RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS

Identification of fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain ridge

characteristics, also known as Galton details, points of identity, or minutial points with a reference print,

usually an inked impression of a suspect’s print. The light areas of fingerprints are called ridges while the dark

areas are called valleys.

COMPONENTS OF FRICTION SKIN

1. Ridge Surface

= Ridge – the elevated or hill-like structure / the black lines with white dots.

= Furrows – the depressed or canal-like structure / the white space between ridges. 2. Sweat Pores

= The tiny opening / the tiny white dot.

3. Sweat Duct

= The passage way.

4. Sweat Gland

FRICTION RIDGES OR PAPILLARY RIDGES

1. Friction ridge breath – the width of the friction ridges varies in different areas as well in different

people. In general, they are narrower in females and wider in males.

2. Ridge units and pores – pore ducts open along the top of the friction ridges. Each ridge unit has one

sweat gland and a pore opening randomly somewhere on its surface. Eccrine gland contains

approximately 99% water and 1% solid.

3. Specific ridge path – the friction ridges have been compared to corduroy, but unlike corduroy they are

not continuous in nature. The path taken by the ridges may branch, start or stop, turn, twist, or

thicken and narrow independently.

4. Incipient friction ridges – narrow and often fragmented ridges may appear between normal friction

ridges. These are called incipient, rudimentary, or nascent ridges. They differ from the typical ridge

by being thinner and fragmented.

 5. Friction ridge imbrications – in some areas of volar surfaces, the friction ridges all tend to lean on the

same direction. Imbrication ridges vary among individual and even the regions of volar areas where

they are found.

6. Overall friction ridge pattern – the friction ridges form pattern on the volar surface. The most

common are concentric, looping, or arching formations. Friction ridges patterns also enhance the

ability of volar skin to avoid slippage. The pattern also enhances tactile sensitively due to the

increased friction.

Ridge Characteristics

Identification of fingerprints relies on the pattern matching followed by the detection of certain ridge

characteristics, also known as Galton details, points of identity, or minutial points with a reference print,

usually an inked impression of a suspect’s print.

Types of Ridge Formations

1. Bifurcating Ridge – a single ridge that splits into two forming a “Y” shape.

2. Diverging Ridges – two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge going the one

way and the other ridge going another way.

3. Converging Ridge – these are two ridges that meet at a point forming an angle.

4. Recurving Ridge – a single ridge that curves back in the direction from where it started.

Basic and composite ridge characteristics (minutiae)

A ridge ending is one of a long island. The island is long enough that the ends are not easily recognized as being

from the same island.

A bifurcation is where the ridge path divides forming a Y shape with legs having the same length.

A ridge dot, one ridge unit, is the shortest of all island and the building block of the friction ridge.

An island in strict usage is the ultimate abbreviation of ridge structure, a unit bearing but one sweat pore

(fingerprints, palms, soles).

A lake (enclosure) is a bifurcation which does not remain open but which the legs of the bifurcation after

running alongside for a short distance come together to form a single ridge once more.
A spur is where the ridge path divides and one branch comes to an end (leg is shorter).

An incipient ridge is an unusual type of ridge found in small percentage of patterns. They are short, narrow and

badly formed ridges between two well-formed and full-bodied ridges which is frequently interrupted.

A short ridge has two or more ridge units with both ends easily recognized as being from the same island.

A ridge bridge (cross) is a connecting ridge between two ridges.

A double bifurcation is a bifurcation where one of the ridge paths bifurcates.

A trifurcate ion is when two bifurcations develop next to each other on the same ridge, a unique formation.

An opposed bifurcation are bifurcations found on both ends of a ridge.

A ridge crossing is the point where two ridges cross each other forming an “X” formation.

An overlap is where two ridges ends meet and overlap on a bias.

Type Line and Pattern Area

Type lines or skeleton of pattern are two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge, and surround or tend

to surround the pattern area. They serve as basic boundaries of a fingerprint pattern.

The pattern area is the part of a fingerprint pattern in which the core, delta and ridges appear enclosed by

the type lines.

Core and Delta Location

The core and delta are the focal points of fingerprint patterns except in arch patterns.

The core is a point on the ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of the pattern. The core is

also known as inner terminus.

A delta or outer terminus is a point on the ridge formation at or directly in front or near the center or the

divergence of the type lines.

Rules in Core Location

1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

2. When the innermost sufficient contains an uneven number of rods rising as high as the shoulders, the

core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or not.
 3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as the shoulder,

the core is placed upon the two center rods being treated as though they were connected by a

recurving ridge.

Rules in Delta Location

1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation which does not open towards the core.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta equally close to the point of

divergence, the bifurcation is selected.

3. When there is a series of bifurcations opening towards the core at the point of divergence of the two

type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.

4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the type lines toward the

core, but at the nearer end only.

5. If the ridge enters the pattern area below the divergence of the type lines, the delta must be located

at the end nearer to the core.

Forms of Deltas

1. Dot

2. Bifurcation

3. Ending ridge

4. Meeting of two ridges

5. Point of the first recurving ridge

6. Opening of the bifurcation

7. Ending ridge at the point of divergence

Ridge Counting and Ridge Tracing

Ridge Counting – It refers to the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn

between the core and the delta.

Ridge Tracing – It is the process of tracing the ridge that emanates from the lower side of the left delta to

see where it flows in relation to the right delta.

Pattern Interpretation (Eight Standard Fingerprint Patterns)

A. LOOPS

1. RADIAL LOOP – A loop is radial when the opening end of the loop ridge points in the direction of

the thumb side of either the left or right hand.

2. ULNAR LOOP – A loop is ulnar when the opening end of the loop ridge points in the direction of

the little finger side of either the left or right hand.

B. WHORLS

1. PLAIN WHORL – A fingerprint pattern in which there are two deltas in which at least one ridge

makes a turn through one complete circuit. Imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must

touch or cross at least one of the circuiting whorl ridges within the pattern area.

2. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – A fingerprint pattern which form the most

part of a loop, but which has a small whorl inside the loop ridges, sometimes called a “composite

pattern” which means that it is made up of two patterns in one, a whorl inside a loop.

It has two deltas, one which appears at the edge of the pattern area as in loop and one which

shows inside the pattern area just below the counterpart ridges.

3. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – A fingerprint pattern consisting of two separate and distinct loop

formation. One of the loop surrounds or overlaps the other, also called “composite patterns” like

the central pocket loop whorl. It arises from the fact that these patterns are a composite or

combination of two patterns in one with two cores and two deltas.

The two loops in a double loop whorl need not comply with all the requirements for a loop pattern

that no ridge count is necessary for both loops in the formation. The two loops do not have the

same length nor the same size. All that is required is that there be two separate and distinct loop

formation, two sets of shoulders and two deltas.

4. ACCIDENTAL WHORL – A fingerprint pattern that is a combination of two or more different

types of pattern except in plain arch. It can be a combination of a loop and a whorl, a loop and a

central pocket loop whorl or any combination of two different loops and whorl patterns.

Like the central pocket loop whorl and the double loop whorl, some authors call accidental whorl

“composites”.

Unlike the other whorl type patterns, an accidental whorl can be having two, three or four deltas.

An accidental whorl pattern is one that looks like a conglomeration of ridges.

 C. ARCHES

1. PLAIN ARCH – A fingerprint pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern and

flow towards the other side, with a rise in the center with not more than one of the four

requisites for a loop and with no recurving ridge, no angular formation, and no upward trust.

2. TENTED ARCH – A variety of arch family but their ridge formation are not so simple as those of

a plain arch, also considered “transitional pattern” between a plain arch and a loop.

QUESTIONABLE PATTERNS – These are patterns that do not have definite identification. These patterns

may seem to have characteristics of two or more types of fingerprint patterns.

The figure below has two loop formations. The one on the left, however, has an appendage abutting upon the

shoulders of its recurve at a right angle. The left portion of the impression, therefore, is of tented arch type.

The combination of two different types of patterns would be classified in the whorl group (accidental, but this

impression has only one delta). The right portion of the pattern detail contains a true loop which fulfills all the

loop requirements. In the choice existing between a tented arch and a loop, preference is given to the loop

classification and this impression would be classified as a loop.

BASIC HENRY’S CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM WITH EXTENSION

The classification of fingerprints into distinct groups based on general similarities allows the fingerprint

examiner to search for an unidentified fingerprint within the specific section of the fingerprint file rather

than having to search the whole file. There are numerous classification systems in use throughout the world

today. These systems are all based on the Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich and Henry System with Modifications and

Extension by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Classification refers to the formula derived for the complete set of ten fingerprint patterns or the

arrangement of fingerprint records into groups or subgroups for filing purposes.

Primary Classification

The classification formula is composed of the following divisions:

1. Primary classification = PC

2. Secondary Classification = SC

3. Sub-secondary classification = SSC

 4. Final Classification = FC

5. Major Classification = MC

6. Key Classification = KC

The Primary Classification

For the purpose of obtaining the primary classification, numerical values are assigned to each of the ten finger

spaces whenever a whorl appears, it assumes the value of the space in which it is found. Spaces in which types

of patterns other than whorls are present are disregarded in computing the primary.

The values are assigned as follows:

Fingers no.1 and no.2 = 16

Fingers no.3 and no.4 = 8

Fingers no.5 and no.6 = 4

Fingers no.7 and no.8 = 2

Fingers no.9 and no.10 = 1

Whorls in the primary are also known as numerical patterns, while loops and arches are the non-numerical

patterns.

The fingers in a set of print are numbered in its natural sequence, beginning with the thumb of the right hand

as number 1 and with the little finger as number 10.

The fingers are grouped into two: the denominator and numerator as follows:

Numerator – Right index finger (2)

Right ring finger (4)

Left thumb (6)

Left middle finger (8)

Left little finger (10)

Denominator – Right thumb (1)

 Right middle finger (3)

Right little finger (5)

Left index finger (7)

Left ring finger (9)

The numerator is the total numeral value of whorls appearing in any of the even numbered fingers (2, 4, 6, 8,

10), while the denominator is the total numerical value of whorls appearing in any of the odd numbered fingers

(1, 3, 5, 7, 9). An arbitrary count of one is always added to the sum of the numerator and the denominator to

avoid a classification of “zero over zero”.

When no whorl appears in a set of fingerprints, there can be no numerical value, therefore the primary

classification becomes zero-over-zero. When all fingers and thumbs contain all whorls, the numerical value of

the patterns is the maximum total value which is thirty – two over thirty – two. Secondary Classification

The Secondary Classification

This appears just to the right of the fractional numerals which represent the primary. It is shown in the

formula by capital letters representing the basic types of patterns appearing in the index fingers of each

hand, that of the right hand being the numerator and that of the left hand being the denominator.

There are Five Basic Types of Patterns Which Can Appear:

1. Plain Arch A

2. Tented Arch T

3. Radial Loop R

4. Ulnar Loop U

5. Whorls (all the types of whorls) W

The Sub-secondary Classification (Grouping of Loops and Whorls)

This is placed on the classification line just to the right of the secondary. Ridge counts are translated into

small and large, represented by symbols “I” (Inner) and “O”

(Outer) for the loops. The whorl tracings are brought up as “I” (Inner), “M” (Meeting) or “O” (Outer) of the

sub-secondary namely:
Right index finger – No.2

Right middle finger – No.3

Right ring finger – No.4

Left index finger – No.7

Left middle finger – No.8

Left ring finger – No.9

For the purpose of infirmity, a definite number of ridge count is established and is assigned to each of the

fingers involved. This designated number of ridges is the same of both hands, but varies for different fingers.

Index fingers – One to nine ridge count = I (Inner)

Ten or more ridge count = O (Outer)

Middle fingers – One to ten ridge count = I (Inner)

Eleven or more ridge count = O (Outer)

Ring fingers – One to thirteen ridge count = I (Inner)

Fourteen or more ridge count = O (Outer)

Sub-Secondary Classification

Sub-secondary Classification for Whorls

For whorl tracing, the following are the rules:

Three or more ridges above the right delta is “I” (Inner) tracing, zero, one or two ridges is “M” (Meeting)

tracing, and three or more ridges below the right delta is “O” (Outer) tracing.

Basic rules for tracing in whorls:

1. Tracing always begins at the extreme left delta and stops at the point directly in front of the right

delta.

2. An uninterrupted ridge can be traced from the left delta to the right delta.

3. When tracing suddenly ends, the tracing is continued on the ridge below it.
 4. A ridge must definitely end before the tracing may be continued on the ridge below

it.

5. When the ridge bifurcates, the tracing is continued on the lower branch of the bifurcation.

6. When the delta is a dot, the tracing begins on the type line which is the ridge immediately below the

delta.

Sub-Secondary Classification for Arches

The small letter group in the Sub-secondary classification consist of plain arch (a), tented arch (t), and radial

loop (r). Such small letters with the exception of those appearing in the index fingers, are brought up into the

classification formula in their proper relative positions immediately adjacent to the index fingers. A “dash” (-)

is used to indicate the absence of each small letter between the index fingers and another small letter or

between two letters. Thus, if a radial loop appears in the right thumb, the small letter “r” would be brought up

in the numerator column of the classification formula and placed just to the left of the capital letter

representing the index finger. Similarly, if a plain arch or tented arch or a radial loop would appear in the

middle, ring or little finger of the hand, the small letter representing such a pattern would be placed on the

classification line to the right of the secondary in the numerator column if the letter is present in the right

hand, and in the denominator column if in the left hand.

Final Classification

This is obtained upon the ridge count of the loop in the right little finger or both the little fingers. It is

indicated on the extreme right of the classification formula.

Rules:

1. If a loop does not appear in the right little finger, a loop in the left finger may be used. It is then

indicated at the extreme right of the denominator.

2. If no loops appear in the little fingers, a whorl may be used to obtain a final from left delta to core if

in the right hand and from right delta to core if in the left hand. If there are two or more cores

(usually in the accidental whorls), the ridge count is made from left delta (right hand) or right delta

(left hand) to the core which is the least number of ridges distant from the delta.
In double loop whorl, it is counted from the delta to the core of the upright loop. Where loops of a

double loop are horizontal, the nearest core is used. Should both little fingers be plain or tented

arches, no final is used.