed and over the surface of the sensitive material.

IMAGE- The photographic representation of the subject photographed. The visible result of
exposing and developing a photographic emulsion.
INCIDENT LIGHT- The light reaching the subject from any and all sources.

INCIDENT LIGHT METER- Exposure meter designed to integrate the light reaching it over a
very wide acceptance angle and used to measure the light intensity falling on a scene rather
than that reflected from it. The usual form is a photoelectric meter with a diffusing screen or
cone over the face of the cell. It is pointed toward the camera from the subject position.

INFINITY- In photography, lens setting position on the focusing scale of a camera (inclined by
the symbol of a lazy eight) which results in a sharp image of distant objects.

INVERSE SQUARE LAW- A statement to the effect that “illumination intensity on a surface
will vary inversely with the square of the distance from the light source to the illuminated
surface”.

ISO- International Standards Organization. An organization whose major purpose is to gather,

correlates, and standardizes information about photographic material, processes, and
equipment. In 1974 the ISO adopted a standard for determining film speeds that, in effect,
combined out existing ASA system with the German DIN system. ISO film speeds, as presently
used in this country, include both, so that, for example, Plus-X film is now rated ISO 125.22º -
the degree sign indicating the DIN logarithmic value.

ISO EXPOSURE INDEX- A numerical value assigned to film by the international Standards
Organization to indicate its speed and for use in computing correct exposure.

LATENT IMAGE- The invisible impression on the sensitized emulsion produced by exposure to
light in the development-out processes. Development converts the latent image to a visible one.

LEAF SHUTTER- A type of shutter, usually operating in the space between the major lens
components or immediately behind the lens, which consists of a number of then metal leaves or
blades, arranged concentrically around the lens axis, pivoted so that they can either form an
opening for the passage of light or overlap to block it.

LENS SPEED- Maximum light-transmitting power of a lens. The term is often used when
referring to the maximum working aperture of a lens (its smallest f number).

LIGHTING TENT- Enclosure of translucent material inside of which subjects such as glass,
silverware and jewelry are sometimes photographed, the camera lens projecting through a hole
in one wall. Light entering the tent is so diffused that it is substantially shadowless and there is
no reflected image of the camera from polished surfaces.

LIGHT METER- An instrument which measures light intensity. If supplied with a scale
computing scale, it becomes an exposure meter. The term is commonly used interchangeable
with exposure meter. See Exposure.

LIGHT TIGHT- Describes a container, room or space which light cannot enter or leave, or a
door or baffle or aperture which light cannot penetrate.

LINE NEGATIVE- Negative consisting of two tones only, clear transparent lines or letter
against a maximum density background, with no intermediate densities.

MACRO LENS- Camera lenses (typically interchangeable lenses on 35mm cameras) fitted with
an extended focusing mount to permit focusing from infinity to the same size reproductions.
Camera lens specially corrected for optimum definition at same size reproduction.

MAGNIFICATION- Relationship between the size of the object photographed and the image
of it formed by the lens.

MAXIMUM APERTURE- The largest useful opening of the lens. Wide open.

NEGATIVE- A photographic image in which the tones of the subject have been recorded in
reverse.
NEGATIVE CARRIER- The frame of glass or metal which holds the negative in printing
position in the enlarger.

NITROGEN BURST- Method of agitating processing solutions by introducing nitrogen gas into
the bottom of the processing rank through a distributor nozzle. The bubbles of gas rising
through the liquid from an effective and harmless stirring device.

NORMAL LENS- Any lens whose focal length is approximately equal to the diagonal
measurement of the film frame.

OBLIQUE LIGHTING- Light striking the subject from the side relative to the position of the
camera; produces shadows and highlights to create modeling on the subject.

OPAL GLASS- A translucent glass having a milky or “opal-scent” appearance, used to diffuse
light.

OPAQUE- Incapable of transmitting light. A special fine-ground tempera paint, usually brick-
red or black, for use in blocking out unwanted areas of the negative image prior to printing.

OPEN FLASH- Method of taking pictures with flash in which the shutter is opened on time or
bulb and the flash is fired manually.

ORTHO- Abbreviation of orthochromatic.

ORTHOCHROMATIC- Photographic materials sensitive to all colors except the orange and red
regions of the spectrum. Type of emulsion which is sensitive to visible blue and green, but not
to red.

OVERDEVELOPMENT- Excessively long development of photographic materials which results

in very dense and contrasty negatives or fogged and stained prints.

OVEREXPOSURE- Excessive amount of light falling on the sensitized material during exposure
resulting in dense negative with opaque highlights or prints with blocked up shadows and veiled
highlights.

PAN- It describes a type of emulsion, “panchromatic” which is sensitive to all colors of the
visible spectrum.

PANCHROMATIC- Describes an emulsion sensitive to blue, green and some, or all, of the red
region of the spectrum.

PAPER NEGATIVE- A negative image on paper base, prepared either by exposing the paper
directly in a camera or by printing from a positive transparency.

PERSPECTIVE- The apparent relation between the shape, visual scale and position of visible
objects.

PERSPECTIVE DISTORTION- Change in the shape and foreshortening of the three-

dimensional objects in a picture, resulting from the use of a wide-angle lens.

PHOTOMACROGRAPHY- Small objects photographed at greater than life size by the use of
long bellows and short focal length lens on the camera.

PRIMARY COLORS- Three colors of light, Blue, Green, and Red, which when mixed in equal
amounts, produce white light.

PRINT- In photomacrograhy, the term is generally used to identify and image on paper,
produced by photographic means. It is usually understood to mean a positive image, and
implies a final image rather than an intermediate one in some longer process.

PRINTING FRAME- A shallow, rectangular frame of wood or metal equipped with a

removable front glass and a separate folding back which can be fastened to the frame with leaf
springs so as to hold a negative and a sheet of printing paper against the glass smoothly and
tightly. In use, light is allowed to shine through the front glass and through the intervening
negative to reach the printing emulsion. Also called a contract printing frame.

PRINTING PAPER- Paper coated with a light-sensitive substance, to be used for making
photographic images.

POSITIVE- An image in which the tones or colors are similar to those of the subject.

PROCESS- To subject photographic films or papers to chemical treatment, such as, for
example, development. The sequence of chemical steps required to produce the desired image
or result.

PUSH PROCESSING- Increasing the development time of a film to increase its effective speed
(raising the ISO number for initial exposure) for low-light situations; forced development.

RECIPROCITY FAILURE- When the product of light intensity and time of exposure remains
constant there is a relative at very low or high intensities for correspondingly longer or shorter
exposures.

REFLECTANE- Describes the ability of a surface to reflect light.

REFLECTED LIGHT METER- Exposure meter used to measure the light reflected from a scene
as distinct from incident light meters which measure light falling on the subject. Most meters
built info cameras are reflected light meters and indicated exposures on the assumption that
the portion of light to dark areas in most scenes is roughly constant.

REFLECTION- Re-direction of light or other radiation by a surface. Reflection may be specular

if the surface is polished, each light ray being thrown back in the direction from which it came.
If the surface is matted, reflection becomes more or less diffuse, the light being scattered in all
forward directions.

REFLECTOR- A surface used to reflect light. Photographic reflectors are usually sheets of
cardboard, plywood, masonite, or stretched fabric, painted white or covered with metal foil.

RELATIVE APERTURE- The relationship between the diameter of the lens opening and the
focal length of the lens. It is found by dividing the focal length by the diameter and is, strictly
speaking, the number so found-as distinguished from the Aperture which included the prefix f.

RESIN COATED PAPER- RC Paper. Printing papers employing a special base material treated
during manufacture with a “Resin Coating” which, by limiting water absorption, allows for very
rapid processing and reduces drying time.

RETICULATION- Cracking or distorting of the emulsion during processing, usually caused by

wide temperature or chemical activity difference between the solutions.

REVERSAL- (1) Process of exposing or processing a normally negative working photographic

material to obtain a positive instead of a negative image. (2) Effect in which a negative image is
converted locally or entirely into a positive or vice verso under particular conditions of exposure
or processing.

REVERSED NEGATIVE- Negative in which the image is reversed left to right by either
photographing the original through a right angled (reversing) prism or mirror or by stripping
and laterally reversing the emulsion. The final print is a lateral inversion of the negative.

REVOLVING BACK- Technical or studio large format camera feature which permits the film
holder to be rotated in its plane so that the long dimension of the negative material is either
vertical or horizontal.

RISING FRONT- Camera lens panel or frame constructed so that it can be moved vertically to
allow the lens to be raised above –or dropped below- the normal position. Used when
photographing objects such as tall buildings from a near viewpoint with the camera pointing at
an upward angle, while keeping the camera back vertical to ensure parallel regarding of vertical
lines.

ROLL FILM- Film supplied in rolls rather than sheets, but especially those films protected from
light by paper leaders rather than those supplied in protective cartridges of metal or plastic.

SAFELIGHT- Illumination, used in various darkroom processed, which is of color and intensity
which will not appreciable affect the emulsions being handled. Blue sensitive emulsions can be
handled in a yellow safelight and orthochromatic emulsions are generally unaffected by orange
or red safelight. Image density resulting from excessive exposure to safelight or to an
inappropriate safelight color, is known as safelight fog.

SCALE- In image formation, the liner ration of image size to object size. If this ratio is greater
than one the result is magnification. In a photographic enlargement the image is the projected
image and the negative is the object. When subject and image are the same size the scale is
1/1 usually indicated by s/s (same size). Because the scale is linear it must be in squares to give
the area. A linear magnification of 4x is equal to an area magnification of 16x.

SENSITIVITY- In photography, the susceptibility of an emulsion to alteration by light energy.

SEPARATION- The visual quality of any image area which makes it visible against its
background.

SHADOW AREA- Any region of photographic image which corresponds to an area of shade or
shadow in the original subject.

SHARP- Term used to denote the distinctness of detail in photograph or the focused image on
the ground glass of a camera.

SHEET FILM- Film supplied in individual pieces; also called cut film.

SHEET FILM HOLDER- See film holder.

SHELF LIFE- Period of time before deterioration results in an appreciable loss of speed or
growth of fog in an unexposed, properly wrapped and stored sensitized material. Refrigerated
storage increases the useful working life of most types of photo-sensitive material.

SHIFTS AND SWINGS- The various adjustments of the front and rear standards of a view
camera, provided for the purpose of facilitating framing, control of perspective, and the efficient
use of the available depth of field.

SHUTTER- A device installed in front, behind, or between the elements of a lens, or at the
focal plane of the camera, to control the duration of exposure.

SHUTTER PRIORITY- A camera feature that lets you select the desire shutter speed, and the
camera sets the aperture for proper exposure. When you change the shutter or when the light
level changes, the aperture changes accordingly.

SHUTTER RELEASE- The lever or plunger which, when pressed allows the shutter mainspring
to operate the shutter mechanism and make the exposure.

SHUTTER SPEED- (1) The duration of the interval of exposure. (2) The marked settings on a
shutter dial. The numbers represent the denominators of fractions of which 1 is the numerator.

SLOW- A term used to describe the linger exposure intervals provided by the shutter, as “one-
half second is a slow speed.” Also applied to relatively insensitive emulsions, as a slow film.

SOFT- Describes an image which is not sharp; that is, one which is blurred, diffused, or not
accurately focused. Photographic emulsions, specifically printing papers, which tend to produce
images of lower-than-normal contrast; for example, the paper grades 0 and 1, and some others
of similar characteristics, are called soft papers.
SPLIT-IMAGE RANGEFINDER- A variety of rangefinder in which the opposite halves of the
image are displaced along a dividing line when the instrument is not properly focused. Correct
distance is indicated when the image halves are adjusted to match.

SPOT METER- An exposure meter which measures reflected light or luminance, over a field of
only a degree or two.

STOP- The aperture or f/number of lens. A change in exposure, from any cause, which doubles
or halves the preceding one.

STOP BATH- A weak acid solution used immediately after development and before fixing, to
stop the action of developer and prolong the life of the fixer.

STOP DOWN- To reduce the size of the aperture of a lens.

SWING BACK- On a screen focusing camera a hinged back which can be turned at an angle to
the vertical to improve the perspective of the image and extend the depth of field covered.

SWING FRONT- Lens panel of a camera hinged about its axis so that it can be used, in
conjunction with the swing back, to control perspective and/or relocate the plane of maximum
sharpness producing a similar result to an increase the depth of the field.

TACKING IRON- A small electrically heated, thermostatically controlled tool used to tack or
attach dry-mounting tissue to the back of a print or to the mount board, so as to hold it in place
while the print in being trimmed and heated in the dry-mount press.

TANK- A small, light tight container, in which film is placed for processing.

TELEPHOTO LENS- A lens that makes subject appear larger on film that does a normal lens at
the same camera-to-subject distance. A telephoto lens has a longer focal length and narrower
field of view than a normal lens.

TENT LIGHTING- Lighting technique that involves isolating the subject in a plain environment
or “tent”, so that surface reflections ad lighting effects can be closely controlled.

THIN- describes the appearance of a transparency image (usually the negative) of low overall
density.

THIN NEGATIVE- A negative that is under exposed or underdeveloped (or both). A thin
negative appears less dense than a normal negative.

TIME- One of the marked speeds on some shutters. A shutter set on (T) time will open when
the shutter release is pressed and will remain open until the release is pressed again. It is a
convenient setting for exposure intervals off more than a few seconds.

TIME EXPOSURE- A comparatively long exposure made in seconds or minutes.

TRANSLUCENT- Describes a diffusing material which will transmit light, but not focused light.
A very thin translucent surface is used on screens for back projection and back lighting of
objects.

TRANSPARENCY- A positive photographic image on film, viewed or projected by transmitted

light (light shining through film).

TRIPOD- A three-legged stand, usually adjustable in height and provided with a tilting and
swiveling head, on which a camera can be fastened for support and stability during use.

TUNGSTEN LIGHT- Generally, the light emitted by a heated tungsten filament such as is
contained in conventional electric light bulbs. Sometimes used to refer specifically to the light of
special photographic tungsten filament bulbs which are designed to burn at either 3200K or
3400K. Also often used loosely to apply to artificial light in general, as distinguished from
daylight.
TTL- Through-the-lens; describes a type of exposure meter, incorporated in the structure of a
camera, which reads the intensity of the image light transmitted by a lens.

TYPE L FILM- Color sheet or roll film balanced for 3200K lamps and exposure time of 1/10 to
60 seconds. L indicates that the film is designed to show minimum reciprocity failure at the
relatively long exposure times.

TYPE S FILM- Color sheet or roll film balanced for daylight, electronic flash or blue bulbs and
exposure times of 1/10 seconds or shorter, S standing for short exposure time.

UNDEREXPOSURE- A condition in which too little light reaches the film, producing a thin
negative, S standing for short exposure time.

VARIABLE-CONTRAST PAPER- Photographic paper that provided different grades of

contrast when exposed through special filters.

VIEW CAMERA- A type of camera in which the image is viewed and composed on a ground-
glass screen placed precisely at the film plane. The viewed image is therefore identical to the
one presented to the film during exposure. After the image has been focused and composed,
the ground glass is replaced by the film in a suitable holder and the picture is made. Most view
cameras provide for considerable adjustment of the relative positions of the lens board and film
plane. They are typically designed to accept sheet film in the larger size and must be used on a
tripod, or other film support.

WIDE ANGLE DISTORTION- Distorted perspective rendering obtained by the use of a wide
angle lens, particularly noticeable in foreground subject matter neat the edges of the field.

WIDE ANGLE LENS- A lens that has a shorter focal length and wider field of view (includes
more subject area) than a normal lens. The angle of field is 60 degrees or more. If the angle
exceeds 90 degrees, the lens is generally termed an ultra-wide-angle lens.

Recognizing Some Common Photo Abbreviations

Here’s a summary of meaning for some of the more common abbreviations relating to
cameras and photography.

AA= size of batteries often used to power cameras, flash, and other photo equipment.

AE= auto-exposure; short for automatic exposure

AF= autofocus

APS= Advance Photo System; commonly refers to a small-format type of automatic camera

ASA= American Standards Association; commonly refers to former rating system in the U.S. for
film speeds; now superseded by ISO (see below)

CdS= cadmium sulfide; type of light-sensitive cell in an older camera’s exposure metering
system or an older hand-held exposure meter

DIN= Deutsche Industrie Norm; commonly refers to German (European) rating system for film
speeds; now superseded by ISO (see below)

DX= data exchange; a symbol indicating a film cassette is encoded to electronically set an
automatic camera with the film’s speed, number of exposures, and exposure latitude

EE= electric eye; a name for early auto-exposure cameras; also, a photocell sensor (now rare)

EI= exposure index; correct term for the speed of a film whenever that film is rated at other
than its official ISO film speed; also abbreviated E.I.
EV= exposure value; system of numbers to indicate the range of sensitivity of a camera’s
exposure metering system or a hand-held exposure meter

f/= f/stop; a number that indicated the relatives size of the lens opening (aperture)

ISO= International Standard Organization; commonly refers to a system of numbers indicating

the relative speed (i.e., sensitivity) of films

LCD= liquid crystal display; electronic-powered information panels in cameras, flash units, and
exposure meter that present digital readouts to the user

LED= light-emitting diode; tiny light(s) signaling various functions in cameras and other photo
equipment

OTF= off-the-film; generally indicates that the camera’s exposure metering system reads the
light at the film plane; usually for flash exposures

P&S= point-and-shoot; unflattering term for compact type of automatic camera

SBC= silicon blue cell; type of light sensitive cell in a camera’s exposure metering system or a
hand-held exposure meter

SPD= silicon photo diode; type of light-sensitive cell in a camera’s exposure metering system
or a hand-held exposure meter

SLR= single lens reflex; most versatile type of 35mm camera

TTL= through-the-lens; generally indicates that the camera’s exposure metering system reads
the light that passes through the lens.

I. PHOTOGRAPHY
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, PERSONALITIES AND PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
I. PHOTOGRAPHY
A science of duplicate image on a sensitized material or surface through the reaction of a
certain electromagnetic radiating or rays.

 LITERAL DEFINITION: Photography is a derivative of two (2) Greek words “phos”

which means light and “graphia” meaning write. Therefore photography best
translates “to write with light.” (Herschel 1839)
- Derived also from two Greek words PHOTOS (light) and GRAPHOS (chart
or draw). Thus literally, photography means “to draw with light”. In
photography, the light “writes” when it strikes minute crystals of light-
sensitive chemical compounds (i.e. silver halides) in the film emulsion
causing very subtle change in the crystals.

 MODERN DEFINITION: Photography is an art or science which deals with the

reproduction of images through the action of light, upon sensitized materials, with
the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical processes involved
therein.

 TECHNICAL/LEGAL DEFINITION: Modern photography may be defined as any

means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic recording of the images of
scenes, or objects by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-rays,
ultra-violet rays, visible light and infrared rays. This definition is broad enough to
include not only the conventional methods of photography but almost any new process
that may be developed. (Scott, 1975)

Photography is the art and science of reproducing image on a sensitized material or

surface through the reaction of a certain electromagnetic radiation or rays.
Photography is a study concerning the production of permanent records of images by
the combined action of light on sensitive surfaces (films and photographic papers), a
mechanical device (camera) and chemical processing (film development and printing). An art
and certainly is a science of recording an image by the action of light-sensitized substances
(silver halides), and by the application of several chemicals.
Photography is an invaluable aid to modern day scientific crime detection and
investigation as well as crime prevention. Perhaps it could be stated that without photography
our law enforcement officer in the so-called modern day scientific crime detection would still be
lagging a hundred years.
A photograph is a mechanical result of photography.

CAMERA- to RAF (Regulate, Absorb, and Filter) LIGHT; and

FILM (any sensitized material) - to RECORD LIGHT.

1839: Birth year of photography

At least 4 centuries age in Italy, artist used a device called CAMERA OBSCURA. The
camera obscura (it means a darkened room) was a box with lens at one end and a glass at the
other. The lens projected at the glass an image which the operator then traced.
It was until the early part of the 1800s that man begun to develop chemicals that would
react to light and form an image that could be held permanently on the surface. A man whose
name is most associated with the first successful photographs was a Frenchman named Jacques
Louis Mande Daguerre pronounced “Dagiar”. His famous Daguerreo types were made by
combining camera obscura with a metal plate coated with the magical chemicals. The coating
as well as the developing had to be done right on the spot where the photographer took the
picture.

II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A. PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNOLOGY
 Aristotle
 A famous Greek philosopher who invented the first pinhole camera that was later
known as camera obscura( Italian work for darkroom chamber) which literally
translated to Darkened fox.
 Artists or painters, in order to get accurate perspective of natural scene and scales of
their subjects they utilizes the Camera Obscura.
 He was the one who succeeded in recording the principle that the light entering
through a small hole produces an inverted image or figure.

 Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham) (965-1039)

 A great authority on optics in the Middle Ages invented the first pinhole camera,
(also called the Camera Obscura} and was able to explain why the images were
upside down.
 An Arabian scholar who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or
shuttered window of a darkened room cast an upside down picture of the scene
outside unto the opposite wall.
 He used this in observing the solar eclipse by entering a dark room with a pinhole
opening to avoid harming the eye.
 He was considered as the one who invented the camera.

 Sir Isaac Newton (1666)

 An English Philosopher, Mathematician, and Physicist who discovered and proved that
the strongest light is white light.
 He defended his theory by allowing a white light (sunlight) to pass through a prism
thus refracting and diffracting the light onto its component parts.

 Jean Baptiste Forta

 An artist and a scientist who, in his Pseudo Science Magic had made used of the
Camera Obscura and replaced the hole with a lens which made the image brighter
and sharper.
 He was the first person who introduced the lens.

 Johann Henrich Schulze

 A german scientist (Anatomist) discovered the silver Nitrate when he exposed it to light
turns to purple.
  He got interested in his finding and, that fair the later, he discovered that the evening
action was not due to the heat but light.
 He finally concluded that silver nitrate is sensitive to light and capable of producing
images.

 Thomas Wedgewood (1802)

 He discovered that silver chloride is more sensitive than silver nitrate and thus, more
capable of recording and producing images.

 Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (1827)

 He took the first permanent photograph, a landscape that required eight hours of
exposure. He uses camera obscura.
 Joseph Nicephore Niepce's heliographs or sun prints as they were called were the
prototype for the modern photograph, by letting light draw the picture.

 William Fox Talbot (1835)

 He is the Father of Modern Photography.

 He invented the positive / negative process widely used in modern photography. He
refers to this as photogenic drawing.
 He produced the early permanent photographs through his own process.
 He invented a process called calotype (a photographic process by which a large
number of prints could be produced from a paper negative; also: a positive print so
made.) Calotype used paper with surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive
compounds.

 1839 - Birth year of photography

 Louis Daguerre (1838-1839)

 He patents the daguerreotype in collaboration with Joseph Nicephore Niepce.

 Daguerreotype is an early photograph produced on a silver or a silver-covered
copper plate; also: the process of producing such photographs. It formed an image
directly on the silver surface of a metal plate. It was a positive process, thus it yielded
one-of-a kind images.

 Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor (1848)

 He coated glass plates with the whites of eggs (albumen) mixed with potassium
iodide. He then made them sensitive to light by immersing them in a bath of silver
nitrate.

 Louis Desirie Blanquart-Evard (1850)

 He improved the process, making the plates more sensitive to light. also coated paper
in the same way, so enabling collodion negatives to be used to produce albumen
prints.
 During the 1850s both albumen and collodion prints were made, but from around 1860
onwards, albumen prints became the norm, until gelatin paper became available in the
1890s.

 John W. Herschel

 He coined the word photography.

 He then suggested negative and positive in the following years.
 He pointed out images with a solution of Hyposulfite of Soda (hypo or sodium
thiosulfate) which had discovered in 1819.

 Frederick Scott Archer (1851)

  He published a “wet plate” process when collodion-a viscous liquid that dries to a
tough flexible and transparent film replaced albumen.

 Richard Madox (1885)

 He introduced Gelatin emulsion printing paper. It was commercially introduced
based films in 1889.
 During this time; the cameras were crude; the lenses could not form a true image, and
the sensitive materials required long exposures and could not reproduce colors in
shades of gray.

 John F.W. Herschel (1856)

 He coined the word “photography”.

 James Clark Maxwell (1861)

 He researched on colors.

 1879- The dry plate was invented, a glass negative plate with a dried gelatin emulsion.
Dry plates could be stored for a period of time. Dry processes absorbed light quickly so
rapidly that the hand-held camera was now possible.

 Sir William Abney (1880)

 He discovered the Hydroquinone as a developing agent in 1880 in England.

 George Eastman (1889)

 He introduced the use of roll film made of celluloid materials for use by a portable
camera.

 1890- A plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors equivalent shades
of gray.

 Peongent (1895)
 He discovered X-ray Photography which later become the basis of RADIOGRAPH
used by the doctors in measuring the heartbeat and to see the other structure of the
body.

 1907- Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with but
with blue, green and red filter.

 US Eastman Kodak (1914)

 This company made a color subtractive process called Kodachrome.

 1935- Color process came out together with electronic flash.

 Edwin H. Land (1947)

 He introduced “Polaroid” the one step photography.

 1960- LASER was invented making possible Holograms (three dimensional

pictures)

 1988- The arrival of true digital cameras.

B. CRIMINAL APPLICATIONS
 1854- Richard Maddox developed a dry plate photography eclipsing Daguerre’s wet
plate on tin method. This made practical in photographing inmates for prison records.

 1859- In United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in photography.
It was used to demonstrate evidence in a California Case. Enlarged photographs of
signature was presented in a court case involving forgery.

 1864- Odelbercht first advocate the use of photography for the identification of criminals
and the documentation of evidence and crime scenes. Later, every major police force in
England and the United States has “Rogues Gallery".
 In Europe and the United States had “Rogues Gallery” (photograph of criminals)
became an integral part almost all police departments.

 1882- Alphonse Bertillion was involved in various means of documentation by

photography. He photographed crime scenes and formulated a technique of contact
photography to demonstrate erasures on documents.

 1902- Dr. R.A. Reis, a German scientist trained in Chemistry and Physics at Lausanne
University in Switzerland. He contributed heavily to the use of photography in forensic
science and established the world’s earlies crime laboratory.

 1910- Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and

cartridge cases which act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics.

C. LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

1. FOR BLACK and WHITE PHOTOGRAPHS

 1859- Daguerreotype was used in a civil case, Lueo vs United States, to decide
on the authenticity of photographs in comparing signatures.

 1874- In a criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence,

Underzook vs Commonwealth.

2. FOR COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS

 1943- Civil litigations Green vs City and county of Denver involving color
photography of spoiled meat in violation of health ordinance prohibiting the sale of
putrid meat to the public.

 1960- In criminal case, State vs Conte showing the graphic wound of the
victim.

D. CRIMINOLOGY EDUCATION
 1902- Dr. R.A Reis professor at the University of Lausanne Switzerland set up one of the
first academic curricular in forensic science. His Forensic Photography Department grew
into Lausanne Institute of Police Science.

 1950- August Vallmer, Chief of Police in Berkeley, California established the School of
Criminology at the University of California, Berkeley. Paul Kirk presided over the major
criminalistics within the school.

 1954- In the Philippines, the school which pioneered criminology education is the
Plaridel Educational Institute, now Philippine College of Criminology at Sta. Cruz,
Manila.

III. TECHNICAL and FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

A. TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY

TECHNICAL: technical concepts and principles which includes characteristics of photographic

rays, the use of camera, lenses, filters, structure of film and photographic papers, chemical
processing and others.

B. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY.

FORENSIC: covers investigative photography, preparation of mug file and crime scene
photography.

Objective:

The objective of this course is to help the students become aware of the basic principles
and concepts of photography. Although this course is not intended to make the students
become professional photographers, it is designed to give them enough information for them to
realize the vital use of photography as a significant tool in law enforcement and criminal
investigation. As future law enforcers and criminal investigators, they must be knowledgeable
on how to utilize effectively and efficiently photographic evidences during court proceedings.

Significance:

The usefulness of Forensic Photography in criminal investigation is very extensive. Small

objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of
examination by the investigator but may be seen and recovered, only after closed examination
of the photographs of the crime scene.

Investigators are sometimes compelled to reconstruct or describe in court some of the

details of the crime scenes they investigated several months ago. With the bulk of cases the
investigator handle, perhaps he would be confused or may not exactly recall some of these
details or exact location of objects. However, with the aid of photographs taken from the crime
scene, investigator will not find hard time to refresh in their minds and will be able to describe
or explain exactly the details in court.

A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record, which is always available,

especially in court presentation. In court proceedings, judges, prosecutors and defense lawyers
have generally never visited the scene of the crime. Therefore, photographers should bear in
mind to obtain a normal, sharp and free of distortion photograph. As a general rule, take many
photograph of the crime scene and select the best.

A photograph of the crime scene is a factual reproduction and accurate record of the
crime scene because it captures TIME, SPACE AND EVENT. A photograph is capable of catching
and preserving the:
SPACE - the WHERE of the crime (Locus Criminis)
TIME – the WHEN of the crime
EVENT – the WHAT of the crime – what is the nature or character of the crime?

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
Police photography is the study of the general practices, methods, and steps in taking
pictures of the crime scene, physical things, and other circumstances that can be used as
criminal evidences or for law enforcement purposes.

Objectives of Police Photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where the
find things.
3. To help on securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information relating to the
case.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Forensic photography is that field covering the legal application of photography in
criminal imprudence and criminal investigation. It is that branch of forensic science dealing
with the:
1. Study of the fundamental but pragmatic principles/concepts of photography;
2. Application of photography in law enforcement; and
3. Preparation of photographic evidences needed by prosecutors and courts of law.

MECHANICAL DEVICE
(CAMERA)

I. CAMERA
The principle of photography are derived from science and the images on the film or
paper made by the rays or light through the camera are dependent on the same general laws
which produces images upon the retina through the lens which produce images upon the retina
through the lens of the eye.
 A camera basically is nothing more than a light tight box with pinholes or lens, a shutter
at one end and a holder of the sensitized material at one end. While there is various kind of
camera from the simplest in construction (the box type) to the most complicated, all operate in
the same principle. The exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled by the lens and
its aperture and the shutter through its speed in opening and closing the lens to light.

The essentials of any camera, therefore, are light tight box, a lens, a shutter, and a
holder of sensitized material. All other accessory of any camera merely makes picture taking
easier, faster, and convenient for the operator and is call accessories.

Brief History of camera

Today’s cameras all derive from the 16th-century camera obscura. The earliest
form of this device was a darkened room with a tiny hole in one wall. Light entered the room
through this hole and projected an upside-down image of the subject onto the opposite wall.
Over the course of three centuries the camera obscura evolved into a handheld box with a
lens replacing the pinhole and an angled mirror at the back. The mirror reflected an image onto
a ground-glass viewing screen on the top of the box. Long before film was invented artists used
this device to help them draw more accurately. They placed thin paper onto the viewing screen
and could easily trace the reflected image.
The inventors of photography in the early 19th century adapted the camera obscura by
adding a device for holding sensitized plates in the back of the box. This kind of camera, with
some improvements, was used throughout the 19th century. One notable enhancement for the
box, pleated leather sides called bellows, allowed the photographer to easily adjust the distance
between the lens and the plane of focus. Professional photographers still use a similar camera
today, a large-format camera known as the view camera.
In the 1880s the invention of more sensitive emulsions and better lenses led to the
development of lens shutters, devices that could limit the time of exposure to a fraction of a
second. At first the shutter was simply a blind dropped in front of the lens by the force of
gravity, or by a spring. Later designs featured a set of blades just behind the optical lens. In
1888 George Eastman introduced the first Kodak camera, which used a cylindrical shutter that
the photographer turned by pulling a string on the front of the camera. The Kodak was one of
the earliest handheld cameras. It made photography available to amateurs for the first time and
created a snapshot craze at the turn of the 20th century.
In 1925 the Leitz Company in Germany introduced the Leica, one of the first cameras to
use 35-millimeter film, a small-sized film initially designed for motion pictures. Because of its
compactness and economy, the Leica and other 35-millimeter cameras became popular with
both amateur and professional photographers. All but the earliest Leicas used a focal-plane
shutter, located just in front of the film. Because it blocks light from the film even when the lens
is removed, the focal-plane shutter allows photographers to switch lenses safely in the middle
of a film roll.

FORMS OF CAMERA

A. Early forms of camera

1. PINHOLE CAMERA
The simplest camera is a pinhole camera, which consists of a box with a small hole in
one of its sides. To produce a sharp image, the hole must be very small and this restricts the
amount of light entering the camera. Quite a long time may be necessary to let enough light
through to affect the film and this causes problems because if the subject moves the picture will
be blurred. It is impossible to photograph anything like a moving car or a galloping horse with a
pinhole camera.
2. BOX CAMERA
A simple camera is little more than a pinhole a camera. It has a lens and shutter. In
the box camera, the pinhole is replaced by the lens to enable the photographer gather more
light to be recorded.

3. CAMERA OBSCURA
Is a box used for sketching large objects? The term means dark chamber. The box
contains a mirror set at 45-degree angle. Mounted in the front end of the box is a double
convex lens like that in a photographic camera. Light from the object or scene is transmitted
through the lens. The mirror reflects this light upward to ground glass screen on the top of the
box. There the light forms an image of the object or scene that can be sketched easily.

OTHER TYPES OF CAMERA

1. ROLL FILM CAMERA
Cheapest and simplest to use.
A. Box camera
For beginners, aside from being cheap, it is capable of turning out good results without
too much effort.

B. Folding camera
These have leather bellows instead of a solid body. Therefore, they can fold away
turtle-like inside their own protective covering; easy to carry and store.
C. Reflex Camera
Nowadays, may professionals especially in the field of investigation rely on the reflex
camera for a great deal of their work because of their vast capabilities and very high
performance. The term reflex is derived from the word reflection, means that one or more
mirrors are employed to form the image you see when you look into or through the camera.

C.1. 35 mm Single Lens Reflex Cameras (SLR) – the term single lens means that
only one lens is used for both the scene and taking photographs of it, thereby preventing
PARALLAX, the difference between what is seen through the view finder and what is actually
recorded on the film. Usually use focal plane shutters.
The camera employs a movable mirror which is located in the path of the light rays
transmitted by the picture taking or recording lens. A fraction of a second before the shutter is
released; the mirror returns to the viewing and focusing position whatever appears in the view
finder will appear in the negative. This is important when using different focal length lenses
and also aids in focusing. The 35mm means that the camera uses film that is 35mm in the
width.
Appealed to skilled amateur photographers and to professional photographers. The camera’s
name refers to its viewing system. The photographer views the subject through the camera lens
rather than through a separate viewing lens. A mirror between the lens and the film reflects the
image onto a viewing screen. When the shutter release button is pressed to take a picture, the
mirror lifts out of the way to allow the light to expose the film. Thus the photographer sees
almost the exact image that is recorded on the film. SLR cameras use 35 mm film. The
photographer can adjust the focus, select the shutter speed, and control the opening of the
diaphragm. Many new models can also adjust the focus and control the light exposure
automatically.
The standard lens of the SLR camera can be replaced by special purpose lenses that
change the size and depth relationship of objects in a scene. These lenses include wide-angle
lens, telephoto lens, and zoom lenses. A wide-angle lens provides a wider view of a scene than
a standard lens does. A telephoto lens has a narrow angle of view and makes objects appear
larger and closer. A zoom lens combines many features of standard, wide angle and telephoto
lenses. With other accessories, many SLR cameras can take pictures through a microscope,
telescope or underwater.

C.2. Twin Lens Reflex- two camera in one. The upper half consists of a lens, mirror
and ground glass that show the full image of the scene almost exactly as it will appear in the
final contact point. The lower half consist of a lens, diaphragm, shutter, camera box and 120-
size roll film holder which is usually standard in the lens reflex.
 It employs two separate lenses. One for viewing and focusing, and the second, usually
mounted under the first, transmit the light to the focal plane for recording. The camera has
permanently fix lenses, and an automatic PARALLAX adjustment.

PARALLAX PROBLEM- the image seen by the lens of a compact camera is not exactly
the same as the image that appears in the view finder.

D. MINIATURE CAMERA
Are precision instrument designed for small objects. Best known is the 35mm camera
which has an optical and mechanical standard which exceeds that of larger cameras. Minute
inaccuracies, noticeable with larger negatives could make the miniature negative worthless.
The camera is also designed as to provide a light weight instrument for photo negative.
GERMAN LEICA- first 35mm camera; it was designed to use motion picture film.

KINDS
D.1. Range finder (Leica and Contax) - the most famous brand of range finder
camera is leica. In contrast with the SLR camera, the range finder allows the subject to be
seen through a separate view finder rather than through the lens. In the center of the
viewfinder are two images. When the lens is focused on the subject, these two images become
aligned with one another and the picture will then be sharp
D.2. Single Lens Reflex- when we look through the view finder of an SLR camera,
what you see is what the lens sees. This is because there is a mirror behind the lens that
reflects the image up.
D.3. Eye Level Reflex- shaped much like a 35mm SLR; the larger reflexes operate in
a similar way. But are twice the weight and bulk. Most make 6x7cm negatives or slides, ten
exposures to roll of 120film.

E. Ultra miniature
The MINOA was the first and became the popular during the WWII as a spy camera.
It was designed to copy documents. It is an expensive as a good press camera and not nearly
as useful.
Subminiature- in this category is the well-known Minox and others like it, as well as
the best Pocket Instamatics. The Minox makes a negative 9x11mm, while 110-size pictures
from instamatics are 13x17mm. When their lenses are well made, all of these suited for play
rather than work.

2. PRESS CAMERA
Used in commercial and news photography. The bellows can extend to two or three
times their normal length. With this feature, the photographer can increase the distance
between the lens and film to record very small objects which mark this camera ideally mixed for
reproduction and small photography.
It takes 120-size roll film and has a rapid film-advance system, interchangeable
lenses, a handle grip, and other handy features. Also available is the Linholf, a rather heavy,
finely made 4x5 camera that can be used hand-held or on a tripod.

3. VIEW CAMERA
Are essentially larger versions of press cameras. Used in studios for portrait pictures.
While it makes excellent large pictures that are very sharp, it is large and clumsy and has to be
transported to the crime scene; usually used for architecture, group and other outdoor
photography.
Most students will find a 4x5 view camera entirely adequate, and will have no need to
the larger 5x7 or 8x10. Among 4x5 brands, some are all metal, and some are wood. The latest
are finely designed to fold into compact shapes for more convenient work on location.
View cameras are generally larger and heavier than medium- and small-format cameras and are
most often used for studio, landscape, and architectural photography. These cameras use large-
format films that produce either negatives or transparencies with far greater detail and
sharpness than smaller format film. View cameras have a metal or wooden base with a geared
track on which two metal standards ride, one at the front and one at the back, connected by a
bellows. The front standard contains the lens and shutter; the rear holds a framed ground-glass
panel, in front of which the film holder is inserted. The body configuration of the view camera,
unlike that of most general-purpose cameras, is adjustable. The front and rear standards can
be shifted, tilted, raised, or swung, allowing the photographer unparalleled control of
perspective and focus.
Is the largest and most adjustable type of camera. Most have accordion like body, with a
replaceable lens in front. They have a large viewing screen instead of a viewfinder. Most model
have an adjustable diaphragm and shutter speed. View cameras must be mounted on a stand
for efficient operation.
A photographer focuses a view camera by moving the lens end or the back end of the
camera forward or backward to produce a sharp image. A view camera can provide artistic
distortions of subjects more effectively than any other kind of camera.
Many professional photographers use view camera for portraits and other subjects. A
view camera uses sheet of film that range in size from 60 to 90 mm to 280 by 360 mm. This
pictures are often contact printed. A contact print is a photograph made to exactly the same
size the negative. It is made by shining light through the negative, which is held in contact with
light sensitive paper.

4. STUDIO CAMERA
Constructions of these cameras is similar to the view camera but are used primarily
for portraiture, copy work, small photography, and the indoor photography.
5. GRAPHIC CAMERA
A view camera but smaller and designed to be folded up when not in used.

6. CAMERA STILL PICTURE SPECIAL PURPOSE

This contains items adequate for general purposes.

7. THE INSTANT AND POLAROID CAMERA

31/4 TO 41/2 this camera is restricted in its uses but is ideal in instant photograph
where there is no requirement for enlargements. Ex. Photos of offenders. In 1993, Polaroid
introduced a single-lens reflex model that does not eject shots like other instant cameras but
instead transports the developed picture to a viewing area container on the camera back.
Use film that provides a print without first being developed into a negative. The cameras
produce a print 15 seconds to 2 minutes after the photographer takes a picture. The time varies
according to the camera and to the type of film. Instant camera use film that provides pictures
ranging in size from 73 by 94 mm to 508 by 610 mm. Special types of film for instant camera
also provide negatives. Some instant cameras can take flash pictures and focus automatically as
the photographer lines up a subject in the viewfinder.

8. VIDEO STILL CAMERA

This is a relatively new camera. It uses a computer disk instead of conventional film
and the pictures can be viewed on a television screen or video monitor, or sent away to be
made into prints.

9. UNDERWATER CAMERAS
There is a camera called the NIKONOS that can be used underwater or on dry land
without housing or special equipment. It is designed for easy handling in aquatic conditions.

10. POINT AND SHOOT AND DISPOSABLE CAMERAS

Point and shoot cameras eliminate the complications of setting exposure, speed,
and aperture and produce acceptable snapshots using only automatic or fixed-focus technology
and today’s improved color film. Many of these cameras come equipped with built-in flash
devices. Some have automatic, motorized film loading, winding, and rewind capabilities and
zoom lenses.
Point and Shoot cameras use films that measure 35 mm. Since their introduction in 1970’s
theses cameras have gained wide popularity among amateur’s photographers.

A DISPOSABLE CAMERA is a cardboard box containing a roll film and a lens

along with a simple viewfinder, a button for shooting, and a film advance mechanism. Like the
earliest box cameras, the lens is fixed in focus; its aperture is small
enough so that anything more than about four feet away will photograph in focus.
After the user has shot the full roll of film, the entire camera is returned to a processing lab, the
film is developed and printed, and the box and its fittings returned to the camera maker who
will use it to make new cameras.

11. ADVANCED PHOTO SYSTEM (APS) CAMERASFilm rather than hardware, was the
impetus for the development of APS cameras in the 1990s. The new system was introduced in
1996. APS film can be used only in APS cameras. When oval shaped APS film cartridge is
dropped into the camera, the film loads automatically. For each shot a switch on the camera
allows the user to select among three frames format: the conventional 4x6in shot, a wider
4inx7in shot, and a panoramic 4inx10 shot. (The image are always exposed in the wide format
mode and cropped or expanded automatically during development). A magnetic layer on the
film digitally records such data as lighting and flash conditions, frame number, and date for
each shot. During photo finishing the prints are developed in the specified formats, and the
magnetically recorded data is printed on the back of each finished photo. Instead of negatives,
the exposed film still inside its cassette is returned along with the developed prints and with a
contact sheet displaying numbered miniature reproductions of the photos. Additional prints can
be ordered by number by bringing the cassette back to the photofinisher.
12. DIGITAL CAMERA

Digital photography is a method of making images without the use of conventional

photographic film. Instead, a machine called scanner records visual information and converts it
into a code of ones and zeroes that a computer can read. Photographs in digital form can be
manipulated by means of various computer programs. Digital photography was widely used in
advertising and graphic design in the late 1990s, and was quickly replacing conventional
photographic technology in areas such as photojournalism.

USES OF DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

1. AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AFIS)

2. CRIME SCENE RECONSTRUCTION
3. COMPUTERIZED COMPOSITE FACIAL SKETCHING
EX. The Facial Automated Composite and Editing System (FACES) Its capabilities are
the following:
 Facial composition
 cranial facial reconstruction of dead persons with mutilated face
 facial image enhancement
 Missing person photograph update. Creation of various facial likenesses by
ageing facial portrait and overlaying fashion accessories.
 Image and demographic data base and retrieval.
4. INTEGRATED BALLISTIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM(IBIS)

LEGAL FOUNDATION OF DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Rules on electronic evidence

Acting on the memorandum dated June 18, 2001 of the committee on the revision of
rules of court to draft on the E-Commerce Law (R.A. no. 8792) the Supreme Court, En Banc,
approved the said resolution.
These shall apply to all cases pending after effectivity date-August 1, 2001.

Rule II is on Audio, photographic video and Ephemeral Evidence.

Section 1. Audio, Video and Similar Evidence

audio, photographic and video evidence of events, acts, or transactions shall be
admissible provided is shall be shown, presented, or displayed to the court and shall be
identified, explained or authenticated by the person who made the recording or by some other
person competent to testify on the accuracy thereof.

Some guidelines for ensuring digital photographs

1. Formulate a standard operating procedure (SOP) of department policy or general order
of the use of digital imaging.
2. Preserve the original digital images.
3. Digital images shall be preserved in their original file format.
4. If images are stored on a computer work station or server, and several individuals would
have access to the image file, make the image file “read only” for all except your
evidence and photo-lab staff.
5. If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced, the new image file created should be saved
as new file name. The original file must not be replaced (overwritten) with a new file.

OTHER TYPES OF CAMERA

A. ELECTRONIC CAMERA
Create pictures that can be viewed on a television screen. The lens in most electronic
cameras focuses light on light sensitive mechanism called CHARGED COUPLED DEVICE OR
CCD. The CCD changes the light into electronic signals. The electronic pictures can then be
stored on small magnetic discs similar to those I=used in computers. With additional
equipment, electronic images can also be sent over telephone lines or printed on paper.

B. FILM CAMERAS
 Takes pictures that re-create the motion of a subject when they are viewed.
Professional filmmakers generally use large cameras that take 35 or 16 mm film. Most
amateur’s records on 8 mm film called super 8. Today, many amateur filmmakers use portable
video cameras called CAMCORDERS. These cameras convert light reflected by the subject into
electronic signals that are recorded on magnetic tape. Most film cameras and camcorders can
record sound at the same as they record images. Most of them also have a zoom lens.

C. STEREO CAMERAS
Have two identical picture taking lenses with matched shutter. When a stereo camera
takes a picture, each lens photographs the same subject, but from a slightly different angle.
When shown to a device called a stereoscope or seen through glasses that polarize light, the
two images blend in one picture that seems to have depth. Stereo cameras are made for taking
photographs or for making films.

D. SPECIAL PURPOSE CAMERA

Have been designed for industrial, medical, military, and scientific uses they include aerial
cameras used in space and underwater cameras.

Folding cameras, favored for their compact design and movable bellows, have been in use for
many years. The camera’s lens is incorporated into the bellows, which is slid back and forth
along a rail to change focus. The dark clothe covering the photographer and the box body of
the camera blocks out undesirable light, which might otherwise interfere with the picture.
Hans Namuth/Photo Researchers, Inc.1

Box cameras like this “Brownie” were the earliest cameras used by the general public. Relatively
simple in design and operation, they consisted of a wooden or plastic box, a drop-blade shutter,
and a holding device for the film. Modern box cameras are similar to early models, generally
featuring only one shutter speed and one opening; the very easy operation makes it a popular
camera among casual photographers.
Nick Gunderson/ALLSTOCK, INC.2

1
2
Forerunner to many modern cameras, the 1937 Exacta single-lens reflex (SLR) model
featured a viewfinder, a film-winder, and precision action.
Dorling Kindersley3

View cameras are used for portrait and still-life photography. A geared track, precision lenses,
and a long bellows make the cameras fairly cumbersome, but they are capable of capturing
difficult subjects such as buildings with a minimum of distortion.
Yoav Levy/Phototake NYC4

The Polaroid, or instant, camera delivers a finished print directly following exposure. Although
most models are somewhat larger than the standard personal camera, the advantage of this
system is the convenience and speed of the results. Special film used in conjunction with the
camera is designed to develop itself, and represents one of the more recent chemical
revolutions in photography.
Polaroid Corporation5

3
4
5
Reflex cameras use mirrors to form an image of the scene to be photographed in the
viewfinder. The 35-mm single-lens reflex (SLR) camera is one of the most popular cameras on
the market today because of its compact size, speed, and versatility. Most models offer a
combination of automatic and manual options.
Yoav Levy/Phototake NYC6

Some cameras are able to adjust themselves automatically, focusing on the main figure in the
field view. The autofocus mechanism usually bounces infrared light beams or ultrasonic waves
off of a subject, taking rangefinding samples which are processed electronically.
Minolta Corporation.

Single-lens reflex, or SLR, cameras are among the most common in use today. Single-lens
reflex means that the same lens is used for viewing and taking the photograph. The movable
mirror between the lens and the film reflects the image on a ground-glass viewing screen while
the user adjusts the focus. When the shutter release button is depressed, a spring pushes the
mirror out of the way, and the image is recorded on the film. The cameras are popular because

6
users often have the option to control elements such as shutter speed, focus, and aperture
manually or automatically. This option allows photographers to achieve a wide variety of effects
with relative ease. The quality of SLR camera pictures is generally superior to that of the so-
called point-and-shoot camera.

PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS
Its Nature and Characteristics
I. Light
A form of energy visible to the human eye that is radiated by moving charged particles.
It is a form of energy that radiates into waves of different lengths.

Light is one of a number of known form of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel
in wave motion. This form of energy travels at a speed of 186, 000 miles per second in air, but
differ in wavelength and frequency.
The properties of all electromagnetic radiation can be described by three inter-related terms.
These are wavelength, frequency and energy.

A. WAVELENGTH
It is the distance between from the crest (highest point) to the wave to the next
succeeding crest.
B. FREQUENCY
It refers to number of waves passing in a given point in one second.

OPTICS

Optics is the study of light. It is concerned with the nature of light and the way it
behaves in optical instruments. Light is a form of energy and so an object may only produce
light when there is energy present. A red-hot piece of metal receives energy in the form of heat
and converts some of it into red light.

II. SOURCES OF LIGHT:

1. Natural
 Coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning, etc….
 The intensity of the sunlight falling on open space varies depending on the weather
condition, time of the day, or even time of the year.
 For more accurate exposure at daylight, only one characteristic is considered – the kind
of shadow casted by an object in open space.

Daylight maybe classified according to its intensity.

a) Bright sunlight
In bright sunlight, two sources when the sun is shinning bright :a- direct b- reflected:
the subject will produced a strong shadows, because the source of light in not covered and the
objects or subjects appear glossy in open space due to direct sunlight and reflected light
coming from the sky which act as a reflector.

b) Hazy sunlight
In Hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by thin cloud and the shadow appears bluish
because of the decrease of light falling on the subject in open space. The shadow cast is
transparent to the eye and more details are visible under this lighting condition than a bright
sunlight.

c) Dull sunlight.
In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadow is cast to the
uniform illumination of lights all around the subjects in open space.
When direct sunlight is completely obscured by heavy clouds- no direct sunlight
reaches the objects in one open space. Objects at far distance appear bluish or completely
dark.
These classifications are modified by the film manufacturers like
a) Open bright sunlight
b) Under shade bright sunlight
c) Hazy sunlight
d) Cloudy bright sunlight
e) Cloudy dull sunlight.

2. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
-Almost all artificial light sources can be used in photographing of objects, as long as the
light is capable of exposing the sensitized materials (film). Artificial light can be divided into
continuous and short duration radiation.

A. CONTINUOUS RADIATION
1. Carbon arc- consist of a pair of carbon rods connected in series with a resistance
Across direct current.
2. Incandescent- consist of a conducting filament enclosed a glass bulb heated by the
Electric current until it emits light.

Tungsten lamps- are incandescent, meaning that they work by burning filament. The
Temperature at which the filament burns determines the color of light that the
lamp
Produces- the higher the temperature, the less the color orange is. Domestic
Tungsten bulbs burn at approximately 2,800 degrees Kelvin which is
considerably
Cooler than daylight (5,500 degrees Kelvin), and therefore produce a distinct
orange
Cast when used with normal day light film.
3. Photoflood Lamps- can be placed to shine from below giving mysterious and
strange
effects of frights to observers of the picture. They can be placed up very high
Producing deep shadows underneath protruding surfaces, if a subject is a
person
Standing, he will appear gloomy and somber.
4. Fluorescent Lamp- illumination in an electric discharge lamp of the mercury-vapor
Type. The coating fluoresces and sends out light of low brilliance within visible zone.

B. SHORT DURATION RADIATION

1. Chemical flash Lamp- the light is produced by rapid burning of metal wire, foil or
Primer powders. To produce a rapid and complete burning, the bulb is charged with
02 , the lamp flashes once.
A. F-lamp- such as SM or SF, has effective flash duration of about 1/200 of a
second.
B. S- lamp- slow peak and their brilliance are about 30 milliseconds after the
current is
applied i.e. #50 and #3 which are intended for large group pictures.
C. M-lamp- used all shutter speeds provided the synchronizer level is on M.
D. FP Lamp- intended for focal plane shutter

2. Electronic Flash Lamp- consisting of a slender glass tube filled with a gas (xenon),
a
High voltage electrical discharge is passed through coiled tube, causing the gas
to
Glow.

LIGHTING (outdoor lighting)

Lighting is critical in photography. The direction from which the light comes determines
where shadows fall. Sometimes these shadows completely obscure details in the picture. On the
other hand, shadows may reveal details which would otherwise be invisible. Here are basic rules
that will help you to understand lighting and judge how each scene should be lit:

1. Back lighting: Light directed at the subject from behind the subject.
This has little value in crime scene photography. A light directly behind the subject creates a
silhouette. The subject may be entirely concealed by its own shadow. Furthermore, any light
shining directly into the lens can cause "FLARE". This may make the whole picture foggy,
streaked or spotty in appearance.

2. Side Lighting: This may be very good or very bad, depending on the situation. Side lighting
puts shadows on the unlit side of the subject. These shadows are often essential to bring out
the fine texture that is found in a cloth sample, a footprint or a tool mark. Try to use side
lighting in all such situations.

3. Front Lighting: the sun is in back of the photographer

This is essentially shadowless. It, therefore, gives the best representation of most crime
scenes. When you do not have a specific need for shadows in a scene, you will normally be
wise to light it from the front. In daylight, be sure that the sun is behind you or at least over
your shoulder-- Right or Left, it does not matter.

BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT And BENDING OF LIGHT

Light behavior can be divided into two categories:

1. How light interacts with matter and
2. How light travels, or propagates through space or through transparent materials.
- Interaction with Material

Light from many sources, such as the Sun, appears white. When white light passes
through a prism, however, it separates into a spectrum of different colors. The prism separates
the light by refracting, or bending, light of different colors at different angles. Red light bends
the least and violet light bends the most.

A. Refraction
-Is the bending of light when it passes from one kind of material into another. Because
light travels at a different speed in different materials, it must change speeds at the boundary
between two materials. If a beam of light hits this boundary at an angle, then light on the side
of the beam that hits first will be forced to slow down or speed up before light on the other side
hits the new material. This makes the beam bend, or refract, at the boundary. Light bouncing
off an object underwater, for instance, travels first through the water and then through the air
to reach an observer’s eye. From certain angles an object that is partially submerged appears
bent where it enters the water because light from the part underwater is being refracted.
B. Reflection
Also occurs when light hits the boundary between two materials. Some of the light
hitting the boundary will be reflected into the first material. If light strikes the boundary at an
angle, the light is reflected at the same angle, similar to the way balls bounce when they hit the
floor.

Kinds of reflection
1. Specular reflection- if the surface is so smooth and polished that the reflected rays
are not scattered.
2. Diffuse reflection- when reflected light is scattered by a rough or matter surface.

C. Scattering or Diffraction
-Occurs when the atoms of a transparent material are not smoothly distributed over
distances greater than the length of a light wave, but are bunched up into lumps of molecules
or particles. The sky is bright because molecules and particles in the air scatter sunlight. Light
with higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths is scattered more than light with lower
frequencies and longer wavelengths.

MEDIUMS OF LIGHT

Objects that influence the intensity of light as they may reflect absorb or transmit.
Mediums of light maybe classified as:

1. TRANSPARENT OBJECTS – mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow
to pass freely in other respects, transmit 90% or more of the incident light.

2. TRANSLUCENT OBJECTS – mediums that allow light to pass through it in such a way that
the outline of the source of light is not clearly visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.

3. OPAQUE OBJECTS – A medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow lights to pass
though, they absorb most of the light while reflecting some of it.

THE RAT LAW

When incident light hits a medium, three things might happen, the light maybe:

Reflected
Absorbed
Transmitted

COLORS OF LIGHT FOUND IN VISIBLE SPECTRUM

 Visible Spectrum - a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light
is found, the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that affect the human sense of sight.
Visible light includes all those radiation having a wavelength ranging from 400 – 700 mu.

COLOR

Primary Colors Approximate Wavelength

Red (longest wavelength) 700 mu
Blue 450 mu
Green 550 mu

Complementary Colors
A. Magenta (shortest wavelength) 400 mu
B. Cyan 500 mu
C. Yellow 590 mu

Neutral Color
Gray
White
Black

COLOR MIXING

1. Color Addition
R+B+G = W
R+B= M M+Y= W
R+G= Y M+C=W
B+G= C Y+C=W

2. Color Subtraction
W-R= C W-C=R C-G=B
W-B=Y W-Y=B Y-G=R
W-G=M W-M=G Y-R=G

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS

The three primary colors in light are red, green and blue. White light can be made by
mixing red, blue and green. The process of making colors by mixing primary colors of light is
called addition, because one color is added to another.

Colors made by combining two primary colors are called secondary colors. They are
yellow (red and green), cyan (blue and green) and magenta (blue and red). When the primary
colors are mixed in different proportions any color at all can be produced.

Painted objects do not produce their own light, they reflect light, when objects look red,
because it is reflecting only red light to our eyes. To do this, it absorbed the other primary
colors in the white light it is reflecting. It absorbed green and blue and reflects red.
PRIMARY COLORS FORMULA SECONDARY COLORS
1. Red Red + Blue Magenta
2. Blue Blue + Green Cyan
3. Green Green + Red Yellow

SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY/MODERN SCIENTIFIC PHOTOGRAPHIC

TECHNIQUES
1. INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY
 Infrared photography is the recording of images formed by infrared radiation.
 These uses a special films that are sensitive to infrared radiation.
 Infrared rays which are invisible, have a longer wavelength than visible light. They can
penetrate haze that scatters the waves of visible light. For this reason, infrared
photographs often much clearer than ordinary photographs.
 Pictures can be taken with infrared rays even at night or in complete darkness.

USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

1. Questioned documents. Even crossed-out words or writings on a charred piece of
paper can be read if photographs of them are taken with infrared rays.
2. Aerial photography.
3. Infrared photography can enhance the contrast of the terrain.
Coniferous (darker) and deciduous (lighter) growth is differentiated.
4. Surveillance photography.
5. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregularities in cloth.
6. Detection of certain types of secret writings.
7. It can differentiate inks, dyes, and pigments that appears visually the same;
8. Fabrics that appear to be similar but have been dyed differently can be identified by
infrared;
9. It may also reveal the contents of sealed envelopes;
10. It is also valuable in detecting stains on cloth, including blood stains that are not visible
to the eye; and,
11. Powder residues surrounding bullet holes in cloth, even when the fabric is dark in color
or bloodstained, may be made visible by infrared.

2. ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY
 Some materials will absorb ultraviolet, while others will reflect these radiations. Some
have partial reflection. These effects can be recorded photographically using ultraviolet
radiation.
 Black-and-white films are sensitive to most wavelengths of ultraviolet. By using a filter
that absorbs all visible light but passes ultraviolet, it is possible to make a photographic
exposure with just ultraviolet.
USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT
1. Try ultraviolet photography after visible light techniques and infrared light techniques
fail (questioned documents, etc.).
2. Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces (dust with fluorescent powder or ninhydrin).
3. Body secretions such as urine, semen and perspiration often glow when illuminated by
ultraviolet light.
4. Money and other valuables can be dusted or marked to identify thiefs.
5. Photographing “invisible ink”.

3. X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY
 This is widely use in medicine, industry, and science. It is quite different from ordinary
photography.
 X rays are invisible electromagnetic waves. They behave much like visible light. But
they can pass through things such as wood, cardboard, and flesh, which light cannot
penetrate.

4. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY
 It combines a camera with microscope. Pictures can then be taken of things too small
to be seen with naked eye.
 A photograph taken through a microscope is called photomicrograph.
 Photomicrography is the practice of photographing very small objects in order that they
may be seen in comfort. (One should not confuse this with micro-photography, which
is the opposite.)

5. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHY – A.K.A. Micro-filming

 This is photography made on a vastly reduced scale, to be observed using a
microscope or projected using a "magic lantern."
  Though George Shadbolt is credited with being the inventor of micro-photography,
the first known example of micro-photography was by John Benjamin Dancer, in
1839, when he produced photographs 15mm in diameter.
 Micro-photography is the production of photographs in which the image of an objects
is reproduced much smaller than it actually is. It is just the opposite of
photomacrography.

6. MACROPHOTOGRAPHY
 Photography of a subject where the image is recorded in the same or larger than
actual size.
 It is the process of obtaining a magnified photograph of a small object without the use
of a microscope, by using a short focus lens or macro lens/close-up lens and a long
bellow extension.

USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK:

1. Identification files- Criminals missing persons, lost property, licenses, anonymous letters,
bad checks, laundry marks, and civilian of personal fingerprint IF In the case of atomic attack or
a catastrophe such as an airplane crash, the fingerprints from a civilian file are proving helpful
in making positive identification

2. Communication and microfilm files- Investigative report files, Accident files transitions of
photos (Wire Photo) Photographic supplements to reports. With modern day electro
photography machines accident reports can be made in seconds and sold to insurance adjusters
for nominal fees. An excellent source of revenue for department is the sale of photographs of
traffic accidents to insurance companies and lawyers.

3. Evidence- Crime scenes, traffic accidents, homicides suicides, fires, objects of evidence,
latent fingerprint traces. Evidence can be improved by contrast control, by magnification and by
visible radiation.

4. Offender detection – Surveillance, burglar traps, confession, reenactment of crimes

intoxicated driver test. One of the newest applications of police photography is to record on
motion picture film arrests in which the suspect offers resistance. The practice has been
instituted by at least one metropolitan law enforcement agency to counter charges of police
brutality.

5. Court exhibits- Demonstration enlargements, individual photos, projection slides, motion

pictures.

6. Reproduction or Copying – Questionable checks and documents, evidential papers,

photographs, official records and notices.

7. Personnel training- Photographs and films relating police tactics, investigation techniques,
mob control, and catastrophe situations.

8. Crime and Fire prevention – Hazard lectures, security clearance, detector devices, photos
of hazardous fire, conditions made when fire prevention inspection are made.

9. Public relations – Films pertaining to safety programs, juvenile delinquency, traffic

education, public cooperation, and civil defense.

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Forensic- the process of photographing or recording crime scene or any other objects
for court presentation.
2. Photomicrography- the art of photographing minute objects when magnified by
Means of microscope and enlarge from 10X up.
3. Photomacrography- photographing of an objects directly enlarge to the negative and
magnified from 1 to 9X.
4. Infra- red- the art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by means
of infra red light.
 Example: charred or burnt documents, over written documents and internal injuries.
5. Ultra- violet- the art or process of photographing unseen objects by the use of ultra-
violet light and filters.
Example: over- written documents, marked money: counterfeited bills, etc.
6. X- ray- the process of photographing or recording internal structure of the body.
7. Flash Photography- applies to the techniques whereby exposures are made with
illumination from one or more photoflash.
8. Microphotography- a very small photograph as encountered in microfilming.
9. Macro-photography- close-up photography usually in the range life-size to 10X life
size.
10. Streak Photography- a type of photography that traces movement by either the
camera or the subject being moved during exposure.
11. Night-time Photography- Night photography without a flash is now possible with
Many modern cameras, but the long exposure time required means that it is advisable
to use the fast film (ISO 400-1600). Use a tripod to avoid camera shake.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Light- is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of
186,000 miles per second.
2. Camera-The most important tool of photography. Is a light tight box with a lens on one
side and light-sensitive film on the other.
3. Lens- The lens is the eye of the camera. Its function is to bring light from the subject into
focus on the film.
4. Sensitized material- it composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is
Capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical
processes.(film and photo paper)
5. Chemical Process- is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a
Latent image and a positive image are made resulting to what we called PHOTOGRAPH.

DIFFERENT VIEWS IN PHOTOGRAPHING

1. GENERAL VIEW- is the taking of an over all view of the scene of the crime. It shows
direction and location of the crime scene.
2. MEDIUM VIEW- is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into
section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.
3. CLOSE-UP VIEW- is the taking of an individual’s photograph of the evidence at the scene
of the crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.
4. EXTREME CLOSE-UP VIEW- it is commonly designed in laboratory photographing using
some magnification such as photomicrography and photomacrography.

The Camera and Accessories

A camera is essentially a sealed with an opening at one end to admit light and a device
at the other end for holding photographic film or other light sensitive material.
This section deals with still cameras – cameras that take still, rather than motion pictures.
Modern cameras operate on the basic principle of the camera obscura. Light passing through a
tiny hole, or aperture, into an otherwise light-proof box casts an image on the surface opposite
the aperture. The addition of a lens sharpens the image, and film makes possible a fixed,
reproducible image.
The camera is the mechanism by which film can be exposed in a controlled manner.
Although they differ in structural details, modern cameras consist of four basic components:
body, shutter, diaphragm, and lens. Located in the body is a light-proof chamber (Latin,
camera) in which film is held and exposed. Also in the body, located opposite the film and
behind the lens, are the diaphragm and shutter. The lens, which is attached to the front of the
body, is actually a grouping of optical glass lenses. Housed in a metal ring or cylinder, it allows
the photographer to focus an image on the film. The lens may be fixed in place or set in a
movable mount. Objects located at various distances from the camera can be brought into
sharp focus by adjusting the distance between the lens and the film.

Basic Parts Of Camera

 1. This
2. main part is called the body (light tight box).
2. The second part is the shutter which might be located in the lens (leaf shutter or
between the lens shutter) or it might be located right in front of the film (focal plane shutter).
3. The lens lets in light. It draws the light into the camera and focuses it on the film
plane. The larger the lens the more light. The lens also effects how large the image appears
based on the focal length of the lens.
4. The aperture is located in the lens and is a set of leaf like piece of metal that can
change the size of the hole that lets in light. We consider the lens to be part of the shutter as
we do not actually need a lens to focus an image if we have a small enough hole to let in the
light.
5. Finally, the film holder inside the camera. This must have some attachment that
allows for the film to be moved which can either be a lever or a motor.

Camera Accessories
a. Tripod – It is a triple leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable extension. This
can be used in holding the camera when the camera is bulky or when using a shutter
speed lower than one twenty five of a second (1/25), to prevent the movement that will
produce a blurred image in the photograph.

b. Cable Release – This is attached to the shutter release of the camera and used in
releasing and closing the shutter to prevent accidental movement of the camera during
the exposure period especially when longer exposure is made.

c. Flash Units – Flash bulbs or electric flash which synchronizes with the opening and
closing of shutter. This is very effective to augment the adverse lighting condition of the
object(s) being photographed.

d. Light Meter – Is a devise used in determining the intensity of light that strike the
subject and affect the film inside the camera.
Light meter can be:
(a) Extinction Meter – The reflected light from the shadow as seen by the naked
eye is estimated or calculated by direct observation of the photographer.
(b) Photoelectric Meter – The most dependable device that will measure the
brightness of light. It is pointed toward the subject(s) to be photographed and
converted the light into electric energy that makes the needle of the meter to
move across the scale, the reading is taken to the conversion table given the
proper exposure.

e. Extension Tube – a devise used in photographing a minute object. It is attached to

the lens board of the camera and the lens is attached to it when close-up photography
is necessary.

f. Filter – A transparent medium which transmits and absorbs different wavelength of

lights usually made of glass or gelatin material placed in front of the camera lens.

BASIC PARTS OF A MODERN CAMERA

1. BODY OR LIGHT TIGHT box – an enclosed devoid of light

2. LENS OR PINHOLE – to focus rays of light that is reflected by (or diverging from) the
subject unto the film. The lens is the image forming device on a camera. It may be composed
of from one to as many as 10 or 12 elements. The first cameras were fitted with a single
element meniscus lens (a lens with one concave and one convex surface). In addition to its
very low speed, this type of lens suffers from a number of inherent optical defects and it was
soon replaced with greatly improved more complicated designs. The single element lens
remained in use on inexpensive cameras, however and within limits was capable of producing
very acceptable results.
3. FILM HOLDER – to hold firmly the light sensitive material in the correct plane during the
exposure interval, located at the opposite side end of the lens of any camera.
4. SHUTTER – the door of the camera; it control when and for how long light falls on the film.
The shutter serves as the barrier of the light rays that enters and affects the film inside the
camera. There are two types of shutter based on position in the camera. They are:
a. LEAF SHUTTER – shutter that is found either between the lens elements in the lens,
made of small overlapping metal blades powered by a spring and generally placed either in
between the lens known as the central plan shutter or after the lens of the camera. The leaf
type, like the diaphragm is made up of a number of thin metal blades that are opened and
closed either by a spring driver clockwork mechanism, or in many recent models by an
electromechanical device.
b. FOCAL PLANE SHUTTER- shutter that is found adjacent to the film; made of black
cloth of small sheet of metal which is also powered by a spring and generally found in the film
plane. When the shutter release button is pushed or pressed, leaf shutter is opened and closed
again in pre set time in the shutter speed dial of the camera. The focal plane shutter in modern
cameras usually consists of two pieces of rubberized fabric that move across the focal plane.

5. VIEWING SYSTEM or VIEWFINDER – used to determine what will be included or

covered in the picture.

OTHER PARTS OF THE CAMERA

1. FILM TRASNPORT MECHANISM – moves new unexposed film into position for the next
photograph.
2. FILM ADVANCER – necessary so that the exposed film can be transferred to the take up
spool while the unexposed film remains on the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
3. FILM ADVANCE LEVER
4. FILM REWIND CRANK
5. FILM REWIND KNOB
6. TAKE UP SPOOL

Basic Mechanism Of SLR Camera

1. SHUTTER SPEED DIAL – (SSD) – controls the opening and closing of the shutter;
regulates quantity of light that reaches and affects the film inside the camera; a dial which sets
the length of time in which the light is allowed to enter the camera.
2. SHUTTER RELEASE BUTTON- the click of the camera which releases the shutter.
3. FOCUSING MECHANISM – the mechanism that estimates the appropriate objects distance
from the camera to form a sharp or clear image on the photograph.
a. Focusing Ring – the outer ring of the lens which is rotated or adjusted to obtain a
clear and sharp photograph enables the photographer to adjust focal range.
b. Distance Scale – the focus index or range of sharp focus, a set of numbers which
determines the appropriate depth of field.
4. DIAPHRAGM – the window to control how much light reaches the film, the mechanical
device in the focusing assembly that is used by the photographer to adjust the aperture. The
APERTURE refers to the diameter (size) of the camera lens opening. Aperture is manifested by
the F-stop step in the diaphragm ring.
a. F-stop ring or Diaphragm Ring
b. F-stop or F-Numbers – the numbers indicating the size of lens opening located at
the inner ring of the focusing mechanism. The lower the f stop that is set, the bigger the
opening.
5. ASA DIAL FILM SPEED DIAL
6. FLASH UNITS
a. Flash Terminal
b. Flash accessory shoe
c. Plane Accessory Shoe
d. Hot shoe – when there are slight metal protrusion for electronic contact
7. TIMER/SELF TIMER
8. CABLE RELEASE – used in conjunction with a tripod.

Other Parts Of Autofocus Camera

Mirror Lock-up Button

 When pressed, this button manually lifts the mirror inside the camera. This is useful for
minimizing camera shake, which can cause out-of-focus image during high magnification
photography.

Autofocus/Manual Focus Button

On most autofocus cameras, there will be a button either on the camera or on the lens
which turns the autofocus feature on and off. For those times when autofocus is inconvenient,
this is a nice feature.

ISO/ASA Button or Dial

The ISO is the abbreviation for the International Standards Organization. In the “old
days” this was called the ASA or American Standards Association. The numbers indicate the
sensitivity of a film to light, and the higher the ISO, the more sensitive the film. For example,
200 speed film is twice as sensitive as 100 speed film and requires a faster shutter speed or
smaller aperture. And 400 speed film would be twice as fast as 200. The ISO control tells the
camera which speed film is in the camera. In modern cameras, there is a sensor which reads
the coding on the side of the film canister, called “Dx”, and relays this information to the
camera. The ISO control overrides that setting.

Lens Release Button

To remove the lens from the body on most new cameras, press in this button and twist
the lens to unlatch it. On some older cameras, the lens is literally unscrewed from the body. If
you are having problems focusing with authofocus cameras and lenses, check to make sure the
lens is tightly fastened to the camera body.

Exposure Lock Button

Press this button to “freeze” the exposure setting on the meter. This is useful if your
composition places the neutral-toned object away from the metering points. Meter the subject,
lock the exposure and recompose, and take the picture.

Manual Advance Lever

Most newer cameras automatically advance the film after the exposure is finished. Older
cameras have a manual advance lever located near the thumb when the finger is on the shutter
release. Pulling this out turns on the meter. Ratcheting this9 out and to the right advances the
film and readies the camera for the next shot.

Exposure Compensation Wheel or Button

This tells the camera to over-or under-expose the film by a specified amount, usually up
to 2 stops plus or minus.

Self Timer
This button will set the camera to take a picture 2 to 20 seconds after you press the
shutter. This is the feature your use to put yourself in the photograph. It’s also useful if you
have forgotten or lost the cable release.

Fancy Buttons
Cameras with a lot of bells and whistles have assorted buttons which allow your to do
fun things. You can print the date on your film, turn the beep on or off, take multiple
exposures, change the options, rewind the film, and control the bracketing capabilities.

Off/On
The off and on buttons all look different on different cameras, some cameras have a
switch which slides, twists or swings. Some older camera turn-on their meters (that means the
camera is on the power is draining from the battery) when the film advance lever is pulled out.
Some camera requires two moves instead of one to turn it on; push in and turn at the same
time.

Program Buttons
Most cameras come with a variety of program selections. They are often marked with a
letter of the alphabet and you are supposed to understand what it means. Here is a brief list.
For more specific information, look in your manual.
Program mode
In this mode, the camera will automatically set the shutter and aperture for the
appropriate average exposure. It does all the thinking for you.

Manual mode
This is when you become the brains of the camera. Manual mode means the camera’s
meter will tell you when it thinks the exposure is correct, but your have to choose both the
aperture and the shutter speed.

A or Av Aperture Priority
Similar to program mode, you choose the aperture and the camera will match it with an
appropriate shutter speed. This is good for determining the correct depth of field and letting the
camera choose the rest.

Auto or Aperture
In older cameras, this may mean Auto, which is the same as Program mode. In other
cameras, it could mean aperture.

S or Tv shutter Priority
Similar to aperture priority, you choose the shutter speed and the camera will choose an
appropriate aperture. This is good for moving subjects, allowing you to choose the speed you
wish to ‘stop’ them at. Tv means “time value”

Xflash mode
This sets the shutter speed to the maximum speed the camera is capable of using while
still synchronizing with a flash. In X mode, the shutter is locked to the flash speed and you may
adjust the aperture to the desired depth of field.

B-Bulb
In this mode, you have manual control over the shutter, it will stay open as long as you
hold your finger down on the shutter button. Your must still set the aperture to the desired
setting, but this allows you to keep the shutter open for long periods of time. This is a fun
creative tool especially for night photography or long, low light exposure.

Depth of Field Preview Button

This is another feature which does not exist on many newer cameras. The depth of field
preview button closes the lens aperture to the selected F-stop so that you can preview the
depth of field before taking the photo. For those who don’t recognize the name, this is the
button that makes everything in the viewfinder get darker. The depth of field preview button is
useful so you can see if you have chosen an aperture which will hold the subject sharp.

The SLR design concept

There are several reasons why you do not see a subject exactly as the lens views it:
Most SLR viewfinders crop (or call off) several millimeters along all four edges of the image to
compensate for a margin covered by the average slide mount or negative carrier in an enlarger.
There is a depth-of-field-preview lever or button on most SLR cameras with which you stop
down the lens to check the area of sharp focus. However, until you activate the d.o.f. Preview,
you view a scene with the focus characteristics of a specific lens at widest aperture. This is not
necessarily a handicap, and is paralleled by the view you get on the ground glass of a view
camera, which does not indicate precise d.o.f until you stop down the lens.

Brightness of image through an SLR finder is influenced by the maximum aperture of

the lens in use. The film and the naked eye may see more detail in shadows than you observed
in the viewfinder when the light level is low.

LENSES
How a lens work

I. LENS
 The lens of a camera consist of one or more glass or plastic disk with flat, concave, or
convex surfaces, each disk is called element. The purpose of the lens is to focus light on the
film.

DEFINITION OF LENS

 A transparent material that has two opposite symmetrical surfaces.

 Any transparent device for concentrating or dispersing radiation by diffraction.
 A lens is a piece of glass, plastic or any transparent substance bounded by two surfaces
of different curvature, generally spherical, or by one spherical or curved, and one plane
surface, by which rays of light maybe made to converge or diverge.

The focal length of the lens is the distance between the optical center and the film. For
any given film size, the shorter the focal length is, the greater the field of view – that is, the
greater the area covered in the picture. Focal length also affects depth of field – the amount of
the foreground and background that will be in sharp focus in the picture. The shorter the focal
the greater is the depth of field.
Lenses of various focal lengths can be used interchangeably on some cameras, allowing
the photographer to vary the field of view without taking the camera to a different position. A
zoom lens has an adjustable focal length and stays focused on one object as its focal length is
change.
The light power of the lens is determined by the ratio of its focal length to its effective
diameter (the effective diameter is equal to the diameter of the aperture - the circular opening
that controls the amount of light that passes through the lens). The ratio expressed with the
symbol f/ , is called the f- number. The larger the aperture in relation to the focal length, the
smaller is the f- number.

BASIC JOB OF LENSES

All photographic lenses do the same basic job. Collect light rays from a scene in front of
the camera and project them as images unto the film at the back. However, the choice of
lenses also plays a very important role in the creative aspects of photography.

CAMERA LENSES CAN BE USED TO CONTROL THE

 Amount of light that reaches the film.

 Magnification of the image.
 Lastly, area of the image to be recorded on the film.

II. Typology Of Lenses

There are two types of lenses, the converging and diverging lens. As to converging
lenses we have the double convex, Plano convex and the concavo-convex. Under diverging
lenses we have double concave, Plano concave and the concavo concave.
1. CONVEX LENS – CONVERGING LENS

Used in the focusing assembly/mechanism of the camera. A lens that gathers light and
refract them to meet at the certain point.

A convex lens causes light rays to converge, or come together, and is called a positive
lens. A positive lens focuses light form a distant source into visible image that appears on then
opposite side of the lens to the object.

A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges. When parallel rays of light pass
through this type of lens, they are bent inward and meet at a point called the focus. The
distance from the center of the lens to the focus is known as the focal length.

The size, position, and type of image produced by a converging lens vary according to
the distance of the object from the lens. If an object is more than one focal length from the
lens, an inverted real image of it is formed on the opposite side of the lens. Light rays from the
object pass through a real image and can be focused on a screen. When an object is located a
distance of two focal lengths on a converging lens, the image is the same size as the object and
is located on the opposite side of the lens. A smaller image of the object can be obtained by
moving the objects by more than two focal lengths from the lens. Placing the object between
one and two focal lengths from the lens can produce a larger image.

If the object is less than one focal length from the lens, no real image can be formed.
Instead a magnified virtual image is formed behind the object and is right side up. Light rays
from the object do not pass through a virtual image, and such an image cannot be focused on
the screen.

A convex lens has a thick centre and thinner edges. Light passing through a convex lens
is bent inward, or made to converge. This causes an image of the object to form on a screen on
the opposite side of the lens. The image is in focus if the screen is placed at a particular
distance from the lens that depends upon the distance of the object and the focal point of the
lens. This diagram shows how rays of light starting from a point, O, on the object, strike the
lens and are then brought to focus at another point, I. The same applies to every point on the
object, as is shown by the pair of points P and J; thus an image, exactly similar to the object is
built up.

a. SIMPLE CONVEX – convexo – convex

b. SPECIAL CONVEX – special positive lens
B.1 – Plano – convex
B.2 – convexo – concave

2. CONCAVE LENS – DIVERGING LENS

Concave lens or negative lens spreads the light depends on the amount of curved on the
faces of the lens. The distance between the lens and the image it produces is called the FOCAL
LENGTH. The shorter the focal length, the smaller the image. The greater the curvature of the
faces of the lens, the shorter its focal length will be.
Lens that posses at least one surface that curves inward. It is a diverging lens,
spreading out those light rays that have been refracted to it. Concave lens is thicker at the
edges than they are at the center. Light rays passing through a diverging lens are bent
outward. Diverging lens form only virtual image.

A. SIMPLE CONCAVE – concavo – concave

Biconcave lens (with both surfaces curved inward)

B. SPECIAL CONCAVE – special negative lens

b.1. Plano - concave – lens with one flat surface and one concave.
b.2. Concavo – convex
A concave lens is curved inward; it is shaped like two dishes placed back-to-back. Light passing
through a concave lens bends outward, or diverges. Unlike convex lenses, which produce real
images, concave lenses produce only virtual images. A virtual image is one from which light
rays only appear to come. This one appears as a smaller image just in front of the actual object
(in this case a shamrock). Concave lenses are generally prescribed for myopic, or short-sighted,
people. Concave lenses help the eyes to produce a sharp image on the retina instead of in front
of it.

3. COMPOUND LENSES
Simple lenses generally produce aberrated (imperfect) images. This imperfection in
image formation can be reduced using compound lenses.

III. TYPES OF LENSES BASED ON LENS SPEED

Lens speed refers to the largest opening of the diaphragm that the light can pass
through it determines the maximum intensity of the light entering the light tight box.

1. FAST LENS – Lens with high lens speed, a high lens speed is used during nighttime or in
dark room.
2. SLOW LENS – lens with low lens speed, used during daytime or where the room is very
bright.

IV. TYPES OF LENSES BASED ON THEIR FOCUS

Focus: the means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to form sharp
images.
It also refers to the point at which light rays converge. It is the point where a set of
lights rays converges after passing through a lens or other optical arrangement. It also refers to
the point from which rays appear to diverge, the place where the visual image is clearly formed,
as in the eye or a camera. The point of principal focus is called focal point.

Focusing is the process of changing the distance between the centers of the lens to the
focal plane. It is the technique of adjusting the focal length to get the sharp image of the object
or scene to be photographed.

Infinity refers to the distance so far removed from the observer that the rays of light
reflected to a lens from a point at the distance maybe regarded as parallel. It is a distance
setting on a camera focusing scale, beyond which all objects are in focus.
REAL FOCUS – the point of convergence of the light rays.
VIRTUAL FOCUS - the point where diverging rays would meet if their direction were reversed.

In terms of focus, there are two types of lenses sold today:

1. AUTO FOCUS – are the predominant types to the market. AFLSR’s focus using a phase
detection system that slits the incoming light into two or more parts and compares them to
determine the amount of DEFOCUS. AF is not perfect, but the technology has greatly improved
since the first AF lenses made their appearance. As it is, sometimes this phase detection system
can have difficulty with dim lighting and fast – moving objects, but they are more accurate than
the infrared systems found on point and shot cameras.

2. MANUAL – FOCUS LENSES – YOU SIMPLY TURN THE FOCUSING RING BY HAND UNTIL
THE SUBJECT IS SHARP IN THE VIEW FINDER. Although AF lenses dominate the market today,
nearly all interchangeable AF Lenses allow the user to over ride the AF mode with the manual
focus option. These lenses usually have a switch on the barrel, so that you can choose one or
the other to suit the shooting circumstances.

WHY DO LENSES VARY TO EACH OTHER?

The most important way lenses differ is in their FOCAL LENGTH.

FOCAL LENGTH – the distance between the lens and the film plane when the lens is focused
on infinity. Focal length controls magnification (the size of the image formed by the lens). A
lens is also described in terms of its view angle, the mount of the image shown on the film.

V. GROUP OF LENSES ACCORDING TO THE ANGLE OF VIEW

1. Normal Lens – A lens with a focal length equal to the diagonal measure the image area.
The image area of 35 mm camera is 24x36 mm, thus a normal lens for any 35 mm SLR is 50
mm international standards, 50 mm lens may have an actual focal length of 48 – 52 mm, and
the normal lens has a picture angle of 5 degrees that correspond to the viewing angle of the
human eye.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Optimum area coverage than any lens type.
 Minimum distortion and fewer common lens defects.
  Angle of view equal to 75 degrees but not less than 45 degrees.

2. Wide Angle Lens – The wide-angle lens has a shorter focal length than the normal lens. As
a result, it covers a picture angle of 60 – 90 degrees. It enables photographing a widely
extended scene from a close proximity or within a confined area.

The range for wide angles for 35 mm SLR cameras includes 8mm, 24mm, 28 mm, and 35 mm.
The 28 mm and 35 mm are the most important for general wide angle for police work.

CHARACTERISTICS:

 Reduced scale but increases area coverage compared with any lens at the same
distance.
 Increased deep perception at a given scale.
 Increased distortion toward the edges of the negative material.
 Reducing illumination from the center toward the edges of the negative material.
 Angle of view exceeds 75 degrees.

3. Telephoto Lens – as telephoto lens or long focus lens has a longer focal length and
provides a close up image of a distant object. In contrast to the wide-angle lens, the telephoto
lens covers a small field of view and a shallower depth of field. Because of shallow depth of
field, there will be lack of sharpness of the subject focus areas in the photograph to be
produced. Another characteristics of the telephoto lens is production of flat composition, far
objects appear enlarged while near objects do not appear proportionally large.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Increase scale but reduced area coverage compared to any lens type.
 Decreased depth perception.
 Image quality usually deteriorates which is apparent when subject is in great motion.
 Angle of view less than 45 degrees.

Lenses beyond 58 mm are included in the group of telephoto lenses. For identification shots in
police works, lenses of 85 to 135 mm focal length are frequently used. Long tele lenses are
those beyond 200 mm.

4. Super wide Angle Lenses – In this category are fish eye lenses with a 180 degrees angle
of view. Focal lengths run from an amazing 6 mm to about 18mm. F stop ranges begin at F 1.8
but average f 3.5 and f 4.

5. Macro Lenses – The word macro is derived from the Greek word and means, “ to enlarge “.
In photographic terms, a macro lens is designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot a
few inches from a subject. A lens used for close up photography particularly in taking pictures
in minute objects. Using a macro lens, the subject being photographed will appear bigger than
its actual size. This group of lens is most helpful in fingerprint work, in recording evidences such
as pollen grains, hair, fiber and the like.

Two Main Types of MACRO LENS:

 One is meant to be used on a held tripod mounted camera and ranges from 40 mm to
about 90 mm with the average about 25 mm.
 The other type is either a wide angle or a lens with a focal length with 100 mm or more
and is designed with a close up bellows attachment to the camera. The longer lenses
give a larger image and are most suitable for static subjects and painstaking
photography.

6. Zoom Lenses – The macro zoom is relatively new in both long and short-range classes. By
turning a ring on the lens barrel, you are able to focus as close as three four inches and still use
zoom capability. Such lens gives you close – ups as well as variable focal lengths. and the
macro zoom is taking this field. A final zoom category is the variable- focal length lens that
operates in the same manner as the zoom.
7. Special Purpose Lenses – Two special- purpose lenses in particular should be familiar to
you. The first is adjustable through movement of the front portion up and down for perspective
control (PC). Architectural photographers benefit using a PC lens that offers some control of
perspective similar to the using the tilting front and back of a view camera.

The other lens, a guide-number (GN) lens, includes a diaphragm mechanism that
changes aperture as the lens is focused to synchronize exposure and distance with specific flash
attachment on the camera. A GN lens can be handy, but the use of automatic electronic flash
unit would make the GN lens unnecessary.

Incidentally, a number of compact 35 mm range finder cameras with fixed (non

interchangeable) lenses are guide- number equipped. As a flash unit slips into the accessory
shoe on top of the camera a small pin is activated that synchronizes change of aperture with
focusing. In this way distant subjects are photographed through wider f tops than close ones,
giving the effect of exposure automation.

8. Add – On Teleconverter Lenses – Add-on lenses. Principal among add- on lenses is the
fishnet lens that is screwed into the front of a normal 35 mm camera lens, offering a super wide
effect for less cost than a separate fisheye lens.

FOCUSING THE LENS

It is important to have the lens at the right distance from the film otherwise the image
of an object point will be seen as a circle which is blurred in appearance. The permissible
diameter of this circle or disc must be small enough under certain viewing condition to make
impossible to distinguish it from a point. The image will be seen sharp as long as this circle
appears to the eye as a point. The diameter of the circle that can be accepted varies with the
application. The acuity of the vision of the eye and the condition under which the print is
viewed (contact or enlargement or projected).

For a pinhole camera no focusing is required because the aperture is too small that such
produces a point image of an object point. The image is almost equally good over a very wide
range of positions of the film.

For a lens camera to produce a sharp image must be focused at the subject. When the
camera lens is being focused at the subject one can observed that the lens travels back and
forth from the film. The lens must be focused at the object point to produce an image point
instead of a visible circle of light.
The question is how an object point pictured as an image point by focusing the lens?
Why are not all objects at different distances from the lens sharp in the picture? The light
bending ability of any one lens is constant that is the light is bend to the same degree.

GATHERING POWER OF LENS

The light gathering power of lens that is express F/ number system is equal to the ratio
of the focal length of the lens to the diameter of the aperture. It is otherwise called the relative
aperture.

A lens does not perform the same at all apertures. If an f/2 lens is being used its widest
aperture, it will have less depth, poorer resolution and coverage at the corners that if this same
lens were field stopped down to the point of best resolution.

It is important to differentiate between sharpness at the corners of the field and

illumination at these same points. Some lenses will give a needle-sharp image across the entire
slide, but lack of coverage will cause a darkening at the corners. Conversely, there are those
lenses that will give unsharp images at the corners although the illumination supplied by the
lens is absolutely uniform and no darkening will take place.

In most modern high-quality cameras performance at the center of the field is a seldom
a problem at any aperture; it’s the edges that make the difference. In the case of both
illumination and sharpness, the point of best performance usually occurs when a lens is stopped
down from two to three stops. Actually, this optimum diaphragm setting gives the greatest
amount of sharpness, brilliance, and gradation over the entire field.

When a lens, even a fine lens is used at its widest aperture, the extreme edges of the
lens are being used to form part of the image. These edges are major source of aberrations.
Stopping down prevents these aberrated rays from reaching the film; it might seem logical,
then, that the further the lens is stopped down, the better. This is not the case, here’ what
actually happens. As the lens is stopped down, further and further, the opening gets smaller
and smaller. When the opening gets so small two things happen. First of all the opening gets so
small that the thickness of the diaphragm leaves approach the diameter of the opening. When
this happen, the edges of the diaphragm become a refractive unit and a general loss of
sharpness occurs. A second phenomenon of a completely stopped down lens is shift of focus.
Since the image that strikes the film is made up of light from all portions of the lens, and the
lens is actually set for the focus of the rays passing through an area about 1/3 from its center.
In many lenses the point of focus between these extreme central rays that provides most of the
illumination (1/3 from the center) fall at different points, hence a loss of sharpness due to
apparent shift of focus.

VI. LENS DEFECTS

No lens is perfect in every respect. Usually a lens maker tries to find the best
compromise among such qualities as sharpness of definition, speed of light transmission,
simplicity of construction and others. Special purpose lenses however are computed for a single
purpose only and in order to achieve the maximum of usefulness in one special field, other
qualities are sacrificed.
Except, the very finest lenses, traces of the following common lens defects will be found
in all, such as chromatic aberration, spherical aberration, curvilinear, distortion, curvature of
field, astigmatism and others. No camera lens will produce defects so exaggerated as the ones
which will be demonstrated. However, even considerably less pronounced fault manifestation
maybe enough to produce fuzziness, which usually becomes more severe toward the edges of a
picture.
ABERRATION in optics, is the failure of light rays to focus properly after they pass
through a lens or reflect from a mirror. Proper focus occurs when the light rays cross one
another at a single point. ABERRATION occurs because of minute variations in lenses and
mirrors, and because different parts of the light spectrum are reflected or refracted by varying
amounts.
 ABERRATION also defined as an optical imperfection responsible for image distortion.
It can be avoided by combining several lenses and by elimination of marginal rays refracted
through the outer edges of the lens.
Lenses or mirrors that are sections of spheres produce spherical aberrations. If a beam
of parallel rays reflects from a concave mirror, the rays that reflects from the center of the
mirror cross one another at a single point. The ray that reflect far from the center cross at
points closer to the mirror surface. The imaginary line connecting these points of focus is called
a CAUSTIC.
A CAUSTIC appears as a bright line if it shines on a surface. For example, when
sunlight shines through the open top of a glass of milk and onto the curve interior acts as a
mirror. Consequently, the light reflects onto the milk in a caustic curve. Without aberration, a
bright spot would appear on the milk.
Convex lenses also produce spherical aberration. The light rays that pass through the
middle of the lens focus farther from the lens than do the rays that pass through the lens of the
edges. If the lens is in a camera, the image on the is blurry. To sharpen the image, a camera
has a small opening called a stop. The stop allows only the rays passing through the center of
the lens to reach the film. Thus, the rays focus at one spot on the film, and the picture is clear.

There are six ( 6 ) types of optical aberrations:

1. Spherical Aberration
2. Chromatic Aberrations
3. Astigmatism
4. Coma
5. Curvature of Field
6. Distortion

SPHERICAL ABERRATION:
Aberration Geometrical optics predicts that rays of light emanating from a point are
imaged by spherical optical elements as a small blur. The outer parts of a spherical surface
have a focal length different from that of the central area, and this defect causes a point to be
imaged as a small circle. The difference in focal length for the various parts of the spherical
section is called spherical aberration
Spherical Aberration is found in all lenses bounded by spherical aberration / surfaces.
The marginal portions of the lens bring rays of light to shorter focus than the central region.
The image of a point in space is therefore not a point, but a blur circle.
Spherical aberration is the focusing at the different parts of spherical lens. This
aberration occurs because light hitting the outer parts of the lens is bent more sharply and
comes to a focus sooner than that passing through the middle. In spherical aberration, the
image is blurred because different parts of a spherical lens or mirror have different focal
lengths.
When parallel marginal rays and axial rays passing through a simple lens focus at
several planes along the optical axis.

CHROMATIC ABERRATION:
All lenses (single) made of one material refract rays of short wavelength more strongly
than those of longer wavelength and so brings blue more to a shorter focus than red. The result
is that the image of a point white light is not a white point, but a blur circle bordered with
colors.
Chromatic aberration is the failure of different colored light rays to focus
after passing through a lens, focusing of light of different colors at different points
resulting in a blurred image. When white light, which consists of colors, passes through a
lens, the lens bends the rays. The rays then cross one another on the other side. The violet
rays bend more than the other colors and focus close to the lens. The red rays bend the least
and focus farther from the lens. Rays on the other colors focus at points between these two
points. In chromatic aberration the image is surrounded by colored fringes, because light at
different colors is brought to different focal points by a lens.
The inability of a lens to bring the different wavelengths (colors) of white light to a focus
on the same plane.
Because the index of refraction varies with wavelength, the focal length of a lens also
varies and causes longitudinal or axial chromatic aberration. Each wavelength forms an image
of a slightly different size, giving rise to what is known as lateral chromatic aberration.
Combinations of converging and diverging lenses and of components made of glasses with
different dispersions, help to minimize chromatic aberration. Mirrors are free of this defect. In
general, achromatic lens combinations are corrected for chromatic aberration for two or three
colours.

ASTIGMATISM:
Astigmatism is the defect in which the light coming from an off-axis object point is
spread along the direction of the optic axis. If the object is a vertical line, the cross section of
the refracted beam at successively greater distances from the lens is an ellipse that collapses
first into a horizontal line, spreads out again, and later becomes a vertical line
Astigmatism is the failure of a lens to produce a point image of an object point. Such
condition occurs when the lens surfaces are not symmetrical with respect to the principal axis of
the lens. An extreme example would be one surface is spherical and the other is cylindrical, or
when the lens surfaces are perfectly spherical but the beam of light from the object point
passes through the lens very obliquely.
In astigmatism, the image appears elliptical or cross shaped because of an irregularity in
the curvature of the lens. This is the inability of the lens to bring horizontal and vertical lines in
the subject to the same plane of focus in the image.
The inability of the lens to project a sharply focused image of both vertical and
horizontal lines upon the same plane, at one lens to image distance.

COMA:

The result of differences in lateral magnification for rays coming from an object point
not on the optic axis is an effect called coma. If coma is present, light from a point is spread
out into a family of circles that fit into a cone, and in a plane perpendicular to the optic axis the
image pattern is comet-shaped. Coma may be eliminated for a single object-image point pair,
but not for all such points, by a suitable choice of surfaces.
A pear – shaped image of small circle or point near the edges of the image plane.
 Coma occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing through different
circular zones is brought to a focus at different distances from the plane film. A spot of light
appears to have a tail, rather like a comet. In come, the images appear progressively elongated
toward the edge of the field of view. The term Coma was coined 1733 by French mathematician
Alexis Clairaut (1713 – 1765).

CURVATURE OF FIELD:
A curved, concave, or saucer – shaped image of an object which has a flat surface
produced by simple lens.
In curvature aberration the relation of the images of the different points are incorrect
with respect to one another. In curvature, the images of the different points of the plane image
lie on a curved surface, with points at the edge of the field lying nearer to the lens than those
at the center. In curvature, the images distance is different for different points of the same
object due to their differing distance from the axis.
The fuzziness increases toward the edge of the film. Refocusing brings different circle
into focus but others now are blurred.

DISTORTION:

Distortion arises from a variation of magnification with axial distance and is not caused
by a lack of sharpness in the image.
When there exists a different magnification for rays at different angles distortion exists.
Any straight light extending across the field is considered curved and for different lenses the
curvature maybe from or toward the center. The distortion is called barrel distortion ( in the
first case ). It is the common type of curvilinear defect.
The second distortion is the pincushion defect.
For correction two similar lenses, each of half necessary power are placed a short
distance apart, with a diaphragm between. Such a lens is called RECTILINEAR LENS.
VII. OTHER OPTICAL DEFECTS

These defects are usually corrected when the lens is designed; however, they can occur
if the lens is misused or through normal wear.

FLARE or OPTICAL FLARE

In a result of double reflection from inner lens surfaces. It exhibits itself as a misty haze,
or a cloudy semicircular patch of light, which may cover part or all of the image. This doubly
reflection may form an image called a ghost image.

MECHANICAL FLARE

Are bright spots on the film caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of the lens such
as the stop, shutter lens mount, or from the camera itself

LIGHT LOSS

Most corrected lenses is coated with a substance which will reduce one type of flare
( optical ) and which will also increase the optics ability to transmit light thus reducing light loss.

STRAY LIGHT

Can be reduced or eliminated by using the proper lens shade placed on the front of the
lens as shield.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS
I. FILM
A film consists basically, of a random scattering of light sensitive silver halides suspended in a
layer of animal gelatin which is coated onto acetate support or base.
A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate composition made in thin, flexible strips or
sheets and coated with a light-sensitive emulsion for taking photographs.

II. THE FILM STRUCTURE

A. STRUCTURE OF WHITE and BLACK FILM
1. TOP COATING (TOP LAYER) – scratch resistant coating also called gelatin coating, an over
coating composed of a thin transparent layer of a hard gelatin which help protect the silver
halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions. The hard gelatin, which is derived from cows,
contains SULFUR. The SULFUR is very much compatible with silver halides.
2. EMULSION LAYER – SILVER SALT + GELATIN – A layer composed of silver compounds which
are light sensitive and halogens (such as bromide, chloride and iodide bromide in fast film
emulsion). A silver compound when combined with a halogen becomes SILVER HALIDE. Silver
Halides are rare compound that are responsible in forming the so called the LATENT IMAGE in
the photographic film.
3. FILM BASE – commonly made of cellulose or other material such as paper, plastic, or glass,
which supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curling antihalation backing.
4. ANTIHALATION BACKING – a black dye applied on the rare surface of the film. Its function is
to absorb light that may penetrate the emulsion thus making the image sharper since it
suppresses double image. It prevents halo formation in the photograph. The black dye is
removed during processing by one of the chemicals in the developer. Its second function is to
control the film from curling inwards. (Towards the emulsion surface).

ILLUSTRATION

TOP COATING

EMULSION

BASE

ANTI-HALATION BACKING

B. STRUCTURE OF COLOR FILM

1. TOP LAYER – sensitive to blue light only, green and red light passes through it without
exposing the color halide.
2. EMULSION LAYER
A. Blue filter
B. Yellow filter – CAREY LEA silver suspended in gelatin, it is coated between the top and
second layer to absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing green and red light to pass
through.
C. Green filter – a layer that is orthochromatic, the layer sensitive to blue light (which can not
reach it) and green, but not to red light pass on to the bottom of the emulsion layer.
D. Red filter – a panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue (which can’t reach it) and red. It is also
sensitive to green light but to a slight degree that is insignificant.

ANTIHALATION BACKING / COATING

FILM BASE – Plastic film base

Emulsions are thin, gelatinous, light-sensitive coatings on film that react chemically to
capture the color and shadings of a scene. The four layers pictured above show the same
image as it would appear on different emulsions in photographic film after the first stage of
developing. For black-and-white photographs, only one emulsion is required, because it is the
amount of light, not the color that activates the chemical reaction. Color film requires three
layers of emulsion, each of which is sensitive to only one of the primary colors of light: blue,
green, or red. As light passes through the layers, each emulsion records areas where its
particular color appears in the scene. When developed, the emulsion releases dye that is the
complementary color of the light recorded: blue light activates yellow dye, green light is
magenta, and red light is cyan (bluish-green). Complementary colors are used because they
produce the original color of the scene when the film is processed.
Color films are more complex than black-and-white films because they are designed to
reproduce the full range of color tones as color, not as black, white, and grey tones. The design
and composition of most color transparency films and color negative films are based on the
principles of the subtractive color process, in which the three primary colors, yellow, magenta,
and cyan (blue-green), are combined with their complements to reproduce a full range of
colors. Such films consist of three silver halide emulsions on a single layer. The top emulsion is
sensitive only to blue. Beneath this is a yellow filter that blocks blues but transmits greens and
reds to the second emulsion, which absorbs greens but not red. The bottom emulsion records
reds.
When color film is exposed to light by a camera, latent black-and-white images are formed on
each of the three emulsions. During processing, the chemical action of the developer creates
actual images in metallic silver, just as in black-and-white processing. The developer combines
with dye couplers incorporated into each of the emulsions to form cyan, magenta, and yellow
images. Then the film is bleached, leaving a negative image in the primary colors. In color
transparency film, unexposed silver-halide crystals not converted to metallic silver during the
initial development are converted to positive images in dye and silver during a second stage of
development. After the development action has been arrested, the film is bleached and the
image fixed on it.

C. TYPOLOGY OF FILMS
Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers. Each layer responding to only one
of the additive primary colors (red, blue and green). After exposure and during the film
processing, the yellow color of the filter layer is destroyed.
Films maybe classified according to their forms and types. Basically, films that are
available in the markets today are in various forms. They can be in rolls, in cartridges and cut
sheets. Light sensitivity of the film can be ascertained through its various types.
There are some films that are sensitive to all colors while there is some that are
sensitive only to one or specific set of colors.

*Classification according to USE

1. BLACK and WHITE FILM – for B and W Photography
2. COLOR FILM – films that have names ending in COLOR
- Color negatives for prints
The negative in this type of film is divided into blocks and is color positive. It is
composed of hue dyes. In between the blue and green hues, yellow gelatin is placed so that
the blue rays of light would not affect the green hue and in between the green and the red dye,
magenta gelatin is placed so that the green rays of light would not affect the red hue dye of the
emulsion.
3. CHROME FILMS – films with names ending in CHROME
For color transparency (slides); films that are exposed by slides, mounted in a cardboard for
slide projectors: reversal type.
4. X – RAY FILM – films that are sensitive to X- radiations

*Types based on FILM SPEED ( according to light sensitivity )

1. FAST FILM – contains numerous number of large grains of silver halides that usually develop
in groups; film that are very sensitive to light. When the available is dim, this type of film is the
best choice because of the low reflection power of the subject against a background. It is low in
contrast but high in brightness. However, the use of fast speed film is not advisable due to its
graininess result.
2. SLOW FILM – film that require longer period of time to completely expose their emulsion to
light; film with fine grains of silver halides.
 Film Speed Film is classified by speed as well as by format. Film speed is defined as an
emulsion's degree of sensitivity to light, and determines the amount of exposure required to
photograph a subject under given lighting conditions. The manufacturer of the film assigns a
standardized numerical rating in which high numbers correspond to “fast” emulsions and low
numbers to “slow” ones. The standards set by the International Standards Organization (ISO)
are used throughout the world, although some European manufacturers still use the German
Industrial Standard, or Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN). The ISO system evolved by combining
the DIN system with the ASA (the industry standard previously used in the United States). The
first number of an ISO rating, equivalent to an ASA rating, represents an arithmetic measure of
film speed, whereas the second number, equivalent to a DIN rating, represents a logarithmic
measure.
Low-speed films are generally rated from ISO 25/15 to ISO 100/21, but even slower films
exist. Kodak's Rapid Process Copy Film, a special process film, has an ISO rating of 0.06/-
12. Films in the ISO 125/22 to 200/24 range are considered medium speed, while films above
ISO 200/24 are considered fast. In recent years, many major manufacturers have introduced
super fast films with ISO ratings higher than 400/27. And certain films can be pushed well
beyond their ratings by exposing them as though they had a higher rating and developing them
for a greater length of time to compensate for the underexposure.
DX coding is a recent innovation in film and camera technology. DX-coded cartridges
of 35-mm film have printed on them a characteristic panel corresponding to an electronic code
that tells the camera the ISO rating of the film as well as the number of frames on the
roll. Many of the newer electronic cameras are equipped with DX sensors that electronically
sense this information and automatically adjust exposures accordingly.
Differences in sensitivity of a film emulsion to light depend on various chemical additives. For
example, hypersensitizing compounds increase film speed without affecting the film's colour
sensitivity. High-speed film can also be manufactured by increasing the concentration of large
silver-halide crystals in the emulsion. In recent years, a generation of faster, more sensitive
films has been created by altering the shape of crystals. Flatter silver-halide crystals offer
greater surface area. Films incorporating such crystals, such as Kodak's T-grain Kodacolour
films, have a correspondingly greater sensitivity to light.
The grain structure of faster films is generally heavier than that of slower films. Grain
structure may give rise to a mottled pattern on prints that have been greatly
enlarged. Photographs taken with slower-speed film appear less grainy when enlarged. Because
of the small size of their silver-halide grains, slow-speed films generally have a higher resolution
—that is, they can render fine details with greater sharpness—and can produce a broader range
of tones than fast films. When tonal range and sharpness of detail are not as important as
capturing a moving subject without blurring, fast films are used.

*Types based on SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY (color sensitivity)

Spectral sensitivity – responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of light
source.

1. MONOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensitive to a single color of light (for white and black)
A. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM – a film specially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of
light
B. ULTRA-VIOLET SENSITIVE FILM – sensitive to UV rays only

2. PANCHROMATIC FILM – sensitive to ultra-violet rays and all light found in the visible
spectrum, especially to blue and violet light. It is suitable for general use in the preparation of
black and white photography because it produces the most natural recording of colors.
Panchromatic films are further sub classified according to their degree of sensitivity to each
primary colors or light. There are three classes of panchromatic film. They are the following:
a. Process Panchromatic Film – permit short exposures under average lighting condition and
has the advantage of fine grain structure.
b. Grain Panchromatic Film
c. High Speed Panchromatic Film – designed originally for photographing objects under adverse
lighting condition.
Contrast of the panchromatic film usually varies with the color of the light and using filters can
attain proper contrast in photograph.

3. ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensitive to UV rays, blue and green colors, but not to
red. Red portions are recorded as dark tones, while green and blue parts appear as light tones
when printed. This type of film is popular in the market as the KODALITH FILM.

4. INFRARED FILM – a special type of film that is sensitive to infrared and ultra-violet radiation
(radiation beyond the human eye’s sensitive). It is also sensitive to all the colors found in the
visible spectrum. Although the infrared film is sensitive to blue color, a red filter can exclude the
blue color. The red filter transmits only long red and infrared radiation. IR film is useful in
penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength. In Investigative Photography, it is useful in
laboratory analysis of questioned documents, in discovering old (or faded) tattoos under the
skin, and in the construction of camera types.

D. FILM SPEED – (EMULSION SPEED)

EMULSION SPEED – the sensitivity of the film to light; the extent to which emulsion is sensitive
to light.
The light sensitivity of the film is also known as the FILM SPEED. Speed of the film is
determined through the numerical film speed labels given by the film manufacturer. There are
two classical speed ratings that became popular:

1. ASA (American Standard Association) rating - This is expressed in arithmetical value

system. The speed in numbers is directly proportional to the sensitivity of the material. A film
with an arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as one with a speed of 100.

2. DIN ( Deutche Industrie Norman ) rating – This is expressed in logarithmic value system. In
this system, an increase of 3 degree doubles the sensitivity of the film.

ISO rating (International Standards Organization) – combination of ASA and DIN rating. The
higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the film to light and the pictures can be taken
indoors or in dim light condition.
ISO 100-200 – film for general purpose
One film maybe rated ISO – 100, and another film ISO- 200. This means that the 200 films are
twice as fast (twice more sensitive to light) than the ISO-100 film. Hence, it would only require
half the amount of light to produce a satisfactory negative. Each time the film speed is doubled,
it is equal to one f / stop higher. For instance, in the example given, if ISO-1 is exposed at f / 8,
then ISO-200 should be exposed at f / 11 to produce the same negative image quality. Any film
above ISO-200 can be considered grain.

The suggested uses of the following film exposure under varying conditions are:
1. ISO – 25 – slowest speed that natural condition will permit, for best color and sharpness.
2. ISO – 100 to ISO – 200 – for general purpose
ISO – 100 – slow speed film; needs sufficient light and low shutter speed; has fine grains of
silver halides; produce sharp image.
ISO – 200 – twice as fast and as sensitive as ISO – 100; has large grains; produce large
sharp image.
3. ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
4. ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions or for fast moving objects

When DX is attached to the film speed, it means that the film automatically sets the film speed
dial (ASA dial).

E. FILM SIZE
1. 110 – for cartridge loading pocket cameras
2. 126 – for older and larger cartridge loading type
3. 120 – variation of the 2.25 inch-wide roll film that was first introduced for box cameras a
decade ago and now used in professional medium format cameras like the Hasselbald or
Mamiya.
4. 135 – commonly known as the mm. so named because the film is 35 mm wide
5. 220 – the same with 120 but twice as many exposure

FILM and LIGHT

An alteration in the spectral response of a photographic material brought about by a
change in the spectral distribution of energy in the light source used for exposure is a difference
in a relative brightness in which different colors are reproduced by the photographic material.
A comparison of the relative brightness in which the different colors of the original are
produced by two light sources shows that the employment of tungsten illumination with its
greater abundance of long wave radiation, has resulted in yellow, orange and red being
produced relatively lighter, and violet and blue darker, than with sunlight. The relative
brightness in which different colors are reproduced depends on the distribution of spectral
sensitivity with the particular light source used for the exposure. The greater the effective
sensitivity in any particular part of the spectrum, the greater the density of the negative and the
lighter the tone of gray in which the corresponding color sensation is represented in the print.

EXPOSURE
Photographic exposure is defined as the product of illumination and time. The unit of
exposure is usually in meter candle second which is equivalent to exposure produced by a light
source of one candlepower, in the second at a distance of one meter from the surface of the
sensitive material.
When light is brought in its focus by the camera lens and strikes the front surface of
the film emulsion, a number of tiny crystals of light sensitive silver halide rendered developable
forming later the image is known as the latent photographic image. This image becomes visible
by chemical development. This image conforms to the shape of the object points in the subject
according to the capability of the lens and film.
While at this point the light had done all that it has to do, however it continue to
penetrate the emulsion layers throughout whose depth lie suspended millions of other light
sensitive halide crystals. As the ray moves deeper and deeper into the emulsion, it moves
farther and farther away from its original point of entry into the emulsion, and parts are
scattered off in every direction. During this travel it has struck and therefore made developable,
many more light sensitive crystals than it originally affected to form the latent image at the
surface of the emulsion. Finally, it bumps into the anti- halation backing and is absorbed.

PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMISTRY AND PROCESSING FILM DEVELOPMENT

PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMISTRY AND PROCESSING
FILM DEVELOPMENT

I. FILM PROCESSING
There are four basic stages for development exposed film and two extra steps for
development color: development, stop bath, fixing bath and washing: also for developing color
film there need to be far more precession in controlling of temperature and timing.
1. DEVELOPING- is the process of converting the exposed image on the film into the
actual image. Exposed film affects the silver halides but the change is invisible. Developing
convert halide crystals on the film which will eventually enable the image to come into forms.
2. STOP BATH- the removal of the traces of developer as well as it helps in the
removal of excess or undeveloped silver halide after the first stage.
Stop development by neutralizing the developer. This prevents active developer
from contaminating further processing solution.
The use of stop bath is necessary to minimize the staining effect of the developer
and at the same time converse to some extent the strength of the fixing solution.
3. FIXING- even after developing the image is still invisible because the silver
halides are still present in the emulsion; the fixing bath is required to loosen the silver halides
from the unexposed halides so they can be washed away.
Removal of unexposed and undeveloped halides by converting them to soluble salts
which may be washed from the emulsion. Makes image permanent in w3hiote light.
4. WASHING- Final part of the processing cycle, which removes the residual
chemicals and soluble silver compounds from the emulsions and reveals the image.

II. DEVELOPING CHEMICALS

1. REDUCING AGENT- this is the most important chemical in any developing
solution. It is the one that reduces the exposed halides into visible metallic silver. Two
chemicals used most for this purpose are hydroquinone and metol. Hydroquinone works very
slowly and produces high contrast. Metol is a fast agent that develops good detail in the
shadow areas of an image. For general purpose, these two chemicals are combined in order to
obtain the best qualities.
2. ACCELERATORS- in order to reduce silver halides, most reducing agents must be
an alkaline state. Those reducing agents mentioned above are either neutral or slightly acid.
As a result, an alkali must be added to the developing solution. Such alkalis or accelerator
serve a double purpose. They energize the reducing agents and they soften and swell the
emulsion to permit the developer to penetrate deeply and quickly. The choice of alkali depends
upon the degree of contrast desired. The sodium carbonate is used in medium contrast
developers, sodium hydroxide is used for very high contrast, and borax is used for low and fine
grain.
3. PRESERVATIVES- A solution of water reducing agents and accelerator would
develop an image but would deteriorate rapidly because of oxidation. This is, oxygen would
combine with the reducing agents to sap its strength. The image would also be stained. To
prevent this, a chemical is added that has a greater attraction for oxygen than reducing agent.
This chemical usually sodium sulfite is called preservative. It prevents stain and makes the
developing solution more stable and longer lasting.
 4. RESTRAINERS- A developers mixed with the chemicals listed above would
“overwork” to the point where it reduces the unexposed silver halides. This would cause an
over all haziness of the negative called chemical fog. The developing action would be too fast to
be controlled accurately. As a result, a fourth ingredient called restrainer must be included in
the formula. As the name implies, this chemical restrain the action of the exposed areas of the
film and permits control of density and contrast. Potassium bromide is the agent generally used
or this purpose.
In other words, we start with reducing agent, but it won’t work until it is energized by
an accelerator; then it works too rapidly and must be restrained; at the same time it oxidizes
too fast and must be preserved.

III. TYPES OF DEVELOPER

1. TYPE A (D-72)
A developer for prints. Type A will reduce a very high contrast on films used for
copying B and W line drawings when used without dilution.
2. TYPE B (D-19)
This is a high contrast formula suitable for the development of film exposed under
dull or hazy lighting conditions.
3. TYPE C (DK-50)
The so called “normal” developer for photographs of subjects having average contrast
made under normal lighting conditions.
4. TYPE D (D-76)
Used when ever it is necessary to reduce excessive subjects and lighting contrast, or
both.
IV. FIXING CHEMICALS
Film that has been developed still contains the unexposed silver halides which
sensitive to light. If these were allowed to remain in the emulsion they would quickly turn dark
and obliterate or wipe out the image. The unexposed silver halides must remove. This has the
effect of making the developed image permanent and is called fixing. Fixing is accomplished by
treating the film in a chemical that makes the unexposed halides soluble in water so they may
be washed out of the emulsion. As in the case of developers, certain additional chemicals must
be used to perform other necessary functions.

1. Sodium thiosulfate- this basic chemical commonly called “hypo” is the one that dissolves the
unexposed silver halides.
2. Acetic acid (28%) - when the negative is removed from the developer, the emulsion is
saturated with the solution. Even if it is given a water rinse, some developer will remain and
continue its action. As the film comes in contact with plain hypo the remaining developer starts
to oxidize, causing stains. To prevent this, acetic acid is added to the fixing bath to neutralize
the developer.
3. Sodium sulfate- the addition acetic acid neutralizes the developer but causes the hypo to
break down, liberating sulfur. Sodium sulfite is added because it combines with the sulfur to
form new hypo. In this respect, sodium sulfite is a preservative just it is in a developing
solution.
4. Potassium alum- the emulsion swells and becomes soft during development and will continue
in that condition during fixation. This makes susceptible to scratches and if the solution
temperature is too high emulsion may “frill” or peel away from the edges of the film base.
Potassium alum is added to the fixing bath because it ahs the ability to toughen the emulsion.
5. Boric acid- adding the hardener to the fixing bath causes a milky sludge to form and reduce
the life of the solution. Boric acid is added to slow the action and prolong the usefulness of the
fixing bath.

V. DRYING
Hang your film to dry in a dust free environment. You can speed up the process of
dying by placing the film in a dryer.

PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE
The six crime scene activities and their basic order are:
Assessing
Observing
Documenting:
Notes
Photos
Sketches
Reports
Searching
Collecting
Analyzing

I. CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Crime scene photography seeks to establish a visual record of the condition of the
scene and the items present in it.
This record should lead the viewer from the overall perspective to the details of specific
objects.
Although simple in concept, there are recurring problems associated to crime scene
photography.

A. Objectives of Crime Scene Photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything regarding the crime.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where he find
things.
3. To help in securing or obtaining confession, description and information to the case.
B. Duties and Responsibilities of Crime Scene Photographer
1. In responding to SOCO/FLW requests, he should be well-equipped with all the necessary
equipment and materials such as camera with wide angle and normal lens, tripod, flash unit,
flood light, measuring tools, data board, pencil and rolls of film (colored and monochrome).
2. Check and ensure the serviceability of his equipment.
3. Responsible in looking after his security as well as his equipment.
4. Record the detail of SOCO/FLW responded, including the type of camera and the film used.
5. After the operation, he should immediately process the exposed film and print the negative
for filing and presentation in court.
6. He should strictly observed the procedures applicable in every crime scene to include
measurement and case identification.

II. RECURRING PROBLEMS IN PHOTOGRAPHY

Crime scene photography has four recurring problems that detract from its value. These are:
1. Identification Issues- Identification issues involve creating photographs where the viewer is
lost in the scene.
2. Orientation Issues- involve creating photographs where the viewer is lost in the scene or has
no orientation.
3. Confusion Issues- involve creating photographs where the viewer is unclear of which item is
being photographed or which photo came first.
4. Incomplete Documentation Issues- Incomplete documentation occurs when the crime scene
team fails to capture pertinent scene details.

III. CRIME SCENE PHOTO LOG

A crime scene photo log helps eliminate many of the issues discussed.
It is a written record of photos, detailing:
Administrative data.
What time the photos were taken and in what order.
What they show.
Other pertinent details as deemed necessary.

EXAMPLE:
Case #: 02-01-0045 Date: December 11, 2013
Camera Used: Nikon F2a Time: 1830-1940 Hrs
Film Type: ASA 400 Scene: IC 166 Betag LTB
Photographer: SA Brown Film Roll #: 1

IV. RULES IN CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

RULE 1: Do Not Disturb the Scene
RULE 2: Get a Complete Series of Pictures
RULE 3: Pay Attention to Camera Angles
RULE 4: Record All Data

V. TYPES OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. OVERALL PHOTOGRAPHS
Overall photographs are exposed with a wide angle lens or in a fashion that allows the
viewer to see a large area in the scene.
Their function is to document the condition and layout of the scene as found.
 They are typically taken by shooting from the four corners of the crime scene.
These four photographs will often capture the entire scene.
2. EVIDENCE ESTABLISHING PHOTOGRAPHS
Evidence establishing photographs are typically exposed with a 50mm lens.
Their function is to frame the item of evidence with an easily recognized landmark.
This visually establishes the position of the evidence in the scene.
3. EVIDENCE CLOSE-UP PHOTOGRAPHS
Evidence close-up photographs are exposed with a "macro" lens (50mm, 55mm or
105mm).
Their function is to allow the viewer to see all evident detail on the item of evidence.
Measuring devices such as rulers, yardstick, and tape measures can be used to show
the relative size of and distance between objects or the degree of magnification of an
enlargement.

VI. PHOTOGRAPH METHODOLOGY

1. Document the entire scene in-situ as soon as possible using overall photographs.
2. Photograph all fragile evidence as soon as possible.
3. In the documentation stage, photograph all known evidence using evidence establishing and
evidence close-up photos.
4. As items are discovered in later stages, return and document them fully, including additional
overall photographs if needed.
5. Create photographs that fully demonstrate the results of additional examinations (e.g. latent
prints, bloodstain pattern analysis, trajectory analysis).
6. Always use a film roll reference card on the first shot of each roll to demonstrate admin data.
7. Always use a crime scene photo log.

Guidelines in Taking Photographs at the Crime Scene

1. Establish Shot
This is an over-all view from extreme to the other, it shows where we are, a busy
intersection, a far, a residential area, an airport, a factory, or even at the middle of the jungle.
2. The Building
The next photograph should show the building in which the crime was committed. This
shows whether it is a private home, a factory, a small shop, a hotel, a garage, usually tow
photograph will be needed of the front and back of the building.
3. The Entrance
This is usually the door, but maybe a window in a house breaking robbery. If there is a
gate and a door, take photograph one for each entrance.
4. The Hallway
The camera now shows us what we would observe immediately after we enter the
building. It should show the location of the other rooms or doors through which we must pass
to get to the room in which the crime was committed.
5. The Room
This maybe a bedroom, an office or a bathroom. The most difficult problem is to
include the entire scene sometime like in a building shots, two photographs from the opposite
corners will be enough. A wide lens in used. However, the investigator’s note should also be
carefully marked with the information.
6. Close Up
The number and types of close-up photograph will of course depend upon the kind of
crime. In general, close up should be made on:
a. Object Attacked
This maybe a person, safe cash box or a display counter. The purpose of these pictures
is to show the amount and kind of damage, and the method of attack.
b. The Weapon or Tools Used
The photographer must be careful here to show a reference point in every picture, it
shows which are right, left, up and down, north and south, etc..
c. Significant Clues
These maybe fingerprint, blood stains, foot prints, skid marks, tool marks, broken
glass, or any other physical evidence, fingerprint in particular case should be photograph after
dusting but before lifting.

VII. CAMERA CONTROL ISSUES

Quality photographs require that the investigator:
Know their equipment and be practiced in its use.

Understand basic camera control, which includes:

Physical control of the camera
Light
Focus and Depth of Field.

VIII. CONTROLLING LIGHT

Good lighting is a must and is often missing in crime scenes.
The best advice is to use fill-flash techniques. This reduces shadows and ensures
sharp detail.
Watch for over exposure when taking close-up photographs with fill-flash.
Diffuse the flash with bounce lighting, a diffuser, or by using off camera flash methods.

IX. CONTROLLING FOCUS and DEPTH OF FIELD

Focus is a function of the photographer, know what kind of focusing ring you have and
practice with it.
In “smart” cameras you may have to turn off auto-focus features to get the proper
focus point.
Understand how to use the f-stop to create appropriate depth of field. In overall and
evidence establishing photos, good depth of field is a must.
Functions and Capabilities of Forensic Photography Division
-Photographs criminals, suspects and crime victims for personal identification.
-Photograph evidence submitted to the laboratory before examination.
 -Provide photography assistance during Scene of Crime Operation (SOCO) and Field
Laboratory Work (FLW).
-Conduct seminar and lectures to police personnel, forensic examiners or criminalists
and civilians undergoing ON-the-Job training to the laboratory.
-Sketch facial identification of suspect/s upon actual description of the victim or
witness.
-Conduct comparative examination and analysis of questioned photograph to known
photograph.
-Process color and monochrome films and prints and reduce the enlarge photographs.
-Reproduce photographs and other printed matters.
-Provides photographic intrusion detection devices.
-Maintain crime Laboratory “Rogues Gallery”.

X. VIDEO PHOTOGRAPHY
Video is a functional supplement to crime scene documentation, but does not replace any
documentation product.
There are problems encountered in crime scene video, requiring certain precautions:
1. Turn off audio unless intending to narrate.
2. Don’t move, pan or zoom the camera too quickly as this results in abrupt motion and bad
focus.
3. Unless in sunlight always use a video strobe, never use a flashlight to illuminate the scene.

XI. PREPARATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

A. Preparing the Court for Exhibit
A picture offered in evidence should be the faithful representation of the subject matter. From
the study of the photographs, the viewer should perceive an impression of the scene as object
which does not mislead him an important respect. It should be free of any unusual distortion of
lines or shapes and of any tone relationship. Important subject matter should be in sharp focus.
B. Admissibility
Evidence photographs may be divided into two categories.
1. Those which represent objects of evidence and simply serve in place of an object or a verbal
description of it.
2. Those which are designed to prove a point bearing as an issue in the case such as a
comparison photograph of the evidence (FP, test bullets, handwritings).
Although photographs of severe body injuries may arouse emotions of horror or indignation in
the minds of the observer, they are considered admissible provided the intent is simply to
illustrate relevant facts and not to prejudice the judge against the defendant. The photographer
should be interested only in portraying the facts accurately.
C. The Photographer in Court
In testifying, his purpose should be to explain not defend his photographs. His replies to queries
should be directly responsive at all times. If he does not understand the question, he should
request clarification. When the nature of questions requires the he will consult his notes, he
should request permission from the judge.

Qualifications
Since the photographer is giving opinion evidence, he is technically regarded by the court as an
“Expert Witness,” nevertheless, he need not to be an expert photographer in the professional
sense and should not represent himself as such. He should be presented an as experienced
photographer, proficient in the techniques that were used in producing the evidence
photographs.
Before his pictures are admitted in evidence, the photographer may be asked certain questions
to establish his competence on the basis of his experience and training. Hence, he must be
prepared to prove to the satisfaction of the court that his training and experience have qualified
him for the work related to the physical evidence.
D. Relevance and Materiality
Test for Determining Relevancy
1. The photographs are admissible whenever they assist the court to understand the case.
2. Photographs are admissible when they assist a witness in explaining his testimony.

E. Necessity of Preliminary Proof of Accuracy

A photograph taken in the ordinary way usually is an accurate record of the image cast by the
lens upon the film but as distortion is possible through the manner in which the camera or
negative is used. Before a photograph is admitted in evidence, there must always be
preliminary proof that it is a correct representation of the subject.

F. Judicial Notice
The courts cannot refuse to take judicial notice of the photographic process as a proper means
of producing correct likenesses. There are several cases recognizing that in experienced,
trustworthy and disinterested hands. Photography is capable of a very high degree of accuracy
or reproduction and acknowledging the indispensability of photographs as means of presenting
evidence. But the courts also take judicial cognizance of the fact that in careless, unskilled or
interested hands, photography may produce misleading and confusing results.
G. Who May Verify Photographs?
1. The better practice is to show the accuracy of the photographs by the photographer who
took them.
2. Any other person having sufficient knowledge of the subject to say that the photograph is a
faith representation of the subject thereof.

H. Effects of Various Photographic Conditions

1. Experience and skill of photographer
a. Amateur
b. Professional
Photographs are dependent for their accuracy upon the skill of the person making them and the
truthfulness of the one vouching for them.
2. Interested or prejudice of photographer
3. Condition and size of the picture taking apparatus (efficacy of the camera)
4. Marking the subject before photographing
Marking includes the following
a. Chart or sign bearing identification data
b. Ruler of any measuring device
c. Any animate or inanimate thing used as a position marker
d. Any substance used to intensify details which otherwise would not show up in the
photograph.
5. Development
6. Method of Printing
7. Size of Exhibit
8. Composite Photographs
9. Retouched Photographs
10. Marks and notations written on exhibits