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Unit 7 Renal Physiology
UNIT 9
GASTROINTESTINAL
SYSTEM
Structure
9.1 Introduction 9.6 Pathophysiology of the
Gastrointestinal Tract
Expected Learning Outcomes
Peptic ulcer
9.2 Human Gastrointestinal
system Sprue
9.3 Structure of the Celiac disease,

Gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
Inflammatory bowel disease
9.4 Ultra structure of Stomach (IBD)
and Intestine
Regurgitation
Stomach
Diarrhea
Small Intestine
Constipation
Large Intestine
9.7 Summary
9.5 Secretory Function of the
9.8 Terminal Questions
Digestive System (GIT)
9.9 Answers
Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrate, Fats and Proteins
9.1 INTRODUCTION
We know that food is essential part of all living beings on this Earth. It is the
source of energy to perform various life processes such as respiration,
digestion, metabolism, transportation, excretion, circulation of blood and
reproduction. The process of conversion of food into small molecules for
absorption and assimilation in the body to be used by the body is called
digestion.
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Block 3 Gastrointestinal and Reproductive Physiology
Our body contains a set of digestive organs responsible for digestion and
absorption of food that we eat every day. The organs that are involved in the
processing of food are known as digestive organs. Digestive system consists
of GIT (Gastrointestinal Tract) and accessory organs such as liver, gall
bladder and pancreas; which play an important role in digestion and
absorption of food and, elimination of undigested material. The gastrointestinal
system is the set of all digestive organs connected in a series for orderly
digestion of food material.
In this unit, you will learn the structure and functions of gastrointestinal system.
The structure and function of various organs involved in digestion are
described. The disorders/diseases associated with the gastrointestinal system
are also discussed in the unit.
Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define Gastrointestinal System;
 discuss the structural organization of GIT;
 enlist the role of digestive organs;
 explain structure and function of stomach, small intestine and large

intestine;
 discuss the composition of digestive juice in digestion;
 explain absorption and chemical digestion of dietary nutrients; and
 know the diseases and symptoms of digestive system.
9.2 HUMAN GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Human digestive system consists of two parts: Gastrointestinal system and
accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas). The
components of digestive system are shown in Fig.9.1. The whole process of
digestion take place within the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
which is divided into upper gastrointestinal tract and the lower gastrointestinal
tract demarcated by the suspensory muscle of the duodenum.
The GIT consists of organs connected together from the mouth to the anus
(Fig. 9.2). The accessory organs are not part of the digestive system but they
play an important role in food digestion and absorption. GIT and accessory
organs release digestive juice, bile juice, pancreatic enzyme, etc. These
contain enzymes which facilitate the breakdown of dietary complex nutrients
into small organic molecules for easy absorption in the body.
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Unit 9 Gastrointestinal System
Fig. 9.1: The components of digestive system [Image source:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blausen_0316_DigestiveSystem.png]
Organs of gastrointestinal tract Accessory Organs of the Digestive

System
1. Mouth  Salivary Glands
2. Pharynx & Esophagus  Liver
3. Stomach  Gallbladder
4. Small and Large Intestine  Pancreas
5. Anus
Fig. 9.2: Detailed View of Gastrointestinal system/alimentary canal 173

 Mouth is first part of the digestive system wherein food stuffs are broken
down mechanically into bolus by mastication (chewing and swallowing)
process with the aid of teeth and tongue. The saliva, released from
salivary glands, is added to the food, which lubricates the food as well as
helps in the digestion of carbohydrates via salivary amylase.
 Tongue is a crucial musculo-sensory organ responsible for detecting the

food's taste and temperature. It helps in movement and manipulation of
the food and facilitates its contact with the teeth for chewing and cutting
into smaller parts. It also pushes food material in GI tract via the action
of swallowing.
 Pharynx receives food from the mouth. As it is a common passage for

air and food, the involuntary muscle contractions close off the air
passageways on entering the food.
 Esophagus is the fibromuscular tube through which the food receives

from pharynx and passes to the stomach aided by peristaltic
contractions. It thus acts as a transport duct between the pharynx and
stomach.
 Stomach is a hollow and J-shaped organ where protein digestion is

initiated and food material is reduced into semi-fluid form. It secretes
gastric juice containing protein-digesting enzymes called pepsin and
strong hydrochloric acid. The conversion of solid food into semi-fluid
form facilitates further chemical digestion in the small intestines.
 Small Intestine is an important organ of GIT of digestion and absorption

of food. The partially digested food material, received from stomach, is
completely broken down into smaller molecules by enzymatic process
which are then absorbed in the blood capillaries of small intestine.
 Large Intestine: It is the last part of GIT which contains indigestible food
residues. It helps in the absorption of water and electrolytes from
undigested food stuffs and, formation of feces which is eliminated
through anus.
Accessory organs
 Liver: It is the main centre of metabolic activities of the body. It plays

major role in the digestion process by secreting bile juice in the small
intestine. Bile contains containing bile salts which help in emulsification
of fats and are crucial for digestion and absorption of fats.
 Gallbladder: It is a pear-shaped sac that is connected to the liver by

the cystic duct. It stores the bile juice secreted from liver and discharges
into the small intestine.
 Pancreas: It is a crucial gland which serves both exocrine and

endocrine functions. It produces hormones insulin and glucagon which
regulate glucose metabolism. Pancreas also produces digestive
enzymes; amylase, trypsin, peptidase, and lipase; and release into small
intestine. These enzymes are responsible for chemical breakdown of
174 carbohydrates, proteins and fats present in the food.
SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks:
i) Digestion system consists of.....................
ii) A mixture of food and digestive juices in stomach is called

..............................
iii) The digestion begins in................... after ingestion of food.
iv) A chemical liquid ................is required for fat digestion.
v) Undigested part of food is eliminated as ....................from the body.
9.3 STRUCTURE OF GASTROINTESTIONAL

TRACT
The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is about 10 feet muscular hollow tube which is
bounded by the mouth at one end and the anus at other. It stretches from the
mouth to esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and finally to
the anus; through which food is processed for digestion, absorption and
elimination of the undigested and unabsorbed part.
The histological architecture of GIT comprises epithelium, lamina propria,

muscularis mucosa, submucosa, submucosa plexus, circular muscle
myentric plexus, longitudinal muscle and serosa (Fig. 9.3).
Fig. 9.3: Histological Layers of Gastrointestinal tract.

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All these structures are categorised into four layers from outside inwards:
1. Serosa forms the outermost protective layer of GIT. It consists of areolar

connective tissue and thin mesothelium (squamous epithelium) layer.
2. Muscularis externa is responsible for physical motion and segmental

contractions during digestion process of food. It is composed of an outer
longitudinal muscle, myenteric plexus and an inner circular muscle layer.
An inner oblique muscle layer may be present in some regions. Circular
muscle layer forms the sphincter that controls flow of food from one
compartment to next during segmental contractions.
3. Submucosa is a thick vascular layer of GIT. It has connective tissue,

glands, lymphatic tissues and nerve plexuses that collectively form a
submucosal plexus.
4. Mucosa comprises epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosa. It

is the innermost layer that folds and ridges (internally invigilates) to create
a thumb-like projection which further enhances the surface area for food
absorption. Goblet cells present in mucosa produce mucus.
9.4 ULTRASTRUCTURE OF STOMACH

AND INTESTINE
Stomach and intestine are two major organs that facilitate the proper
digestion and absorption of food material. Let us understand their
ultrastructure in detail.
9.4.1 The Stomach

Stomach is the major digestive organ responsible for storage and digestion of
food, present between the esophagus and duodenum. It is the J-shaped organ
which consists of predominantly of involuntary smooth muscle. Anatomically,
stomach is divided into cardia, fundus, corpus, and pyloric region (Fig. 9.4).
 Cardia is the first part of stomach that is connected to the oesophagus by

a small opening called cardiac orifice. It is an inflow part where food
enters from esophagus into the stomach.
 Fundus is a dome-shaped structure of stomach which is a temporary

storage area for food material. It is located superiorly relative to the
horizontal plane of the cardiac orifice.
 Corpus or gastric body is the largest middle area which is continuous

with the pyloric region.
 Pyloric region represents the outflow section of the stomach. It passes

food into the duodenum of small intestine via the pyloric orifice, the
opening and closing of which is controlled by the pyloric
sphincter (pylorus).
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Fig. 9.4: The stomach has four major regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and
pylorus.
Like the rest of gastrointestinal tract, stomach is also four-layered muscular

structure which serves as a reservoir for ingested food. Fig. 9.5 shows the
structural organisation of stomach.
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.5: (a) Structural organisation of the stomach (b) A gastric gland.
Mucosa consists of ridges called gastric folds. It is lined by simple columnar

epithelium containing numerous invaginations called gastric pits that extend
into gastric glands (Fig. 9.5b) covered by alkaline mucous layer. Gastric
glands consist of three types of cells: mucous, chief, and parietal cells which 177
collectively secrete gastric juice. Hence these cells are called secretory cells.
Mucous cells secrete mucus, chief cells release pepsin enzyme which gets
activated in the presence of hydrochloric acid secreted by parietal cells. Pepsin
breaks dietary proteins into smaller fragments while mucus protects the
stomach wall against mechanical injury. The gastric juice also contains an
insignificant amount of gastric lipase which breaks down fats in the stomach.
Gastric juice is highly acidic (pH 1.5-3.5) in nature and consists of mostly
water (99%) while rest of the components, i.e., hydrochloric acid (0.4-0.5%),
pepsin, mucus, lipase, glycoproteins and other electrolytes are present in
minute amounts. The acidic nature inactivates infectious agents found in food.
This semi-digested semifluid mixture is called chyme.
9.4.2 The Small Intestine

The word intestine is derived from a Latin root meaning “internal,” The small
intestine extends from the pylorus of stomach to the cecum of large intestine. It
is approximately 6 meters (20 feet) in length and consists of three parts:
duodenum, jejunum and ileum (Fig. 9.6).
i) The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine connected with
stomach and pancreas. It is often C-shaped section. It has four parts:
superior (duodenal bulb/ampulla), descending, horizontal and ascending.
ii) Jejunum is the bent section of small intestine which begins at the
duodenojejunal flexure in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen.
iii) The ileum is longest part of the small intestine in the lower right quadrant
of the abdomen. It terminates at the ileal orifice where the cecum of
the large intestine begins.
Fig. 9.6: The three regions of the small intestine - duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
The surface wall of small intestine also consists of four layers -

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. (Fig. 9.7). The
mucosal and submucosa cells have deep ridge circular-folded section
containing villi and microvilli (Fig 9.8). Villi (singular = villus) look like finger-
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like projections (0.5-1.0 mm) which increase large inner surface area enhancing
absorption of digested food material. Microvilli (singular = microvillus), as
their name suggests, are much smaller (1 µm) than villi. They are cylindrical
and apical surface extensions of the plasma membrane of the mucosa’s
epithelial cells, and are supported by microfilaments.
Fig. 9.7: Histological structure of small intestine.
Fig. 9.8: Micrograph of microvilli in small intestine.
(Source:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Small_intestine_(265_23)_Hu
man.jpg) 179
9.4.4 The Large intestine

The large intestine is the last anatomical part of gastrointestinal tract which
extends from small intestine and continues up to anal canal and anus. It is
mainly responsible for water absorption from undigested food material and,
formation and defection of feces through anus. It shows horse-shoe like
morphology and similar to the structure of small intestine except absence of
mucosal villi. It is about 1.5m long which is about one-fifth part of the whole
length of the GIT. However, its length is small than the small intestine (6
meters). The large intestine has a wider lumen about 7.5 cm (3 inches)
compared to the diameter of the small intestine. Hence, it is called the large
intestine.
The large intestine consists of four parts: cecum, colon, rectum, and anus
(Fig 9.9).
Fig. 9.9: Structure of large intestine (modified, source image: Wikimedia

commons).
1. Cecum is the first part of large intestine. It is about 6 cm long tube which
receives undigested food material from small intestine and moves it
upwards to the colon. A small finger-like tubular sac, called appendix, is
present at the bottom of caecum which is considered a vestigial organ.
2. Colon a largest portion of the large intestine is combination of the

ascending colon, transverse colon including the colic flexures and
transverse mesocolon, descending colon and the sigmoid colon (the
S-shaped region of the large intestine). The food material first moves
from the cecum into ascending colon followed by transverse colon,
descending colon and finally enters sigmoid colon.
3. The rectum is the last section of the large intestine which is continued to
the anal canal. It is 3.8-5 cm long, extends from sigmoid colon and
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opens to the exterior of the body at the anus. It holds feces temporarily
till it is eliminated,
The anal canal is located in the perineum (outside the abdominopelvic cavity).
It has Internal anal sphincter surrounded by circular muscles, which normally
remain closed and open only during the defecation of feces.
The food passes from the small to the large intestine within 8-9 hours of
ingestion. About 90% water is absorbed in the small intestine. The large
intestine absorbs most of the remaining water, a process that converts liquid
chyme residue into semi-solid stools or feces. The fecal matter consists of
75% water and 25% solid matter. The solid matter includes 30% solid bacteria,
10-20% fats, 2-3% proteins and 30% roughage.
SAQ 2
Do as directed:
a) Choose the correct parentheses from the followings
i) Small intestine is divided into (3/4) parts.
ii) Large intestine is divided into (4/3) parts.
iii) Temporary feces stores in (colon/rectum)
iv) Water is reabsorbed in (small intestine/large intestine)
v) Gut microbes present in (stomach/large intestine)
vi) Microvilli are located in at the surface of (mucosa/ serosa)
b) Name the four layers of GIT.
c) Define microvilli and their functions.
9.5 SECRETORY FUNCTION OF

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (GIT)
You learnt that the gastrointestinal tract secretes various substances to
facilitate digestion and absorption of food, protection of GIT lining and
regulation of other functions. These secretions are made by cell lining of
gastrointestinal tract and glands connected with it.
1. Salivary Gland: First secretion is of saliva, which occurs in the oral

cavity by three types of salivary glands (parotid, submandibular and
sublingual glands) and many small buccal glands.
2. Stomach: The wall of the stomach has numerous glands which secrete
gastric juice. The chief or peptic cells secrete pepsin and lipase
enzyme. In children, these cells also secrete rennin enzyme which acts
upon casein. The parietal or oxyntic cells produce HCl to activate these
gastric enzymes. Mucosa cells produce thick mucus to lubricate and
protect the tissue against mechanical injury, self-digestion of stomach
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tissue by pepsin, and acid injury by neutralising hydrochloric acid.

Argentaffin cells present in the basal part of gastric glands produce
histamine, serotonin, endorphins, somatostatin, etc. These also secrete
gastrin, a hormone that regulates gastric secretions.
3. Pancreas: It produces pancreatic juice containing a mixture of various

enzymes for the digestion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates (Fig.9.10).
Trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidases helps in protein digestion;
pancreatic amylase in carbohydrate digestion and, pancreatic
lipase/steapsin, cholesterol esterase and phospholipase help in lipids
digestion. The pancreas also produces trypsin inhibitor to regulate
protein digestion and nucleases to break nucleic acid into nucleotides
and nucleosides.
Fig. 9.10 Pancreas. This image by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution License 4.0. Access for free
at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction
4. Liver: The liver secretes a detergent-like substance, bile, for

emulsification of fat material facilitating absorption of digested fat
products. It also serves as a carrier for circulatory waste to eventually
discarded with the feces.
5. Small Intestine: The goblet cells in small intestine produce mucus (a

gel-forming mucins) which protects the mucous membrane. The
intestinal epithelium also secretes mixture of enzymes in the form of
intestinal juice or succus entericus. The juice contains erepsin for
digestion of dipeptides, enterokinase to active trypsin, lipase to digest
fats, nucleosidases to digest nucleic acids and disaccharides, such as
maltase, sucrase and lactose to digest respective sugars (maltose,
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sucrose, lactose). In addition, enterocytes secrete large volumes of

water and electrolytes.
6. Large intestine: It only produces mucus to bind fecal material and to

protect the intestinal walls from physical excoriation and from the large
amount of bacterial present in feces.
Let us understand digestion and absorption of biomoleucles in GIT.
9.5.1 Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, fats

and proteins in the Gastrointestinal tract
Digestion initiates the breaking down of food and converts them smaller
nutrients so the body can process for metabolism in order to generate energy
for physiological process of the body (Fig. 9.11).
Fig.9.11: Overview of digestion
Digestion and absorption of Carbohydrates
Our daily diet contains approximately 50-60% carbohydrates. The principal

carbohydrates are starch (polysaccharide), lactose (milk sugar), sucrose and
maltose. Carbohydrates are found in whole-grain breads and cereals,
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legumes, fruits, vegetables, milk, and milk products. All carbohydrates need to
be digested to glucose, galactose, and fructose for absorption in the body.
Breakdown of sugars is initiated in the mouth by salivary amylase. Subsequent
digestion of carbohydrates takes place in small intestine with the help of
Peristalsis is a web-like pancreatic amylase and three enzymes secreted by intestinal epithelium
series of contraction and (Lactase, Sucrase, and Maltase). Digested carbohydrates are then absorbed
relaxation of digestive by villi present in the small intestine. The end product of polysaccharide and
smooth muscles by which disaccharide is mostly the glucose.
food material (bolus form)
move along the wall of the
digestive tract.
Small Intestine
Image credit:
https://commons.wikimedia.o
rg/wiki/File:Peristalsis.gif
The glucose is absorbed by active and passive diffusion in the blood

capillaries of jejunum and upper ileum. These are carried to the liver through
hepatic portal system.
Digestion and absorption of Proteins
Proteins are the source of amino acids which are important for the growth
and development of human body. Protein sources in our diet are milk, milk
products, meat, eggs, and legumes. Digestion of protein occurs in the
stomach by protease and pepsin enzymes. Acidic pH of stomach helps in
protein digestion. Trypsin and chymotrypsin released in duodenum by
pancreas digests proteins, peptones and proteoses into dipeptides. In the
small intestine, erepsin, a group of several proteolytic enzymes acts primarily
and rapidly on peptones and polypeptides, degrading them into simpler
molecules amino acids. Proteins are finally digested to amino acids to be
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absorbed by the small intestine into the blood, which are then carried
throughout the body. The absorption of amino acids is rapid in the duodenum
and jejunum.
1.Stomach
2. Duodenum
3. Small intestine
Digestion and absorption of Fats
Dietary foods such as oil and ghee are source of fats. The triglycerides, fatty
acids, glycerol and phospholipids are common form of fats. Fats being
hydrophobic are present as insoluble form in stomach. They are emulsified by
bile salts present in the bile juice and then digested by pancreatic lipase into
dilgycerides and monoglycerides with release of associated fatty acids (Fig.
9.12). Bile salts exerts a detergent action to activate lipase for fat digestion.
Upon digestion, fat breaks down to fatty acids and glycerol and then binds with
the bile acids, pancreatic electrolytes which spontaneously form polymolecular
aggregates structure called micelles. Micelles are smaller molecules
(diameter 3-10 nm) which passively move across the small intestine and form
triglycerides. These combine with proteins and form protein-coated fat
globules, called chylomicrons, which are transported into the lymph vessels
(lacteals) in the villi. These lymph vessels ultimately release the absorbed
substances into the blood stream. Fat absorption occurs in the upper part of Fig. 9.12: Overview of
small intestine.
fat digestion.
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SAQ 3
Fill in the blanks:
i) Pepsin breakdown proteins into...................
ii) pancreatic lipase digests ...................into ......................
iii) Erepsin hydrolyses peptide to......................
iv) Invertase breakdown .........into..............
v) Lactase converts lactose into............................
9.6 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE GIT

Gastrointestinal diseases can occur in the gastrointestinal tract (e.g., reflux
esophagitis, peptic ulcer) or these can be a systemic disorder (e.g.,
inflammatory bowel disease), or as a result of deficiency of vital nutrients
required for healthy body (e.g., malabsorption due to vitamin deficiencies).
Diseases differ on the basis of the site of origin and causal factors involved.
Some common gastrointestinal diseases are briefly explained.
9.6.1 Peptic Ulcer

The common agent of peptic ulcer is the bacterial infection. It is caused by
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) that causes internal wounds on the inner lining of
stomach (Gastric ulcers) and the small intestine (Duodenal ulcers) (Fig. 9.13).
Symptom of peptic ulcer includes burning sensation in stomach and stomach
pain. Stress and spicy foods can worsen the symptoms of this disease. The
antacids and eating certain foods also help to reduce the symptoms of peptic
ulcer.
Fig. 9.13: Gastric ulcer (Image Source wikimedia.commons).
9.6.2 Sprue
Sprue is the gastrointestinal malabsorption disease due to inflammation in the
small intestine and abnormal flattening of villi. Major causes of Sprue are
persistent microbial infections, folic acid deficiency and disrupted intestinal
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motility. Initial symptoms include acute diarrhoea, fever and malaise. The
symptoms of chronic infection include diarrhoea, weight loss, anorexia and
nutritional deficiencies.
Celiac disease also known as celiac sprue or gluten-sensitive

enteropathy, is a hereditary disorder which triggers an autoimmune response
on eating gluten, a protein commonly found in grains like wheat, barley, etc.
and leads to damage in small intestine. It can develop at any age on
consumption of gluten in the form of food or medication. The immune
response damages the lining of small intestine and disrupts its nutrient
absorption capacity. It often leads to diarrhea, weight loss, fatigue, anemia and
can result in serious complications. In children, it affects their growth and
development.
Gluten-free diet is suggested to the patients suffering from Celiac disease as

no cure is known for the same.
9.6.3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a term for both Crohn’s disease
(inflammation at any part of the gastrointestinal tract mainly the portion of the
small intestine just before the large intestine) and Ulcerative colitis
(inflammation and ulcers in colon and the rectum). The disease is
characterized by difficult or incomplete bowel movement along with pain and
stiffness. Common symptoms are diarrhea, abdominal pain, bleeding in stools,
weight loss and fatigue. Prolonged inflammation leads to the damage in the
gastrointestinal tract. Inflammation is triggered by defective immune system. It
is also known to be genetic in some cases and depends on the family medical
history.
To treat IBD one should increase fiber consumption, stay hydrated, reduce
caffeine, minimize stress, get proper sleep and take medications as prescribed
by the healthcare personnel.
9.6.4 Regurgitation
Regurgitation is the sudden rise of undigested food along with some gastric
juices back up to the mouth; it usually leaves a sour taste in the mouth with a
sense of fluid moving up and down in the chest. It is normal in babies for first
year of life. In adults it is a symptom of acid reflux, gastroesophageal reflux
disease (GERD) or rumination disorder. It occurs mainly due to the eating
disorder, blockage of esophagus (due to scarring or cancer), side effect of
some medication and smoking. It is usually experienced by the pregnant
women.
To treat this condition, you should eat slowly, chew food properly, avoid
smoking, avoid food that triggers reflux, walk after every meal and maintain a
healthy lifestyle.
9.6.5 Diarrhea
Diarrhea is generally characterized by the frequent bowel movement due to
decreased fluid absorption in intestine, and passage of loose liquid stool along
187
with stomach pain and cramps. It is a common disease in children below age
of 5 years. It is generally caused by pathogenic bacteria, viruses and other
parasites which enter the body via consumption of contaminated food and
water, due to poor hygiene and living in unsanitary conditions. The
contaminated food contains pathogenic bacteria, virus and other parasites. It
can also be a symptom of other bowel disorders like inflammatory bowel
disease.
During diarrhea, one should rehydrate himself frequently to overcome excess

loss of water from the body. Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) should be
administered which replenishes electrolytes loss in intestine. Zinc supplements
also reduce severity of diarrhea. Adding more fluids in the diet along with
nutrient-rich meal helps in reducing severity. Maintaining cleanliness,
practicing personal hygiene and consumption of clean and preferably boiled
drinking water is advised.
9.6.6 Constipation
Constipation is a common functional disorder in the gastrointestinal system.
An infrequent and difficult/incomplete bowel movement along with pain and
stiffness are the common symptoms which can further develop fissures and
hemorrhoids. Its global prevalence is up to 80%, varying with different
geographical and cultural variations. It is more common in old age people or
adults in 65 or above age group. It occurs mainly due to absence of the fibres
in diet, less intake of fluid, unhealthy food habits and sedentary lifestyle. Other
reasons can be side effects of medication or as a symptom of some
neurological or systematic diseases, etc. It is also seen in pregnant women
mainly in the last months of pregnancy due to high levels of sex hormones,
lack of movement and medications.
Constipation can be treated by improving dietary habits, inclusion of more

fibers and fluids and adopting a healthy lifestyle by including exercise in
routine. In severe conditions, one should opt for laxatives as prescribed by
physician and also get colon cancer screening done.
SAQ 4
Fill in the blanks:
i) Loose motion is the symptoms of ................
ii) Incomplete bowel movement along with pain and stiffness leads to
.............
iii) ..................disease is caused by the inflammation in the small intestine

and abnormal flattening of villi.
iv) The absence of fibres in your diet, less intake of fluid, unhealthy food
habits and sedentary lifestyle causes ...................
v) Peptic ulcer is caused by ...................
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9.7 SUMMARY
 Human digestive system is made up of organs of gastrointestinal tract
(GIT) and the accessory organs; salivary glands, liver, gall bladder and
pancreas. The digestive system provides adequate water, nutrients,
electrolytes, vitamins etc. to the body and keeps it healthy and proper
functioning.
 The gastrointestinal tract is a tube-like structure which extends from the

mouth to the anus. It is combination of organs such as mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
 Mouth ingests food, teeth help in mechanical chewing and cutting of

food, and tongue mixes food with salivary juice secreted by salivary
glands. Salivary amylase digests carbohydrates into smaller fragments.
Tongue pushes the food from mouth into the pharynx from where food
enters the oesophagus. The peristaltic movement of oesophageal wall
propels food to the stomach.
 Histologically, the GIT comprises four layers: the innermost mucosa, the
outer muscularis mucosa; the submucosa, and the outermost serosa.
 Stomach churns the food and secretes 2.5 – 3 L gastric juice which is
mixed with the food to form the chyme. The gastric sceretion initiates
chemical breakdown of proteins and inactivates microbial agents present
in food.
 Stomach has a verity of cells which perform unique secretory functions.

Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid (HCl), chief cells produce
pepsinogen which gets activated to pepsin in presence of HCl; mucous
cells secrete mucus. An insignificant amount of lipase is also secreted in
the stomach. Pepsin degrades proteins into peptides in the stomach.
The partially digested food enters the duodenum as chyme.
 Small intestine is the central place of complete digestion and absorption

of dietary nutrients. It produces variety of enzymes which breakdown
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, along with vitamins,
minerals. It performs physical digestion and absorption of food at a rate
slow enough via segmentation.
 The chyme is acted on by the pancreatic juice, bile released from liver
and finally by the enzymes in the succus entericus, to complete the
digestion.
 Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides like glucose, fructose

and galactose. Proteins are broken down into amino acids while fats are
converted to fatty acids and glycerol.
 Ileum is the principal site for the absorption of food. The wall of ileum
has numerous irregular finger-like folds called villi which are thin-walled
and increase the surface area of the intestine for the absorption of food.
 The simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed in the blood capillaries
present in villi while fatty acids are absorbed in the lymph. The absorbed 189
food is transported into the body and reaches each and every cell for
utilisation.
 Large intestine absorbs most residual water, electrolytes, and vitamins

produced by enteric bacteria. It propels undigested part of food as feces
toward rectum.
 The infection, contaminated food material, unhealthy life habits etc.

cause the digestive diseases, like ulcer, diarrhea, Inflammatory bowel,
sprue and constipation. These diseases cause damage/infection in the
gastrointestinal tract.
9.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Define the gastrointestinal system.
2. Enlist key function of digestive organs.
3. What are the role of liver and pancreas in digestion system.
4. Draw the neat and clean and labeled diagrame of digestive system.
5. Discuss the structural organisation of GIT.
6. Explain the structure of stomach and its role as secretary function.
7. Describe the structure of small intestine in details.
8. Explain the digestion and absorption process of food in GIT.
9. Enlist the enzymes and location side for digestion of proteins,

carbohydrates and fats in digestive tract.
10. Discuss the role of different parts of large intestine.
11. Write short notes on digestive diseases.
9.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. i) Gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs
ii) Chyme
iii) Mouth
iv) Bile acids
v) Feces
2. a) i) Three
ii) Four
iii) Rectum
iv) Large intestine

190
v) Large intestine
vi) Mucosa
b) The four layers are mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa,

and serosa.
c) Microvilli is the microscopic folding of intestinal cell surface that:
1. increases the cellular surface area of small intestine
2. helps in absorption of dietary nutrients.
3. secretes digestive enzymes
3. i) Polypeptides
ii) Fats into fatty acids
iii) Free amino acids
iv) Sucrose into glucose and fructose
v) 2 glucose molecules.
4. i) Diarrhea.
ii) Inflammatory bowel disease
iii) Sprue
iv) Constipation
v) Helicobacter pylori
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 9.2
6. Refer to subsection 9.4.1 and section 9.5
7. Refer to subsection 9.5.2
8. Refer to subsection 9.5.1 and Fig.9.11
11. Refer to subsection 9.11
191
Physiology of Digestive System Dr. Khalid M Salih
Secretory Functions of Alimentary Tract

The secretory glands serve two primary functions throughout the alimentary tract: digestion
(enzymes), lubrication and protection (mucus). Several types of glands are found either in the wall
of alimentary tract (goblet cells, tubular glands) or associated with alimentary tract (salivary glands,
pancreas, and liver). These glands are stimulated by mechanical presence of food in a particular
segment of the gastrointestinal tract that causes local tactile, chemical, and distention stimulation of
the gut wall leading the glands to secrete several types of juices that are discussed as follows.
A. Secretion of Mucus
Mucus is a thick secretion composed mainly of water, electrolytes, and a mixture of several
glycoproteins (large polysaccharides bound with smaller quantities of protein). There are billions of
Single-cell glands located on the surface of the epithelium in most parts of the gastrointestinal tract
that extrude mucus directly onto the epithelial surface known as (goblet cells). Also mucus is secreted
by other glands (e.g. salivary glands). Mucus serves multiple functions in the alimentary tract:
1. Mucus act as a lubricant to allow easy slippage of food along the gastrointestinal tract, so protects
the epithelial surfaces of alimentary tract from excoriation or chemical damage.
2. Mucus has adherent qualities, so it causes fecal particles to adhere to one another to form the feces
that are expelled during a bowel movement.
3. Mucus is strongly resistant to digestion by the gastrointestinal enzymes, so it protects the epithelial
surfaces of alimentary tract from digestion.
4. The glycoproteins of mucus have amphoteric properties, which means that they are capable of
buffering small amounts of either Acids or Alkalies; also, mucus often contains moderate quantities
of bicarbonate ions which specifically neutralize acids.
B. Secretion of Saliva
The principal glands of salivation are the parotid glands located between the ear and the jaw,
submandibular glands located under the jaw, and sublingual glands located on the floor of mouth
under the tongue; in addition, there are many very small buccal glands located in the mucous
membrane lining the cheeks and mouth. Under basal awake conditions, about 0.5 milliliter of saliva,
almost entirely of the mucous type, is secreted each minute; but during sleep, secretion becomes very
little. Daily secretion of saliva normally ranges between 800 and 1500 milliliters. Saliva contains two
1
major types of protein secretion: (1) serous secretion that contains ptyalin (α-amylase), which is an
enzyme for digesting starches, and (2) mucus secretion that contains mucin for lubricating and for
surface protective purposes. The parotid glands secrete almost entirely the serous type of secretion,
while the submandibular and sublingual glands secrete both serous secretion and mucus, but buccal
glands secrete only mucus. In addition to protein secretion, saliva contains large quantities of
potassium and bicarbonate ions, but the concentrations of both sodium and chloride ions are several
times less in saliva than in plasma. Therefore, saliva has a pH between 6.0 and 7.0 which is a favorable
range for the digestive action of ptyalin.
Functions of Saliva
Saliva performs a number of important functions:
1. Oral Hygiene:
The mouth is loaded with pathogenic bacteria that can easily destroy tissues and cause dental caries,
so saliva helps prevent the deteriorative processes in several ways:
a) The flow of saliva itself helps wash away pathogenic bacteria as well as food particles that
provide their metabolic support.
b) Saliva contains thiocyanate ions which enter several the bacteria and become bactericidal.
c) Saliva contains lysozyme which is proteolytic enzyme attacks the walls of bacteria.
d) Saliva contains lactoferrin which binds iron and remove the bacterial metabolic support
leading to inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic effect).
e) Saliva contains proline-rich proteins that protect tooth enamel and bind toxic tannins that cause
dental caries.
f) Saliva contains significant amounts of antibodies (IgA) that can destroy oral bacteria.
2. Mastication & swallowing:

Saliva contains mucus that lubricates the food while the teeth chew it up and make it easier to
swallow.
2
3. Digestion:
Saliva contains α-amylase (ptyalin) which starts to break down starch into simpler sugars before
the food even leaves the mouth. Also saliva contains lingual lipase which is secreted by Ebner's
glands on the dorsal surface of the tongue, and is active in the stomach and can digest as much as
30% of dietary triglyceride.
4. Buffering:
The buffers in saliva help maintain the oral pH around 7.0 which is suitable for the activity of
digestive enzymes, also help neutralize gastric acid and relieve heartburn when gastric juice is
regurgitated into the esophagus.
5. Taste & Speech:

Saliva keeps the mouth moist, serves as a solvent for the molecules that stimulate the taste buds,
and aids speech by facilitating movements of the lips and tongue.
Nervous Regulation of Saliva Secretion

Eating is a strong stimulus for the secretion of saliva. A number of sensory receptors are activated in
response to food intake:
1. Gustatory (Taste) receptors:

All four modes of taste (sour, salt, sweet, and bitter) elicit secretion
via gustatory salivary reflex, but sour, followed by salt, is the most
effective stimulus. Taste buds reside in the papillae of the tongue. The
sensation of salt is particularly experienced at the tip of the tongue
and that of bitter at the dorsum of the tongue, whereas the sensations
of sweet and sour are experienced in between.
2. Mechanoreceptors:
Chewing causes the teeth to move sideways, thereby stimulating mechanoreceptors of the
periodontal ligaments and gingival mucosal tissue via masticatory salivary reflex.
3. Nociceptors (pain sensation):

The nociceptors may be activated in response to spicy food (e.g. chilli pepper). Also ice-cold
drinks cause a greater volume of saliva to be produced than do hot drinks.
4. Olfactory (smell) receptors:

These receptors are located at the roof of the nasal cavity, and they respond to volatile molecules
of the nasal airflow.
These stimuli send signals to various salivary centers which include: (1) parasympathetic salivary
center located in the medulla oblongata, (2) sympathetic salivary center located in the upper thoracic
segments of the spinal cord, and (3) higher salivary center located in hypothalamus of the brain. Both
parasympathetic and sympathetic centers increase saliva production, but parasympathetic stimulation
causes a much greater volume response because activated secretory cells also releases kallikrein, which
activates a potent vasodilator (bradykinin) that improves blood flow to the salivary glands. However,
higher salivary center exert excitatory effect when stimulated by the previous stimuli to increase
salivation, while depression, fever, sleep, and emotional stress stimulate this center to exert inhibitory
effect resulting in reducing flow of saliva.
3
Salivation also occurs in response to some pathological conditions such as:

a) Reflexes originating in the stomach and upper small intestines when irritating foods are
swallowed or when a person is nauseated because of some gastrointestinal abnormality. The
saliva, when swallowed, helps to remove the irritating factor in the gastrointestinal tract by
diluting or neutralizing the irritant substances.
b) Neuromuscular dysfunctions associated with cerebral palsy, Parkinson disease, and stroke that
cause drooling known as Sialorrhea because saliva pools in the mouth due to lack of
swallowing rather than to an increased rate of secretion of saliva.
c) Treatment with cholinesterase inhibitor drugs in some psychiatric diseases such as Alzheimer,
schizophrenia, and myasthenia gravis can increase the rate of secretion during night so patients
are troubled with choking sensations and the aspiration of saliva.
In contrast, other conditions can inhibit salivation such as:
a) Postmenopausal women: due to the loss
of the continuous influence of estrogen
and progesterone leading to hypo
salivation.
b) Sjögren's syndrome: is an autoimmune
exocrinopathy that affect several exocrine
glands responsible for moistening
particularly lacrimal glands in the eye lead
to dry eye, and salivary glands lead to dry
mouth (xerostomia). Therefore, in the
absence of salivation oral tissues often
become ulcerated and otherwise infected,
and caries of the teeth can become
frequent.
C. Secretions of Stomach
The entire surface of the stomach mucosa has a continuous layer of a special type of mucous cells
called surface mucous cells that secrete large quantities of a very viscid and alkaline mucus to coat
the mucosa with a gel layer (˃1 mm thickness) in order to protect stomach wall from digestion by
highly acidic and proteolytic enzymes, as well as contributing to lubrication of food transport. In
addition to these cells, the stomach mucosa has two important types of tubular glands: oxyntic
glands found in the body and fundus of the stomach, and pyloric glands which located in the
4
antrum. These glands open into a common outlet on the surface of the mucosa called gastric pits,
and composed of different cell types, each secreting a unique substance:
1. Neck cells:
They are found in the epithelium of all glands of stomach, but they are more abundant in cardiac
and pyloric regions to protect both esophageal and duodenal mucosa respectively because their
secretions consist of mucus and HCO3− that combine to form the gastric mucosal barrier which
is useful for lubrication and protection of gastric epithelial cells from the effects of the strongly
acidic environment in the lumen.
2. Chief (peptic) cells:

They are found only in the epithelium of oxyntic glands to secrete pepsinogen into the lumen
that is converted to its active form (pepsin) in the presence of HCl. Pepsin functions as an
active proteolytic enzyme in a highly acid medium (optimum pH 1.8 - 3.5), but above a pH of
about 5 it has almost no proteolytic activity and becomes completely inactivated in a short time.
Regulation of pepsinogen secretion by the peptic cells occurs in response to two types of
signals: (1) acetylcholine released from vagus nerves or from enteric plexus, and (2) in response
to acid in the stomach. Therefore, if stomach failed to secrete normal amounts of acid, secretion
of pepsinogen is also decreased.
3. Parietal (oxyntic) cells

They are found only in the epithelium of oxyntic glands to secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
intrinsic factor (IF):
a) Hydrochloric Acid (HCl):
It is a solution of hydrochloric acid with extreme acidity (pH=0.8) in which H+ concentration
is about 3 million times that of the arterial blood. HCl functions to break up cells, denature
proteins for easier digestion, to kill many ingested bacteria, and to convert pepsinogen to
pepsin. The secretion of this acid is under continuous control by both endocrine and nervous
signals as described below.
5
b) Intrinsic Factor (IF):

It is a glycoprotein that binds vitamin B12 in stomach, then liberates from it in small intestine
by the effect of trypsin to be absorbed in ileum. Vitamin B12 is essential for maturation of
RBCs. Therefore, when parietal cells are destroyed by an autoimmune reaction which
frequently occurs in chronic gastritis, the person develops achlorhydria (lack of stomach
acid secretion) and Pernicious anemia. The signs and symptoms of this type of anemia
include; fatigue, pallor, dizziness, postural hypotension, headache, shortness of breath;
coldness of the hands and feet, and glossitis (swelling and soreness of the tongue). In severe
cases, anemia can cause chest pain (angina), and heart failure. Treatment is with vitamin
B12 intramuscular injections given on a monthly basis for life.
4. Entero-endocrine cells
They are two types of cells:
a) G cells found only in the epithelium of pyloric glands to secrete gastrin in response to amino
acids, distention of the stomach, and vagal stimulation. The vagal stimulation occurs
through the neurotransmitter gastrin-releasing peptide (not via Ach, thus the administration
of atropine will not block the vagal stimulation of the G cells. Gastrin is transferred from a
specific type of G cell in the gastric epithelium to the Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells
by blood, which in turn ECL cells release histamine that stimulates parietal cells to secrete
acid, therefore, gastrin can stimulate acid secretion indirectly.
b) D cells are mainly found in the epithelium of pyloric glands, but also found in oxyntic
glands. They secrete somatostatin that inhibits the release of gastrin and histamine (from G
cells and enterochromaffin cells, respectively), which indirectly decreases acid secretion.
5. Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells:

They are a type of neuroendocrine cell found beneath the epithelium of oxyntic glands
near parietal cells. They synthesize and secrete histamine that directly acts on parietal cells
causing the release of acid into the lumen of the stomach. ECL cells are activated directly by
ACh from direct vagal innervation leading to histamine release, so if this pathway will be
inhibited by atropine, ECL cells can be activated by circulating gastrin from G cells. The most
important inhibitor of the ECL cell is somatostatin from oxyntic D cells.
It can be concluded that there is potentiation of the effects of acetylcholine, histamine, and
gastrin on gastric acid secretion. Therefore, low concentrations of two or more stimulants (one
of the stimulants must be histamine) can produce a large increase in gastric acid production.
D. Secretions of Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland lies beneath the stomach, which is a mixed exocrine-endocrine gland
that produces digestive enzymes and hormones. The hormones are synthesized in clusters of
endocrine epithelial cells known as islets of Langerhans and secreted directly into the blood, while
the exocrine portion of the pancreas is a compound acinar gland, similar in structure to the parotid
gland. The pancreatic digestive enzymes are secreted by acini, and large volumes of sodium
bicarbonate solution are secreted by the ducts leading from the acini. The combined product of
enzymes and sodium bicarbonate then flows through a long pancreatic duct that normally joins the
6
hepatic duct immediately before it empties into the duodenum through opening surrounded by the
sphincter of Oddi.
Pancreatic Digestive Enzymes

Pancreatic secretion contains multiple enzymes for digesting all of the three major types of food:
proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It also contains large quantities of bicarbonate ions, which play an
important role in neutralizing the acidity of the chyme emptied from the stomach into the duodenum.
1. Enzymes for digesting proteins:
a) Trypsin: It is the most abundant enzyme that is synthesized in the pancreatic cells as inactive
enzyme known as Trypsinogen and then activated by an enzyme called enterokinase, which
is secreted by the intestinal mucosa when chyme comes in contact with the mucosa. Also,
trypsinogen can be auto catalytically activated by trypsin itself that has already been formed
from previously secreted trypsinogen. Trypsin split whole and partially digested proteins into
peptides of various sizes but do not cause release of individual amino acids.
b) Chymotrypsin: It is synthesized in the pancreatic cells as inactive enzyme known as
chymotrypsinogen and then activated by trypsin when becomes in contact with chyme in small
intestine. Chymotrypsin also split proteins into peptides of various sizes but do not cause
release of individual amino acids.
c) Carboxypolypeptidase: It is synthesized in the pancreatic cells as inactive enzyme known as
procarboxypolypeptidase, and also become activated by trypsin only after they are secreted
into the intestinal tract. Carboxypolypeptidase does split some peptides into individual amino
acids, thus completing digestion of some proteins all the way to the amino acid state.
Because trypsin is the most abundant one and it activates the other pancreatic proteolytic enzymes,
thus the same cells that secrete proteolytic enzymes into the acini of the pancreas secrete
simultaneously another substance called trypsin inhibitor to prevent activation of trypsin and
other proteolytic enzymes both inside the secretory cells and in the acini and ducts of the pancreas.
When the trypsin inhibitor is often overwhelmed, the pancreatic secretions rapidly become
activated and can digest the entire pancreas within a few hours, giving rise to the condition called
7
acute pancreatitis, which is usually leads to a subsequent lifetime of pancreatic insufficiency, or

sometimes is lethal due to circulatory shock.
2. Enzyme for digesting carbohydrates:
The acini of pancreas s secret one enzyme known as pancreatic amylase, which hydrolyzes
starches, glycogen, and most other carbohydrates (except cellulose) to form mostly disaccharides
and a few trisaccharides.
3. Enzymes for digesting fat:
They are three enzymes; (1) pancreatic lipase, which is capable of hydrolyzing neutral fat into
fatty acids and monoglycerides; (2) cholesterol esterase, which causes hydrolysis of cholesterol
esters; and (3) phospholipase, which splits fatty acids from phospholipids.
Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion

The pancreatic secretion normally results from the combined effects of the multiple basic stimuli, not
from one alone:
1. Acetylcholine: which is released from the parasympathetic vagus nerve endings and enteric
nervous system that stimulate the acinar cells to produce large quantities of pancreatic digestive
enzymes but relatively small quantities of water and electrolytes
2. Cholecystokinin: which is secreted by the duodenal and jejunal mucosa in response to the
presence of fats and amino acids in small intestine that stimulate the acinar cells to produce large
quantities of pancreatic digestive enzymes but relatively small quantities of water and electrolytes
3. Secretin: which is secreted by the duodenum mucosa when the acidic chyme emptied from
stomach to duodenum that stimulates secretion of large quantities of sodium bicarbonate by the
pancreatic ductal epithelium to wash pancreatic digestive enzymes into the duodenum.
E. Secretion of Bile
One of the many functions of the liver is to secrete bile normally between 600 -1000 ml/day. The
initial portion of bile is secreted by the hepatocytes containing large amounts of bile acids,
cholesterol, and other organic constituents that is secreted into bile canaliculi between the hepatic
cells. The second portion of bile is added to the initial portion and containing watery solution of
sodium and bicarbonate ions secreted by the secretory epithelial cells that line the ducts until reaching
the hepatic duct. From hepatic duct, bile is either empties directly into the duodenum via common bile
duct or is diverted into the gallbladder through the cystic duct. Most of bile is normally stored in the
8
gallbladder until needed in the duodenum. Within gallbladder, bile can be concentrated up to a
maximum of 20-fold by absorption water, sodium, chloride, and most other small electrolytes, thus the
remaining bile constituents contain the bile salts, cholesterol, lecithin, and bilirubin. The bile salts and
lecithin within concentrated bile keep the cholesterol in solution. Under abnormal conditions, the
cholesterol may precipitate in the gallbladder, resulting in the formation of gallstones. The amount of
cholesterol in the bile is determined partly by the quantity of fat that the person eats, because liver cells
synthesize cholesterol as one of the products of fat metabolism in the body. For this reason, people on
a high-fat diet over a period of years are prone to the development of gallstones. Inflammation of the
gallbladder epithelium due to chronic infection, may allowing excessive absorption of water and bile
salts but leaving behind greater concentrations of cholesterol in the bladder.
Bile serves two important functions: First, bile plays an important role in fat digestion and absorption
because bile acids help to emulsify the large fat particles of the food into many minute particles which
can be attacked by lipase enzymes and aid in absorption of the digested fat end products through the
intestinal mucosal membrane. Therefore, without the presence of bile salts, up to 40% of the ingested
fats are lost into the feces (steatorrhea), and the person often develops a metabolic deficit because of
this nutrient loss. Second, bile serves as a means for excretion of several important waste products
from the blood especially bilirubin (end product of hemoglobin destruction), and excesses of
cholesterol.
The secretion of bile is regulated by three factors:
1. Cholecystokinin: The gallbladder empties its store of concentrated bile into the duodenum
mainly in response to the cholecystokinin stimulus that itself is initiated mainly by fatty foods.
When fat is not in the food, the gallbladder empties poorly, but when significant quantities of fat
are present, the gallbladder normally empties completely in about 1 hour.
2. Enterohepatic circulation of bile salts: About 94% of the bile salts are reabsorbed into the blood
from the small intestine and pass back to the liver, while only small quantities lost into the feces
that are replaced by the liver cells. On reaching the liver, these salts are absorbed almost entirely
back into the hepatic cells and then are resecreted into the bile. Therefore, if the bile salts cannot
be reabsorbed from the ileum and emptied with feces for several days to several weeks, the liver
increases its production of bile salts 6 – 10 folds, which increases the rate of bile secretion.
3. Secretin: This hormone increase the secretion of a sodium bicarbonate-rich watery solution by the
epithelial cells of the bile ducts (second portion of bile), and not increased secretion by the liver
parenchymal cells themselves (initial portion of bile). The bicarbonate in turn passes into the small
9
intestine and joins the bicarbonate from the pancreas in neutralizing the hydrochloric acid from the
stomach.
F. Secretions of Small Intestine

1. Secretion of Mucus
The mucus is secreted by compound glands called Brunner’s glands located in the submucosa
of the duodenum that secrete large amounts of alkaline mucus in response to (1) tactile or
irritating stimuli on the duodenal mucosa; (2) vagal stimulation; and (3) gastrointestinal
hormones, especially secretin.
The function of the mucus secreted by Brunner’s glands is to protect the duodenal wall from
digestion by the highly acid gastric juice emptying from the stomach. Brunner’s glands are
inhibited by sympathetic stimulation; therefore, such stimulation in very excitable persons is
perhaps one of the factors that cause peptic ulcers.
2. Secretion of Digestive Juices

The lining of the small intestine shows different structures
including: (1) Plica circulares are permanent folds
consisting of mucosa and submucosa that increase the
surface area of intestine 3-folds. (2) Villi are 0.5-1.5-mm
long outgrowths of the mucosa projecting into the lumen
of the small intestine that increase the surface area of
intestine 10-folds. (3) Crypts of Lieberkühn are small
openings of simple tubular glands located between the
villi.
The epithelium of villi is continuous with that of the glands and consists of various types of cells:
a) Absorptive cells (enterocytes): They are tall columnar cells with striated brush border
(microvilli) that increase the area of contact between the intestinal surface and the nutrients
about 20-folds. In the crypts, they secrete large quantities of water and electrolytes, while in
the villi they reabsorb water, electrolytes, and specific food substances to complete their
digestion because they have several enzymes: (1) peptidases for splitting small peptides into
amino acids, (2) sucrase, maltase, isomaltase, and lactase for splitting disaccharides into
monosaccharides, and (3) intestinal lipase for splitting neutral fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
b) Goblet cells: They are interspersed between the absorptive cells which are less abundant in the
duodenum and increase in number as they approach the ileum. These cells produce mucin that
form mucus, whose main function is to protect and lubricate the lining of the intestine.
c) Stem cells: They are found deep in the crypts of Lieberkühn continually undergo mitosis, and
new cells migrate along the basement membrane upward out of the crypts toward the tips of
the villi, thus continually replacing the villus epithelium and also forming new digestive
enzymes because the life cycle of intestinal epithelial cell is about 5 days, then they are finally
shed into the intestinal secretions.
d) Paneth cells: They are exocrine cells in the basal portion of the intestinal glands near the stem
cells, this close relationship to the stem cell region is thought that these cells are important in
defending the gland stem cells from microbial damage because they synthesize and secrete
lysozyme (an enzyme that digests the cell walls of some bacteria) and may play a role in
controlling the intestinal flora.
10
e) Entero-endocrine Cells: They are various cells that secret hormones such as S-cell (release
secretin), I-cell (release cholecystokinin), D-cell (release somatostatin), and Mo-cell (release
motilin).
f) M (micro fold) cells: They are specialized epithelial cells overlying the lymphoid follicles of
Peyer's patches. These cells are characterized by the presence of numerous basal membrane
invaginations that form pits containing many intraepithelial lymphocytes and antigen-
presenting cells (macrophages). The basement membrane under M cells is discontinuous,
facilitating transit between the lamina propria and M cells.
11
G. Secretions of Large Intestine

The great abundance of secretion in the large intestine is mucus with moderate amounts of bicarbonate
ions secreted by a few non–mucus-secreting epithelial cells. The rate of secretion of mucus is regulated
principally by direct tactile stimulation, local nervous reflexes to the mucous cells in the crypts of
Lieberkühn, and parasympathetic innervation stimulation via pelvic nerves. The large intestine is well
suited to its main functions: absorption of water and formation of the fecal mass. The large intestine
differs from small intestine by:
1. There is neither plica circulares nor villi in the mucosa layer of large intestine, but there are
many crypts of Lieberkühn which are long and characterized by a great abundance of goblet
and absorptive cells which are columnar and have short irregular microvilli, but didn’t
contain enzymes.
2. About 2 cm above the anal opening, the simple columnar tissue of mucosa is replaced by
stratified squamous epithelium and the lamina propria contains a plexus of large veins that
when excessively dilated and varicose produces hemorrhoids.
3. The lamina propria of mucosa is rich with lymphoid nodule known as mucosa associated
lymphoid tissue (MALT) that frequently extend into the submucosa particularly in
appendix. This richness in lymphoid tissue MALT is related to the abundant bacterial
population of the large intestine.
The functions of mucus in the large intestine are: (1) protects the intestinal wall against
excoriation, (2) provides an adherent medium for holding fecal matter together, and (3)
alkalinity of mucus secretion (pH of 8.0) provides a barrier to protect the intestinal wall from
attacking by the great amount of bacterial activity present inside the feces.
Therefore, when bacterial infection becomes rampant during enteritis, the mucosa secretes
extra large quantities of water and electrolytes in addition to the normal viscid alkaline mucus
to dilute the irritating factors and to cause rapid movement of the feces toward the anus result
is diarrhea, with loss of large quantities of water and electrolytes and also washes away irritant
factors, which promotes earlier recovery from the disease. Furthermore, because the appendix
is closed ended, it becomes a site of inflammation known as appendicitis due to obstruction by
a fecalith or enlarged lymphoid nodules as a consequence of infections and tumors. The signs
& symptoms of appendicitis include: epigastric pain spread to right lower quadrant of the
abdomen with rebound tenderness, malaise, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, and then
constipation.
12
Physiology of Urine Formation
Physiology of Urine formation
There are three stages involved in the
process of urine formation.
They are-
1. Glomerular filtration or ultra-filtration
2. Selective reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
Glomerular filtration
This takes place through the semipermeable walls of
the glomerular capillaries and Bowman’s capsule.
The afferent arterioles supplying blood to glomerular

capsule carries useful as well as harmful substances.
The useful substances are glucose, aminoacids,

vitamins, hormones, electrolytes, ions etc and the
harmful substances are metabolic wastes such as
urea, uric acids, creatinine, ions, etc.
The diameter of efferent arterioles is narrower than
afferent arterioles. Due to this difference in diameter
of arteries, blood leaving the glomerulus creates the
pressure known as hydrostatic pressure.
The glomerular hydrostatic pressure forces the
blood to leaves the glomerulus resulting in filtration
of blood. A capillary hydrostatic pressure of about 7.3
kPa (55 mmHg) builds up in the glomerulus.
However this pressure is opposed by the osmotic
pressure of the blood, provided mainly by plasma
proteins, about 4 kPa (30 mmHg), and by filtrate
hydrostatic pressure of about 2 kPa (15 mmHg in
the glomerular capsule.
The net filtration pressure is,
Therefore: 55-(30 +15) = 10mmHg.
By the net filtration pressure of 10mmHg, blood is
filtered in the glomerular capsule.
Water and other small molecules readily pass

through the filtration slits but Blood cells, plasma
proteins and other large molecules are too large to
filter through and therefore remain in the capillaries.
The filtrate containing large amount of water,

glucose, aminoacids, uric acid, urea, electrolytes etc
in the glomerular capsule is known as nephric
filtrate of glomerular filtrate.
The volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys each
minute is called the glomerular filtration rate
(GFR).
In a healthy adult the GFR is about 125 mL/min, i.e.

180 litres of filtrate are formed each day by the
two kidneys
Selective reabsorption
As the filtrate passes to the renal tubules, useful substances
including some water, electrolytes and organic nutrients such
as glucose, aminoacids, vitamins hormones etc are selectively
reabsorbed from the filtrate back into the blood in the
proximal convoluted tubule.
Reabsorption of some substance is passive, while some
substances are actively transported. Major portion of water is
reabsorbed by Osmosis.
Only 60–70% of filtrate reaches the Henle loop. Much of this,
especially water, sodium and chloride, is reabsorbed in the
loop, so that only 15–20% of the original filtrate reaches the
distal convoluted tubule, More electrolytes are reabsorbed
here, especially sodium, so the filtrate entering the collecting
ducts is actually quite dilute.
The main function of the collecting ducts is to
reabsorb as much water as the body needs.
Nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and
vitamins are reabsorbed by active transport.
Positive charged ions ions are also reabsorbed by

active transport while negative charged ions are
reabsorbed most often by passive transport. Water
is reabsorbed by osmosis, and small proteins are
reabsorbed by pinocytosis.
Tubular secretion
Tubular secretion takes place from the blood in the
peritubular capillaries to the filtrate in the renal
tubules and can ensure that wastes such as
creatinine or excess H+ or excess K+ ions are actively
secreted into the filtrate to be excreted.
Excess K+ ion is secreted in the tubules and in

exchange Na+ ion is reabsorbed otherwise it causes
a clinical condition called Hyperkalemia.
Tubular secretion of hydrogen ions (H+) is very
important in maintaining normal blood pH.
Substances such as , e.g. drugs including penicillin

and aspirin, may not be entirely filtered out of the
blood because of the short time it remains in the
glomerulus.
Such substances are cleared by secretion from the

peritubular capillaries into the filtrate within the
convoluted tubules.
The tubular filtrate is finally known as urine. Human

urine is usually hypertonic.
Micturation:
The process of time to time collection and
removal of urine from urinary bladder is
known as micturition.
Collection of more than 300ml of urine in

urinary bladder creates pressure on the
wall. The pressure stimulates the desire for
urination.
Excretory system: Nephron
Introduction
The nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a
renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a
glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule.
The capsule and tubule are connected and are composed of epithelial cells with a lumen. A
healthy adult has 0.8 to 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney. Blood is filtered as it passes through
three layers: the endothelial cells of the capillary wall, its basement membrane, and between the
foot processes of the podocytes of the lining of the capsule. The tubule has adjacent peritubular
capillaries that run between the descending and ascending portions of the tubule. As the fluid
from the capsule flows down into the tubule, it is processed by the epithelial cells lining the
tubule: water is reabsorbed and substances are exchanged (some are added, others are removed);
first with the interstitial fluid outside the tubules, and then into the plasma in the adjacent
peritubular capillaries through the endothelial cells lining that capillary. This process regulates
the volume of body fluid as well as levels of many body substances. At the end of the tubule, the
remaining fluid—urine—exits: it is composed of water, metabolic waste, and toxins.
Types of Nephrons
1. Cortical nephrons (the majority of nephrons) start high in the cortex and have a short loop
of Henle which does not penetrate deeply into the medulla. Cortical nephrons can be
subdivided into superficial cortical nephrons and midcortical nephrons.
2. Juxtamedullary nephrons start low in the cortex near the medulla and have a long loop of
Henle which penetrates deeply into the renal medulla: only they have their loop of Henle
surrounded by the vasa recta. These long loops of Henle and their associated vasa recta
create a hyperosmolar gradient that allows for the generation of a concentratedurine. Also
the hairpin bend penetrates up to the inner zone of medulla.
Structure of nephron
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron is composed of a renal
corpuscle, the initial filtering component; and a renal tubule that processes and carries away the
filtered fluid.
Renal corpuscle: The renal corpuscle is the site of the filtration of blood plasma. The renal
corpuscle consists of the glomerulus, and the glomerular capsule or Bowman's capsule. The renal
corpuscle has two poles – a vascular pole and a urinary pole. The arterioles from the renal
circulation enter and leave the glomerulus at the vascular pole. The glomerular filtrate leaves the
Bowman's capsule at the renal tubule at the urinary pole.
Glomerulus: The glomerulus is the network known as a tuft, of filtering capillaries

located at the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle in Bowman's capsule. Each glomerulus
receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. The glomerular blood
1
pressure provides the driving force for water and solutes to be filtered out of the blood plasma,
and into the interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space.
Figure 1. Schematic of the glomerular filtration barrier (GFB). A. The endothelial cells of the
glomerulus; 1. endothelial pore (fenestra).
Only about a fifth of the plasma is filtered in the glomerulus. The rest passes into an
efferent arteriole. The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than that of the afferent, and
this difference increases the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus.
Bowman's capsule: The Bowman's capsule, also called the glomerular capsule, surrounds the
glomerulus. It is composed of a visceral inner layer formed by specialized cells called podocytes,
and a parietal outer layer composed of simple squamous epithelium. Fluids from blood in the
glomerulus are filtered through the visceral layer of podocytes, resulting in the glomerular
filtrate. The glomerular filtrate next moves to the renal tubule, where it is further processed to
form urine. The different stages of this fluid are collectively known as the tubular fluid.
2
Renal tubule: The renal tubule is the portion of the nephron containing the tubular fluid filtered
through the glomerulus. After passing through the renal tubule, the filtrate continues to the
collecting duct system.
The components of the renal tubule are:

Proximal convoluted tubule (lies in cortex and lined by simple cuboidal epithelium with
brush borders which help to increase the area of absorption greatly.)
Loop of Henle (hair-pin like, i.e. U-shaped, and lies in medulla)
Descending limb of loop of Henle
Ascending limb of loop of Henle
The ascending limb of loop of Henle is divided into 2 segments: Lower
end of ascending limb is very thin and is lined by simple squamous
epithelium. The distal portion of ascending limb is thick and is lined by
simple cuboidal epithelium.
Thin ascending limb of loop of Henle
Thick ascending limb of loop of Henle (enters cortex and becomes - distal
convoluted tubule.)
Distal convoluted tubule
Connecting tubule
Blood from the efferent arteriole, containing everything that was not filtered out in the
glomerulus, moves into the peritubular capillaries, tiny blood vessels that surround the loop of
Henle and the proximal and distal tubules, where the tubular fluid flows. Substances then
reabsorb from the latter back to the blood stream. The peritubular capillaries then recombine to
form an efferent venule, which combines with efferent venules from other nephrons into the
renal vein, and rejoins the main bloodstream.
Proximal convoluted tubule: The proximal tubule as a part of the nephron can be divided into an
initial convoluted portion and a following straight (descending) portion. Fluid in the filtrate
entering the proximal convoluted tubule is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries, including
approximately two-thirds of the filtered salt and water and all filtered organic solutes (primarily
glucose and amino acids).
Loop of Henle: The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube that extends from the proximal tubule. It
consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb. It begins in the cortex, receiving filtrate
from the proximal convoluted tubule, extends into the medulla as the descending limb, and then
returns to the cortex as the ascending limb to empty into the distal convoluted tubule. The
primary role of the loop of Henle is to concentrate the salt in the interstitium, the tissue
surrounding the loop.
Distal convoluted tubule: The distal convoluted tubule has a different structure and function to
that of the proximal convoluted tubule. Cells lining the tubule have numerous mitochondria to
produce enough energy (ATP) for active transport to take place. Much of the ion transport taking
place in the distal convoluted tubule is regulated by the endocrine system. In the presence of
3
parathyroid hormone, the distal convoluted tubule reabsorbs more calcium and secretes more
phosphate. When aldosterone is present, more sodium is reabsorbed and more potassium
secreted. Atrial natriuretic peptide causes the distal convoluted tubule to secrete more sodium.
Collecting duct system: Each distal convoluted tubule delivers its filtrate to a system of
collecting ducts, the first segment of which is the connecting tubule. The collecting duct system
begins in the renal cortex and extends deep into the medulla. As the urine travels down the
collecting duct system, it passes by the medullary interstitium which has a high sodium
concentration as a result of the loop of Henle's countercurrent multiplier system.
Because it has a different origin during the development of the urinary and reproductive organs
than the rest of the nephron, the collecting duct is sometimes not considered a part of the
nephron. Instead of originating from the metanephrogenic blastema, the collecting duct
originates from the ureteric bud.
Urine formation
The four mechanisms used to create and process the filtrate (the result of which is to convert
blood to urine) are:
Filtration
Reabsorption
Secretion
Excretion.
Filtration occurs in the glomerulus and is largely passive: it is dependent on the intracapillary
blood pressure. About one-fifth of the plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the
glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Normally the only
components of the blood that are not filtered into Bowman's capsule are blood proteins, red
blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Over 150 liters of fluid enter the glomeruli of an
adult every day: 99% of the water in that filtrate is reabsorbed. Reabsorption occurs in the renal
tubules and is either passive, due to diffusion, or active, due to pumping against a concentration
gradient. Secretion also occurs in the tubules and is active. Substances reabsorbed include: water,
sodium chloride, glucose, amino acids, lactate, magnesium, calcium phosphate, uric acid, and
bicarbonate. Substances secreted include urea, creatinine, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid.
Some of the hormones which signal the tubules to alter the reabsorption or secretion rate, and
thereby maintain homeostasis, include (along with the substance affected) antidiuretic hormone
(water), aldosterone (sodium, potassium), parathyroid hormone (calcium, phosphate), atrial
natriuretic peptide (sodium) and brain natriuretic peptide (sodium). A countercurrent system in
the renal medulla provides the mechanism for generating a hypertonic interstitium, which allows
the recovery of solute-free water from within the nephron and returning it to the venous
vasculature when appropriate.
4
Figure 2. Filtration, Reabsorption,
secretion and excretion process in the
nephron during urine formation
Notes prepared by:

Dr. Asheesh Shivam Mishra
Asst. Professor & Head,
Department of Zoology,
Nehru Gram Bharti (Deemed to be University)
Prayagraj, U.P.
5
Temperature Regulation by Skin and Sweat
Glands
Sweat glands are coiled tubes of epidermal origin, though they lie in the dermis. Their
secretory cells surround a central space, or lumen, into which the secretion is extruded.
There are two distinct types: eccrine glands open by a duct directly onto the skin
surface; apocrine glands usually develop in association with hair follicles and open into
them.
Most other mammals have numerous apocrine glands in the hairy skin; eccrine glands
are usually absent from the hairy skin and limited to friction surfaces. In nonhuman
primates there is a tendency for the number of eccrine sweat glands over the body to
increase in progressively advanced animals at the same time that the number of
apocrine glands becomes reduced. Prosimians (primitive primates, such as lemurs,
lorises, and tarsiers) have only apocrine glands in the hairy skin; eccrine glands begin to
appear in some of the higher forms. The great apes either have equal numbers or have
more eccrine than apocrine glands. Humans have the most eccrine glands, with
apocrine glands restricted to specific areas.
Strictly speaking, apocrine glands have nothing to do with sweating. They appear late in
fetal development (5 to 51/2 months) nearly everywhere on the body. Most of these
rudiments disappear within a few weeks except in the external ear canals, in the axillae,
on the nipples of the breasts, around the navel, and on the anogenital surfaces; single
glands may be found anywhere. From this, one might speculate that the ancestors of
humans had apocrine glands widely distributed over the body, and the embryonic
rudiments may be reminders of the history of a once widespread organ system.
Where they appear, the apocrine glands are large and numerous. In the axilla they are so
large that the coils press upon each other, forming adhesions and cross-shunts of such
complexity that the glands are more spongy than tubular. The complex of these large
apocrine glands commingled with an equal number of eccrine sweat glands in the axilla
composes what is known as the axillary organ, one of the most characteristic features
of human skin. Other than humans, only chimpanzees and gorillas have axillary organs.
In spite of their large size, apocrine glands secrete only small amounts of a milky, viscid
fluid—pale gray, whitish, yellow, or reddish—which contributes very little to axillary
sweat. If eccrine glands were not there, the axillae would be relatively dry.
The odour of axillary secretion becomes more intense as it is decomposed by bacteria.

Although axillary odours frequently seem unpleasant, they are not invariably so. The
odour of individual human beings comes mostly from apocrine secretion, with some
contribution from sebum. Since the body odours of all other animals have a social or
sexual significance, it can be assumed that this is the archetypal purpose of apocrine
secretion, even in humans. The view that the axillary organs are scent glands is
supported by the finding that androsterones—the compounds that are responsible for
the odour of the boar to which the sow responds—also occur in human axillary
secretions.
Humans have 2,000,000 to 5,000,000 eccrine sweat glands, with an average

distribution of 150 to 340 per square centimetre. They are most numerous on the palms
and soles and then, in decreasing order, on the head, trunk, and extremities. Some
individuals have more glands than others, but there is no difference in number between
men and women.
The specific function of sweat glands is to secrete water upon the surface so that it can
cool the skin when it evaporates. The purpose of the glands on the palms and soles,
however, is to keep these surfaces damp, to prevent flaking or hardening of the horny
layer, and thus to maintain tactile sensibility. A dry hand does not grip well and is
minimally sensitive.
The eccrine glands, then, can be divided into those that respond to thermal stimulation,
the function of which is thermoregulation, and those that respond to psychological
stimuli and keep friction surfaces moist. This makes a clear-cut distinction between the
glands on the hairy surfaces and those on the palms and soles. In addition to thermal
and psychological sweating, some individuals sweat on the face and forehead in
response to certain chemical substances.
The glands on the palms and soles develop at about 3 1/2 months of gestation, whereas
those in the hairy skin are the last skin organs to take shape, appearing at five to
5 1/2 months, when all the other structures are already formed. This separation of
events over time may represent a fundamental difference in the evolutionary history of
the two types of glands. Those on palms and soles, which appear first and are present in
all but the hooved mammals, may be more ancient; those in the hairy skin, which
respond to thermal stimuli, may be more recent organs.
The sweat glands in the hairy skin of subhuman primates possibly function subliminally,
although they are structurally similar to those of humans. The skin of monkeys and apes
remains dry even in a hot environment. Profuse thermal sweating in humans, then,
seems to be a new function. Eccrine sweat glands respond to a variety of drugs with
different properties. They often respond differently in different individuals under nearly
identical conditions and sometimes even respond inconsistently in the same individual.
Notwithstanding these apparent vagaries, the eccrine glands function continuously,
although their secretion may be imperceptible. Sweating is essential for keeping
the human body from becoming overheated.
Nails
A major characteristic of primates is that their fingers and toes terminate in nails rather
than in claws. One can speculate that the development of nails into flattened plates
reflects the discontinuation of their use for digging or for defending and attacking. In a
broad sense, nails are analogous to hair, having similar composition (keratin) and some
common structural features. Even their genesis and mode of growth are comparable, but
not identical, to those of hair.
Although apparently simple structures, nails are formed by complex and still poorly
understood structural entities referred to as nail organs. Unlike hair, nails grow
continuously, with no normal periods of rest; if their free edges were protected from
wear, they would extend to prodigious lengths, growing in a twisted fashion like a ram’s
horns. Nails grow about 0.1 millimetre per day, or roughly one-third as rapidly as hair.
Growth is somewhat slower in winter than in summer and slower in infants and old
people than in vigorous young adults. It requires about three months for a whole nail to
replace itself.
A number of factors can alter normal nail growth, among them age, trauma, poisons,
and organic disorders. Habitual nail biting speeds up growth, and certain occupational
practices can cause an increase in thickness. The nail-forming organ is particularly
sensitive to physiological changes. During stressful periods or prolonged fever, or in
response to noxious drugs, nails may become cracked, thinner, thicker, furrowed, or
otherwise deformed, or they may be shed. Such sensitivity of response should make
nails relatively good indexes of the health of individuals. But because of their ready
response to so many internal and external factors, and because changes in them often
occur without a known reason, signs of abnormality can be misleading or difficult to
interpret. Like hair, the visible part of the nail plate is a dead structure. Defects inflicted
upon it by mechanical means that do not disturb the underlying living tissue are
eventually cast off at the free border.
Nails have a root, buried beneath the skin; a plate that is firmly attached to a nail bed
underneath; and a free edge. Depending upon its thickness and the quality of its surface,
the nail plate may be pink or whitish; the nail itself is translucent and colourless,
allowing the colour of the blood in the superficial capillaries of the nail bed to show
through. At its base the nail plate may have a whitish, arched marking called a lunule.
Always present on thumbnails, lunules may be present or absent on the other fingers
and are nearly always absent on the little finger. There are variations in different
individuals and even between the two hands of the same person; such variations are
probably controlled by genetic factors.
The nail itself consists of firmly cemented keratinized cells, flattened horizontally to the
surface. Whereas the surface of nail plates may appear to be smooth, it is lined by
parallel, longitudinal furrows, more strongly etched in some persons than in others and
typically more prominent in the aged. These markings have some correspondence to the
more pronounced grooves and ridges on the undersurface of the plate.
Nails grow from a matrix at the base of the nail root. During the early part of their
journey, matrix cells multiply and move forward, synthesizing keratin, underneath the
fold of skin (eponychium) at the base of the nail. Once exposed to the surface, the nail is
fully formed. The nail plate seems to glide over the nail bed, but it is firmly attached to
it; the entire tissue, nail bed and plate, most likely moves forward as a unit. The nail bed
has often been called sterile matrix, since it adds little or nothing to the nail plate. Yet
under certain pathologic conditions, it assumes keratinizing activities that result in a
variably thickened or deformed nail plate.
Although less effective than claws for digging or gouging, the flattened nail is still an
excellent adaptation that has added much to the development of manipulative skills.
Nails not only protect the tips of fingers but also give them firmness and the ability to
pick up or make contact with minute objects. Claws would be useless for such functions.
Cutaneous sense organs
The skin has both free nerve endings and so-called corpuscular endings, which include
nonnervous elements. The corpuscular endings are
further differentiated as encapsulated or nonencapsulated receptors.
Free nerve endings occur in the epidermis, in the superficial dermis, where they are
arranged in tufts, and in hair follicles. Merkel cells, which are found in the basal layer of
the epidermis, are an example of nonencapsulated corpuscular receptors. The most
striking example of an encapsulated receptor is the Pacinian corpuscle, an ovoid
structure that is about one millimetre in length and lamellated in section, like an onion;
these receptors can be found deep in the dermis. Various other dermal sense organs—for
example, Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles, Krause end bulbs, Meissner corpuscles, and Ruffini
endings—have also been described.
It can easily be demonstrated that touch, cold, warmth, and pain are each perceived in
separate points on the skin surface. The various end organs were at one time, therefore,
somewhat arbitrarily assigned as monitors of one or another of these qualities. A
difficulty was that many of the receptors are present only in glabrous skin, even though
hairy skin in similarly perceptive. These earlier ideas were undoubtedly too simple, but
electrophysiologists have confirmed the view that the various end organs respond to
specific stimuli. The functional existence of mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and
pain receptors has been established, though only some of these can be identified with
classical end organs. The Merkel cells and Ruffini endings, for example, are “slowly
adapting” mechanoreceptors; while the Meissner, Pacinian, and Golgi-Mazzoni
corpuscles and the hair follicle receptors are “rapidly adapting” mechanoreceptors.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS
The basic component in the nervous system is the nerve cell or neuron, composed of a
cell body with two projections (fibres) - the dendrite that receives stimuli and the axon that
transmits information, either to another neuron or to an effector organ such as a muscle. Axon
may have lateral branches called Collateral and terminal arborization and synapse. Insect
nuerones release a variety of chemicals at synapses either to stimulate or to inhibit effector
neurones or muscles. Acetylcholine and catecholamines such as dopamine are the important
neurotransmitters involved in the impulse conduction. Neurones are of following types based on
structure and function.
A. Structural basis
i. Monopolar : neurone with a single axon
ii. Bipolar : neurone with a proximal axon and a long distal dendrite.
iii. Multipolar : neurone with a proximal axon and many distal dendrites.
B. Functional basis
i. Sensory neurone: It conducts impulse from sense organs to cennervoussystem(CNS).
ii. Motor neurones: It conducts impulse from CNS to effector organs
iii. Inter neurones:(association neurone: It interlinks sensory and motor neurones.

The cell bodies of interneurones and motor neurones are aggregated with the fibres inter
connecting all types of nerve cells to form nerve centres called ganglia.
Mechanism of impulse conduction
Impulses are conducted by the neurones by two means.
A. Axonic conduction: Ionic composition varies between inside and outside of axon resulting in
excitable conditions, which leads to impulse conduction as electrical response.
B. Synaptic conduction: Neuro chemical transmitters are involved in the impulse conduction
through the synaptic gap. Neuro transmitters and the type of reactions helping in the impulse
conduction is as follows.
Acetyl CO-A + Choline (choline acetylase )  Acetyl choline
Acetyl choline + Water (Acetyl choline esterase )  Choline + Acetic acid
NERVOUS SYSTEM
i. Central nervous system (CNS)
ii. Visceral nervous system (VNS)
iii. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
I. Central nervous system
It contains double series of nerve centres (ganglia). These nerve centres (ganglia) are
connected by longitudinal tracts of nerve fibres called connectives and transverse tracts of nerve
fibres called commissures. Central nervous system is made up of the following.
(i).Brain: Formed by the fusion of first three cephalic neuromeres.
Protocerebrum : Large, innervate compound eyes and ocelli.
Deutocerebrum : Found beneath protocerebrum, innervate antennae.
Tritocerebrum : Bilobed, innervate labrum.
Functions: i. Main sensory centre controls insect behaviour.
ii. Ventral nerve cord: Median chain of segmental ganglia beneath oesophagus.
iii. Sub esophageal ganglia: Formed by the last three cephalic neuromeres. Innervates
mandible, maxillae and labium.
iv. Thoracic ganglia: Three pairs found in the respective thoracic segments, largest ganglia,
innervate legs and muscles.
v. Abdominal ganglia: 8 pairs, number varies due to fusion of ganglia, innervate spiracles.
vi. Thoraco abdominal ganglia: Thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused to form single
compound ganglia. Innervate genital organs and cerci.
II. Visceral nervous system
The Visceral (sympathetic) nervous system consists of three subsystems: (i) the
stomodeal or stomatogastric, which includes the frontal ganglion; (ii) Ventral visceral and (iii)
the caudal visceral. Together the nerves and ganglia of these subsystems innervate the anterior
and posterior gut, several endocrine organs (Corpora cardiaca and Corpora allata), the
reproductive organs, and the tracheal system including the spiracles.
III. Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system consists of all the motor neurone axons that radiate to the
muscles from the ganglia of the CNS and stomodeal nervous system plus the sensory neurones
of the cuticular sensory structures (the sense organs) that receive mechanical, chemical, thermal
or visual stimuli from an environment.

Central Nervous System
Brain
one of largest organs in body: 3-3.5 lbs
one of most metabolically active organs in body
comprises only 2% of total body weight it yet

 gets 15% of blood
consumes 20% of our oxygen need at rest
(more when mentally active)
blood flow and O2 increase to active brain areas
1-2 min interruption of blood flow may impair brain cells
>4 min w/o oxygen  permanent damage
besides O2 must get continuous supply of glucose

very little in reserve
decrease in glucose:
dizziness
convulsions
unconsciousness
Brain Anatomy
subdivided into 4 major units:
1. Cerebral Hemispheres (60% of brain mass)

- “human” part: thought, creativity, communication
2. Diencephalon
- moods, memory, manages internal environment
epithalamus
thalamus
hypothalamus
3. Cerebellum
– coordinating movement and balance
4. Brain Stem
– oldest and smallest region, basic bodily functions
midbrain
pons
medulla
Human Anatomy & Physiology: Nervous System -–Central Nervous System, Ziser, Lecture Notes, 2006 1
Some general terminology:
gray matter = thin myelin; mostly cell bodies

dendrites
outer layer of brain
inner layer of spinal cord
White matter = thick insulation; mostly axons

inner layers of brain
outer layer of spinal cord
Medulla
lowest portion of brainstem
continuous with the spinal cord
all ascending and descending tracts from spinal cord and brain = white matter
most tracts cross over as they pass through the medulla
helps control several vital functions

 contains important autonomic reflex centers
cardiac reflex center

rate and force of heartbeat
vasomotor control center

controls diameter of blood vessels
controls the distribution of blood to specific organs
controls blood pressure
respiratory center
regulates the rate and depth of breathing
polio especially affects this center in medulla
 resp failure (iron lungs)
also contains many nonvital reflex centers (nuclei):

speech
swallowing
vomiting
coughing
sneezing
Pons
just above medulla
bridge connecting spinal cord with brain and parts of brain with each other
contains 2 centers that help to regulate breathing

 pneumotaxic center
 apneustic center
also contains nuclei that affect sleep and bladder control
Midbrain
in the form of 4 lobes above and behind pons= Corpora Quadrigemina
upper 2 lobes = Superior Colliculi

control center for some visual reflexes:
a. pupillary reflex
b. reflex centers for coordinating eye
movement with head and neck movement in response
to visual stimuli
lower two lobes = Inferior Colliculi

control center for some auditory reflexes:
a. reflex centers for movements of head and trunk in
response to auditory stimuli to locate sound
b. startle response to loud noises
also contains Ascending and Descending tracts

a. motor fibers from cortex to pons, medulla and spinal cord
b. sensory fibers from spinal cord to thalamus
Reticular Formation (~Reticular Activation System)
diffuse system of interconnecting fibers extending through several areas of

brain including brain stem
comprises a large portion of entire brainstem
extends into spinal cord and diencephalon
interlacing of gray and white matter
Functions - both sensory and motor
1. helps regulate muscle tone, balance and posture during body
movements
2. Sleep and consciousness

maintains consciousness and awakens from
sleep  alarm clock
drugs that depress RAS decrease alertness and produce

sleep eg. Barbiturates
amphetamines stimulate RAS producing wakefulness
general anesthetics may produce unconsciousness by
depressing RAS
falling asleep may be caused by specific neurotransmitters
that inhibit RAS
3. filters flood of sensory input (=habituation)

highlights unusual signals; disregards rest (99%)
Diencephalon
Epithalamus
includes roof of 3rd ventricle
mainly pineal gland
Thalamus:
4/5ths of diencephalon
1.2” long
forms lateral walls of 3rd ventricle
and intermediate mass
mainly a relay center

 “Rome of the Nervous System”
or
“gateway to cerebral cortex”
main relay station for sensory impulses

that reach cerebral cortex from spinal cord, brain stem and
cerebellum
eg. taste, touch, heat, cold, pain, some smell
the only sensory signals that can reach the cortex without
going through the thalamus are for sense of smell
crude awareness of sensations

but can’t distinguish their location or intensity
Hypothalamus
part of the brain most involved in regulating internal environment
no blood brain barrier
forms floor and part of lateral walls of 3rd ventricle
a. link between “mind” and “body”

controls and integrates activities of autonomic NS;
means by which emotions express themselves by

altering body functions
b. relays reflexes related to smell

mammillary region
c. manufactures and transports releasing hormones

from hypothalamus to Master Gland
d. receives impulses from sound, taste, smell
e. regulates body temperature

has receptors that monitor blood temperature
f. regulates food and water intake

has receptors that monitor osmotic pressure
 thirst center
Limbic System:
diencephalon is main part of a diffuse group of structures called the Limbic

System
includes thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, midbrain, amygdala

(cerebrum)
= the emotional brain

and learning
limbic system perception & output is geared mainly toward the experience and
expression of emotions
eg. pain, anger, fear, pleasure
continuous back & forth communication between limbic

system and frontal lobes of cerebrum
 much of the richness of your emotional life
depends on these interactions
all sensory impulses are shunted through the limbic system
crude appreciation of some sensations

eg. pleasure, pain, etc
eg. contains pleasure center

-rats pressing bar for stimulation of pleasure center
-ignore sleep, food, water, sexual partners
-continue until exhausted (50-100x’s/min)
in humans stimulates erotic feelings
is site of action of many addictive drugs
Cerebellum
2 nd largest part of brain
just below and posterior to cerebrum
only other part of brain that is highly folded
consists of 2 hemispheres
grey matter outside

highly folded
white matter inside= arbor vitae (tree of life)
Functions:
helps to coordinate voluntary muscles

but does not send impulses directly to muscles
1. acts with cerebrum to coordinate different groups of muscles
smooths and coordinates complex sequences of muscular activity

needed for body movements
2. controls skeletal muscles to maintain balance
receives input from proprioceptors in muscles,

tendons and joints and equilibrium receptors and eyes
3. learning and storing motor skills
diseases of cerebellum produce Ataxia

eg. tremors
speech problems
difficulty with equilibrium
NOT paralysis
Cerebral Hemispheres
largest portion of brain (~60% of brain mass)
two hemispheres joined by tracts = corpus callosum
heavily convoluted: gyri and sulci
folding allows greater area of cortex in smaller

space (area = 2,500 cm2 = 4.5 textbook pages or 1 keg of beer)
largest grooves = fissures
each hemisphere:
a. outer gray matter = cerebral cortex (2-4mm)
b. inner white matter = tracts
 bundles of myelinated axons
c. nuclei = islands of gray matter in interior of brain
 cell bodies and sometimes dendrites
eg. basal nuclei (=basal ganglia)

clusters of gray matter around thalamus (5)
help direct movements
damage causes Parkinson’s disease
 lack of Dopamine
cerebral cortex:
is responsible for our most “human” traits
conscious mind
abstract thought
memory
awareness
 most of these will be discussed later under integration
each hemisphere is mainly concerned with sensory and

motor functions of the opposite side of the body
eg. left hemisphere controls right hand
Lateralization of Hemispheres
on top of this is “lateralization”:
a division of labor
Left Hemisphere:
1. does all the talking

 repository of language
 processes many aspects of language: syntax, semantics
 also analytical skills, math, logic
Right Hemisphere:
1. mainly concerned with visuospatial tasks
nonverbal but interprets more subtle aspects of language:

metaphor, allegory, ambiguity
2. also concerned with emotions, intuition
largest grooves = fissures: divide each hemisphere into 4 regions
named after bones they lie under:

1. frontal
personality
control of voluntary movement
2. parietal
touch, stretch
perception of somatic sensations
3. occipital
processing of vision
4. temporal
processing of sound and speech
awareness of equilibrium
Lobes of Cerebrum:
1. Frontal (& prefrontal)
elaboration of thought
intelligence
motivation
personality
abstract ideas
judgement
planning
“civilizing behaviors”
directs conscious individual muscle contractions
Olfactory Cortex
small area just above orbits
perception of odors, smells
2. Parietal Lobe
sensory processing areas
receives information from skin sensors

spatial discrimination
motor and sensory cortex, like other areas are malleable
eg. learning Braille

the area representing touch in the finger used in
somatosensory cortex expands into areas previously devoted
to neighboring fingers
Gustatory Cortex
conscious awareness of taste stimuli
3. Occipital Lobe
visual processing areas
analyzes image in terms of its elementary features

orientation
color
texture
depth
presence of movement
interprets and associates with past visualexperiences
 recognize people, flowers, etc
4. Temporal Lobe
interprets sounds: pitch, rhythm, loudness

awareness of balance
Spinal Cord
located in the spinal canal of the vertebral column
17 – 18 inches long
extends from foramen magnum to lower border of 1st lumbar vertebrae
subdivided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral regions
spinal cord terminates in a bundle of nerves

= cauda equina
Cross Section of Spinal Cord:
Post. Median Sulcus Post. Horn of gray matter
Tracts
Central Canal Lateral Horn of gray matter
Ant. Horn of gray matter

Ant. Median Fissure
white matter: myelinated, divided into columns and tracts; “highways”
gray matter: unmyelinated, cell bodies & dendrites, synapses
Nerve Tracts
numerous tracts can be identified in the spinal cord
spinal cord tracts serve as 2-way conduction paths

between peripheral nerves and brain
each tract is composed of bundles of axons

ascending tracts & descending tracts
The Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System
1. Gathers information from both inside and outside the body - Sensory Function
2. Transmits information to the processing areas of the brain and spine
3. Processes the information in the brain and spine – Integration Function
4. Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond appropriately – Motor
Function
It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including all other body systems
allowing the body to maintain homeostasis or its delicate balance.
The Nervous System is divided into Two Main Divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS) and
the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Divisions of the Nervous System
1
Basic Cells of the Nervous System
Neuron
• Basic functional cell of nervous system
• Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)
Parts of a Neuron
• Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses
toward the cell body
• Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of
cytoplasm
• Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body
• Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous System
• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray
• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath
• Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon
Three types of Neurons
o Sensory neurons – bring messages to CNS

o Motor neurons - carry messages from CNS
o Interneurons – between sensory & motor neurons in the
CNS
Impulses
• A stimulus is a change in the environment with sufficient
strength to initiate a response.
• Excitability is the ability of a neuron to respond to the stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse
• All of Nothing Rule – The stimulus is either strong enough to start and impulse or nothing happens
• Impulses are always the same strength along a given neuron and they are self-propagation – once it
starts it continues to the end of the neuron in only one direction- from dendrite to cell body to axon
• The nerve impulse causes a movement of ions across the cell membrane of the nerve cell.
Synapse
o Synapse - small gap or space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another - the
neurons do not actually tough at the synapse
o It is junction between neurons which uses neurotransmitters to start the impulse in the second
neuron or an effector (muscle or gland)
o The synapse insures one-way
transmission of impulses
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters – Chemicals in
the junction which allow impulses to
be started in the second neuron
2
Reflex Arc
Components of a Reflex Arc
A. Receptor - reacts to a stimulus

B. Afferent pathway (sensory neuron) - conducts impulses to the CNS
C. Interneuron - consists of one or more synapses in the CNS (most are in the spine)
D. Efferent pathway (motor neuron) conducts impulses from CNS to effector.
E. Effector - muscle fibers (as in the Hamstring muscle) or glands responds by contracting or secreting a
product.
Spinal reflexes - initiated and completed at the spinal cord level. Occur without the involvement of higher brain
centers.
Central Nervous System

• Brain
o Brain stem – medulla, pons, midbrain
o Diencephalon – thalamus & hypothalamus
o Cerebellem
o Cerebrum
• Spine
o Spinal Cord
Meninges
Meninges are the three coverings around
the brain & spine and help cushion, protect,
and nourish the brain and spinal cord.
• dura mater is the most outer layer, very
tough
• arachnoid mater is the middle layer and
adheres to the dura mater and has
weblike attachments to the innermost
layer, the pia mater
• pia mater is very thin, transparent, but
tough, and covers the entire brain,
following it into all its crevices (sulci) and spinal cord
• cerebrospinal fluid, which buffers, nourishes, and detoxifies the brain and spinal cord, flows through
the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater
3
Regions of the Brain
Cerebellum – coordination of movement and

aspects of motor learning
Cerebrum – conscious activity including
perception, emotion, thought, and planning
Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard – filters and then
relays information to various brain regions
Medulla – vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration
Brainstem – medulla, pons, and midbrain
(involuntary responses) and relays information from
spine to upper brain
Hypothalamus– involved in regulating activities
internal organs, monitoring information from the
autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland and its hormones, and regulating sleep and
appetite
Cerebrum
• Is the largest portion of the brain encompasses

about two-thirds of the brain mass -
• It consists of two hemispheres divided by a
fissure – corpus callosum
• It includes the cerebral cortex, the medullary
body, and basal ganglia
• cerebral cortex is the layer of the brain often
referred to as gray matter because it has cell
bodies and synapses but no myelin
o The cortex (thin layer of tissue) is gray
because nerves in this area lack the
insulation or white fatty myelin sheath that
makes most other parts of the brain appear
to be white.
o The cortex covers the outer portion (1.5mm
to 5mm) of the cerebrum and cerebellum
o The cortex consists of folded bulges called
gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci
o The folds in the brain add to its surface area which increases the amount of gray matter and the
quantity of information that can be processed
• Medullary body – is the white matter of the cerebrum and consists of myelinated axons
o Commisural fibers – conduct impulses between the hemispheres and form corpus
callosum
o Projection fibers – conduct impulse in and out of the cerebral hemispheres
o Association fibers – conduct impulses within the hemispheres
• Basal ganglia – masses of gray matter in each hemisphere which are involved in the control of
voluntary muscle movements
4
Lobes of the Cerebrum
• Frontal – motor area involved in

movement and in planning &
coordinating behavior
• Parietal – sensory processing, attention,
and language
• Temporal – auditory perception, speech,
and complex visual perceptions
• Occipital – visual center – plays a role in
processing visual information
Special regions
• Broca’s area – located in the frontal lobe – important in the production of speech
• Wernicke’s area – comprehension of language and the production of meaningful speech
• Limbic System – a group of brain structures (aamygdala, hippocampus, septum, basal ganglia, and
others) that help regulate the expression of emotions and emotional memory
Brain Waves
Brain waves are rhythmic fluctuation of electric potential

between parts of the brain as seen on an
electroencephalogram (EEG).
• To measure brain waves electrodes are placed onto

the scalp using the EEG.
• There are four types of brainwaves:
o Beta
o Alpha
o Theta
o Delta
5
• Peripheral Nervous System
Cranial nerves
• 12 pair
• Attached to undersurface of brain
Spinal nerves
• 31 pair
• Attached to spinal cord
Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

• Relays information from skin, sense organs & skeletal
muscles to CNS
• Brings responses back to skeletal muscles for voluntary
responses
Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary)

• Regulates bodies involuntary responses
• Relays information to internal organs
• Two divisions
o Sympathetic nervous system – in times of stress
§ Emergency response
§ Fight or flight
o Parasympathetic nervous system – when body is at rest or with normal functions
§ Normal everyday conditions
6
Major Sense Organs
Sensation and perception

• Vision – Eye
• Hearing – Ear
• Taste – Taste receptors (new)
• Smell – Olfactory system
• Skin – Hot, cold, pressure, pain
Sense Organs
Eye – the organ used to sense light
Three layers –
1. Outer layer consists of sclera and cornea
2. Middle layer consists of choroid, ciliary
body and iris
3. Inner layer consists of retina
Functions of the major parts of the eye:
Sclera or Scleroid Layer – (white of eye) a tough protective layer of connective tissue that helps maintain
the shape of the eye and provides an attachment for the muscles that move the eye
Cornea - the clear, dome-shaped part of the sclera covering the front of the eye through which light enters
the eye
Anterior Chamber – a small chamber between the cornea and the pupil
Aqueous Humor - the clear fluid that fills that anterior chamber of the eye and helps to maintain the shape
of the cornea providing most of the nutrients for the lens and the cornea and involved in waste
management in the front of the eye
Choroid Layer - middle layer of the eye containing may blood vessels
Ciliary Body - the ciliary body is a circular band of muscle that is connected and sits immediately behind
the iris- produces aqueous humor, changes shape of lens for focusing, and
Iris - the pigmented front portion of the choroid layer and contains the blood vessels - it determines the eye
color and it controls the amount of light that enters the eye by changing the size of the pupil (an albino
only has the blood vessels – not pigment so it appears red or pink because of the blood vessels)
Lens - a crystalline structure located just behind the iris - it focuses light onto the retina
Pupil - the opening in the center of the iris- it changes size as the amount of light changes (the more light,
the smaller the hole)
Vitreous - a thick, transparent liquid that fills the center of the eye - it is mostly water and gives the eye its
form and shape (also called the vitreous humor)
Retina - sensory tissue that lines the back of the eye. It contains millions of photoreceptors (rods for black
& white and cones for color ) that convert light rays into electrical impulses that are relayed to the
brain via the optic nerve
Optic nerve - the nerve that transmits electrical impulses from the retina to the brain
Common eye defects include – myopia or nearsightedness where the eyeball is too long or the cornea is too
steep; hyperopia or far sightedness where the eyeball is short or lens cannot become round enough:
cataracts where the lens becomes fogged; presbyopia where the muscles controlling the bulging of the
lens become weak as we age; nyctalopia or night blindness where vision is impaired in dim light and in
the dark due to pigment rhodospin in the rods not functioning properly
7
Images
• the cornea and the lens help to produce the image on the retina
• images formed by the lens are upside down and backwards when they reach the retina
• two types of receptors on the retina
• Rods – 125 million on a single retina – extremely sensitive to all wavelengths of visible light but
do not distinguish different color – in dim light only rods are activated where one can see objects
but not as sharp images and are not able to distinguish their color – most dense in peripheral
view – nighttime vision Rods have a pigment called rhodospin
• As amount of light increases, the cones – 7 million on a single retina – mainly in central view are
stimulated and the color becomes clear – daytime vision
• There are three types of cones which distinguish the three colors – blue, red, green
• Fovea – point of central focus – great density of cones - center of the eye's sharpest vision and
the location of most color perception - the layers of the retina spread aside to let light fall directly
on the
cones
• Light stimulates rods and cones and sends impulse via optic nerve to brain areas for vision
• The Optic Nerve exits the eye just off center near the Fovea - the Optic Nerve exits is referred to
as the Blind Spot due to the lack of the receptors in this area
• The two Optic Nerves come together at the Optic Chiasm located just under the hypothalamus -
a crucial part of vision and perception must happen - cross-over of information from the right eye
crosses over to the left side and visa versa happens here at the Optic Chiasm
• Information from each eye must
be processed in both halves of the
brain
• Information leaves the chiasm via
the optic tract.
• Reorganized optic tract leaves the
Optic Chiasm and passes onto the
lateral geniculate nucleus
• At the lateral geniculate nuclei
the information is separated,
organized, and relayed to
different areas of the visual
cortex
• The different zones of the visual
cortex process the different
aspects of vision and information,
taken from both visual fields, is
processed and an image is
perceived
.
8
EAR
Outer Ear & ear canal – brings sound into eardrum

Eardrum – vibrates to amplify sound & separates inner and middle ear
Middle ear has 3 small bones or Ossicles = anvil, stirrup, stapes – amplify sound (small bones) which
vibrate sound
Eustachian tube – connects middle ear to throat and equalizes pressure on eardrum
Cochlea – in inner ear – has receptors for sound & sends signals to brain via Auditory Nerve
Process of hearing:
• Sound waves enter your outer ear and travel through your ear canal to the middle ear.
• The ear canal channels the waves to your eardrum, a thin, sensitive membrane stretched tightly over
the entrance to your middle ear.
• The waves cause your eardrum to vibrate.
• It passes these vibrations on to the hammer, one of three tiny bones in your ear. The hammer
vibrating causes the anvil, the small bone touching the hammer, to vibrate. The anvil passes these
vibrations to the stirrup, another small bone which touches the anvil. From the stirrup, the vibrations
pass into the inner ear.
• The stirrup touches a liquid filled sack and the vibrations travel into the cochlea, which is shaped
like a shell.
• Inside the cochlea, a vestibular system formed by three semicircular canals that are approximately at
right angles to each other and which are responsible for the sense of balance and spatial orientation.
It has chambers filled with a viscous fluid and small particles (otoliths) containing calcium
carbonate. The movement of these particles over small hair cells in the inner ear sends signals to the
brain that are interpreted as motion and acceleration. The brain processes the information from the
ear and lets us distinguish between different types of sounds.
9
Taste and Smell – Chemical Receptors
Taste buds
• The mouth contains around 10,000 taste buds, most of
which are located on and around the tiny bumps on your
tongue. Every taste bud detects five primary tastes:
o Sour
o Sweet
o Bitter
o Salty
o Umami - salts of certain acids (for example
monosodium glutamate or MSG)
• Each of your taste buds contains 50-100 specialised
receptor cells.
• Sticking out of every single one of these receptor cells is
a tiny taste hair that checks out the food chemicals in
your saliva.
• When these taste hairs are stimulated, they send nerve
impulses to your brain.
• Each taste hair responds best to one of the five basic
tastes.
Smell Receptors or Olfactory receptors
• Humans able to detect thousands of different smells
• Olfactory receptors occupy a stamp-sized area in the roof of the nasal cavity, the hollow space inside the
nose
• Tiny hairs, made of nerve fibers, dangle from all your olfactory receptors. They are covered with a
layer of mucus.
• If a smell, formed by chemicals in the air, dissolves in this mucus, the hairs absorb it and excite your
olfactory receptors.
• A few molecules are enough to activate these extremely sensitive receptors.
• Olfactory Hairs easily fatigued so you do not notice smells
• Linked to memories - when your olfactory receptors are stimulated, they transmit impulses to your brain
and the pathway is directly connected to the limbic system - the part of your brain that deals with
emotions so you usually either like or dislike a smell
• Smells leave long-lasting impressions and are strongly linked to your memories
• Much of what we associate as taste also involves smell – that is why hot foods “taste” different
than “cold” foods
10
Skin receptors:
Your skin and deeper tissues contain millions of sensory receptors.
Most of your touch receptors sit close to your skin's surface.
Light touch
• Meissner's corpuscles are
enclosed in a capsule of
connective tissue
• They react to light touch and are
located in the skin of your palms,
soles, lips, eyelids, external
genitals and nipples
• these areas of your body are
particularly sensitive.
Heavy pressure
• Paccinian corpuscules sense
pressure and vibration changes
deep in your skin.
• Every square centimeter of your
skin contains around 14 pressure
receptors
Pain
• skin receptors register pain
• pain receptors are the most
numerous
• each square centimeter of your
skin contains around 200 pain
receptors
Temperature
• skin receptors register warmth and cold
• each square centimeter of your skin contains 6 receptors for cold and 1 receptor for warmth
• Cold receptors start to perceive cold sensations when the surface of the skin drops below 95 º F. They
are most stimulated when the surface of the skin is at 77 º F and are no longer stimulated when the
surface of the skin drops below 41 º F. This is why your feet or hands start to go numb when they are
submerged in icy water for a long period of time.
• Hot receptors start to perceive hot sensations when the surface of the skin rises above 86 º F and are
most stimulated at 113 º F. Beyond 113 º F, pain receptors take over to avoid damage being done to the
skin and underlying tissues.
• thermoreceptors are found all over the body, but cold receptors are found in greater density than heat
receptors – most of the time of our environment is colder than our body temperature
• The highest concentration of thermoreceptors can be found in the face and ears so your nose and ears
always get colder faster than the rest of your body on a chilly winter day
11
Disorders of the Nervous System – symptoms, prevention, treatment
• Epilepsy - common and diverse set of chronic neurological disorders characterized by seizures.
• Seizures - the physical findings or changes in behavior that occur after an episode of abnormal
electrical activity in the brain and are caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain
• Alzheimer’s Disease - a degenerative disease of the brain that causes dementia, which is a gradual
loss of memory, judgment, and ability to function. - the most common form of dementia- affects an
estimated 1 in 10 people over age 65
• Multiple Sclerosis - an autoimmune disease that affects
the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) -
body's immune system eats away at the protective
myelin sheath that covers the axons of the neurons and
interferes with the communication - MS can affect
vision, sensation, coordination, movement, and bladder
and bowel control.
• Parkinson’s Disease - disorder of the brain that leads to
shaking (tremors) and difficulty with walking,
movement, and coordination. People with Parkinson's
disease have low brain dopamine concentrations.
• Shingles (herpes zoster) - painful, blistering skin rash due to the varicella-zoster virus, the virus that
causes chickenpox – the virus remains inactive (becomes dormant) in certain nerves in the body.
Shingles occurs after the virus becomes active again
• Cerebral Palsy - group of disorders that can involve brain and nervous system functions such as
movement, learning, hearing, seeing, and thinking resulting from damage to certain parts of the
developing brain
• Glaucoma - a group of eye conditions that lead to damage to the optic nerve due to increased
pressure in the eye - the eye’s drainage system becomes clogged so the intraocular fluid cannot drain
and as the fluid builds up, it causes pressure to build within the eye. High pressure damages the
sensitive optic nerve.
• Pink eye (Conjunctivitis) – infection of the conjunctiva of the eye
Effects of Drugs on the Nervous System

• Alcohol - central nervous system depressant – cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol so
once in the bloodstream it can diffuse into almost all body tissues. It is absorbed in the stomach so it
gets into the blood stream quickly and slows down function of the nervous system
• Caffeine - acts as a central nervous system stimulant - caffeine suppresses melatonin for up to 10
hours and also promotes adrenalin. Melatonin is strongly associated with quality sleep, while
adrenalin is the neurotransmitter associated with alertness.
• Nicotine - small doses of nicotine have a stimulating action on the central nervous system – it is
highly addictive nicotine's effects on the brain cause an increased release of neurotransmitters
associated with pleasure. The brain quickly adjusts to repeated nicotine consumption by decreasing
the amount of neurotransmitters released. The effect of this increased tolerance is that the smoker
must continue to use nicotine in order to avoid the feelings of discomfort associated with withdrawal
from the drug. Irritability and anxiety often ensue during nicotine withdrawal.
• Marijuana - THC, the main active ingredient in marijuana, binds to membranes of nerve cells in the
central nervous system that have protein receptors. After binding to nerve cells, THC initiates a
chemical reaction that produces the various effects of marijuana use. One of the effects is
suppression of memory and learning centers (called the hippocampus) in the brain.
12

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Unit 7 Renal Physiology

9.3 Structure of the Celiac disease,

Expected Learning Outcomes

 define Gastrointestinal System;

 discuss the structural organization of GIT;

 enlist the role of digestive organs;

 explain structure and function of stomach, small intestine and large

 discuss the composition of digestive juice in digestion;

 explain absorption and chemical digestion of dietary nutrients; and

 know the diseases and symptoms of digestive system.

9.2 HUMAN GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Fig. 9.1: The components of digestive system [Image source:

Organs of gastrointestinal tract Accessory Organs of the Digestive

Fig. 9.2: Detailed View of Gastrointestinal system/alimentary canal 173

 Tongue is a crucial musculo-sensory organ responsible for detecting the

 Pharynx receives food from the mouth. As it is a common passage for

 Esophagus is the fibromuscular tube through which the food receives

 Stomach is a hollow and J-shaped organ where protein digestion is

 Small Intestine is an important organ of GIT of digestion and absorption

 Liver: It is the main centre of metabolic activities of the body. It plays

 Gallbladder: It is a pear-shaped sac that is connected to the liver by

 Pancreas: It is a crucial gland which serves both exocrine and

i) Digestion system consists of.....................

ii) A mixture of food and digestive juices in stomach is called

iii) The digestion begins in................... after ingestion of food.

iv) A chemical liquid ................is required for fat digestion.

v) Undigested part of food is eliminated as ....................from the body.

9.3 STRUCTURE OF GASTROINTESTIONAL

The histological architecture of GIT comprises epithelium, lamina propria,

Fig. 9.3: Histological Layers of Gastrointestinal tract.

1. Serosa forms the outermost protective layer of GIT. It consists of areolar

2. Muscularis externa is responsible for physical motion and segmental

3. Submucosa is a thick vascular layer of GIT. It has connective tissue,

4. Mucosa comprises epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosa. It

9.4 ULTRASTRUCTURE OF STOMACH

9.4.1 The Stomach

 Cardia is the first part of stomach that is connected to the oesophagus by

 Fundus is a dome-shaped structure of stomach which is a temporary

 Corpus or gastric body is the largest middle area which is continuous

 Pyloric region represents the outflow section of the stomach. It passes

Like the rest of gastrointestinal tract, stomach is also four-layered muscular

Mucosa consists of ridges called gastric folds. It is lined by simple columnar

9.4.2 The Small Intestine

The surface wall of small intestine also consists of four layers -

Fig. 9.7: Histological structure of small intestine.

Fig. 9.8: Micrograph of microvilli in small intestine.

9.4.4 The Large intestine

Fig. 9.9: Structure of large intestine (modified, source image: Wikimedia

2. Colon a largest portion of the large intestine is combination of the

a) Choose the correct parentheses from the followings

i) Small intestine is divided into (3/4) parts.

ii) Large intestine is divided into (4/3) parts.

iii) Temporary feces stores in (colon/rectum)

iv) Water is reabsorbed in (small intestine/large intestine)

v) Gut microbes present in (stomach/large intestine)

vi) Microvilli are located in at the surface of (mucosa/ serosa)

b) Name the four layers of GIT.